International School of Social Sciences
University of Tampere
Instructions for Writing Research Papers
Tampere 2007
2
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
Literature Review
Essay
Seminar Presentations
Theses
FORM AND STRUCTURE OF WRITTEN PRESENTATIONS
Seminar Presentations
Layout of a presentation
Marking references
Bibliography
Abbreviations
Grammar
Plagiarism
INSTRUCTIONS FOR WRITING A MASTER’S THESIS AND
COMPLETING A MASTER’S DEGREE
General
Preliminary essay
Submission of the thesis
Maturity test
Grading
Applying for a degree certificate
Model page of a Master’s thesis
Model of the abstract page
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FOREWORD
This booklet contains instructions for writing research papers. These are intended to
facilitate practical work and list some formal requirements for written presentations.
The booklet has been compiled with a view to helping students who are in the early
stages of their studies and also more advanced students who are writing their Master’s
theses.1 Individual professors or departments may issue their own instructions for
writing research papers. These should be followed even when they differ with the present instructions.
During their studies in the International School of Social Sciences (ISSS) students are
expected to submit many kinds of written texts, such as literature reviews, essays,
seminar papers, preliminary essays and one or two theses. These written presentations
differ from one another in both function and form. The following outline briefly describes the above-mentioned types of written presentations.
Literature Review
A literature review is a presentation which briefly summarises the essential contents
of one or several monographs or scientific articles. In a literature review, the student
is expected to point out the author’s key arguments and also present the results of her
analysis in a concise form. It is important to note that a series of direct quotations
from the literature under inspection does not as such constitute a literature review.
When working on a literature review, one should always keep in mind its function.
The purpose of a literature review is to analyse the essential characteristics of a particular text. This means that the student should pay attention to the structure and the
central themes of the text as well as to the arguments presented by its author. In this
sense, a literature review could be thought of as a ‘full figure photograph’ of the text.
If a literature review is part of a larger research report, which analyses several
sources, the purpose of the review should be assessed in this context; in such a case, it
would be sensible to select relevant parts of the texts for detailed examination. This
procedure could be thought of as a ‘passport photograph,’ for only a relevant part of
the source is analysed. Reports of this kind constitute an essential part of scientific
inquiry; the skill in preparing such reports will develop through practice.
The aim of a literature review is to recount the arguments and thoughts presented in
the text as accurately as possible. A literature review must treat the author of the text
respectfully and impartially, even if the writer of the review herself does not agree
with the views presented in the text. The student should not underestimate the value
of the text and dismiss the text only because it does not reflect the student’s personal
views. The author of the review must clearly point out when the arguments and interpretations presented are her own (for example, by stating, “It is, however, my opinion
that…”).
1
The instructions on “Written Presentations” (pages 2 – 21) are based on a Finnish booklet published
by the Department of Political Science and International Relations (Kirjallisten esitysten laadintaopas.
Ohjeita kansainvälisen politiikan ja valtio-opin opiskelijoille kirjallisten töiden laadintaan. Tampere
1998). It was edited and translated from Finnish by Jussi Koskela, MSc.
4
A review that has been prepared in a slipshod manner draws a distorted picture of the
text on which it is based. Furthermore, a careless examination of an individual text
has a tendency to bring elements into the main analysis that are both irrelevant and
controversial. A review that is not the result of independent work becomes a fragmentary collection of quotations and excerpts taken from other authors’ texts. In such a
case, if the student also fails to report the source, what results is an unacknowledged
quotation i.e. plagiarism. Extensive plagiarism will be interpreted as cheating, which
will lead to the rejection of the written presentation or thesis.
Essay
An essay is a piece of writing on a particular topic or theme. The objective of an essay
is often to survey the literature or other material in a particular field. When preparing
an essay, the student is expected to clearly define and limit the topic or theme of the
essay, to examine and analyse the relevant material and prepare a presentation on the
basis of this analysis. The student should, moreover, familiarise herself with the relevant debates in her field and, insofar as it is possible, consider her own findings in the
light of the arguments presented and questions raised in these debates. This procedure
also allows the student to show that she is aware of the canonic publications and the
current themes discussed in her field.
A presentation that relies entirely on either reporting the contents of the material under inspection or on the student’s personal opinions does not fulfil the requirements
for an essay. When presenting personal views, it is very important that they be supported by well-defined arguments; thus, it is imperative that the reader be able to
identify clearly formulated conclusions or arguments i.e. theses in the text. One of the
prerequisites of academic writing is that the reader should be able to infer from the
text how the author has reached her conclusions. Consequently, when arguing a specific point, it is not enough to merely state that “I think this is so.” Although everyone
is entitled to an opinion, a highly subjective position is not always interesting from the
point of view of scientific inquiry. An interactive relationship to the academic community in one’s field of study is a fundamental characteristic of science. This relationship may be totally or partly devoid of dissenting views or, alternatively, highly
critical. The purpose of academic essays is to contribute to this relationship and debate, whose focus may vary between theoretical and more empirical questions. The
purpose of essays is, therefore, to familiarise the student with the routines of academic
debate and interaction.
When compensating book exams by writing literacy essays or writing other courserelated essays;
Writing essays is possible after negotiating with the examiner. The practice is the following2:
International Relations:
2 ECTS/1 credit - essay of 6-8 pages
4 ECTS/2 credits- essay of 10-12 pages
5 ECTS/3 credits- essay of 14-16 pages
2
Degree requirements of International Relations and Political Science.
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It is necessary to agree on the theme of the essay with the examiner in advance.
The bibliography of the essay has to be approved by the examiner before the student
begins to write the essay. An essay is not supposed to be a literacy summary but a
piece of writing on a particular topic or theme carefully analyzed by the student.
Political Science:
2 ECTS/1 credit - essay of 6-8 pages
4 ECTS/2 credits- essay of 10-12 pages
5 ECTS/3 credits- essay of 14-16 pages
It is necessary to agree on the theme of the essay with the examiner in advance. An
essay is not supposed to be a literacy summary but a piece of writing on a particular
topic or theme carefully analyzed by the student. The principle is that one essay compensates one book, but it is possible to write an extensive essay (10-16 pages) compensating several books. In this case the theme of the essay has to be negotiated with
the examiner. In addition to the books compensated by the essay, it is possible to use
other bibliographic material in analyzing the essay topic.
Seminar Presentations
Seminar papers or presentations prepare the student for farther-reaching research.
They help the student to understand the nature of larger research papers, such as articles or monographs. Literature reviews and essays usually constitute an essential part
of this process. A research paper is primarily addressed to the academic community,
which does not, however, mean that it should not be written in a style that is comprehensible to the general public. Seminar papers are also intended to familiarise the student with the various procedures and practices that apply to written and oral
presentations.
The purpose of the seminar work is to provide the student with an opportunity to
come to grips with the different stages and procedures of scientific thinking and the
research process. The final research report, however, is not a description of this process but a medium for presenting the results of that process. It is for this reason that the
structure of the presentations that precede larger research reports – the proseminar paper3 and subsequent seminar presentations – be allowed to differ slightly from that of
the final report i.e. Bachelor’s or Master’s thesis. Seminar presentations may serve as
research outlines, whose function is essentially to identify the stages in the forthcoming analysis and divide the research project into smaller manageable parts. However, a
seminar often constitutes an independent and distinct whole, which means that a
seminar presentation may also be regarded, as it were, as a ‘minithesis.’ The student is
always well-advised to discuss the scope and nature of a seminar presentation with
her supervisor.
Seminars rely on independent work, which is supported by small group tutorials and
by personal supervision. Seminar presentations also give the student an impression of
3
An undergraduate seminar paper.
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how her main contribution – the Bachelor’s or Master’s thesis – will be evaluated. For
this reason, particular attention is paid to the following points in seminar work:
•
•
•
•
•
Clear formulation of the research problem and research question(s)
Consistent and appropriate reporting of research material
Acquisition and use of diverse information resources
Argumentation and articulation of conclusions
Style and grammar
The first task for the student preparing a seminar presentation is to define the topic of
her presentation, which can be surprisingly difficult. It is instructive that the student
first makes a distinction between the topic and the title of the presentation. The topic
refers to the contents of the paper and to the questions raised in the text, whereas the
purpose of the title is to describe the structure and the organisation of the paper as
precisely and concisely as possible.
As a general rule, the definition of the topic is presented during the early stages of a
seminar, when the student is expected to prepare a synopsis or outline of the presentation. The synopsis should be approximately one page (c. 350 words) long. When preparing the synopsis, the student should consider what theme or problem area she is
interested in. In this regard, the organisation of the study programme into modules
that cover specific theoretical and empirical areas of study may prove helpful. There
may also be other material available that helps the student to become aware of the organisation of the discipline and choose an area of study that is of particular interest to
her. In order to be successful the student must be well motivated. Consequently, one
should not expect to be given a topic, although it may be useful to discuss one’s topic
with members of the teaching staff as well as with researchers who are experts in a
particular field. The final selection of a topic should, however, be made with the concurrence of the supervisor of one’s seminar presentation or thesis.
Having selected a theme, the student should start analysing the topic. The aim is to
identify clearly defined research questions, to which the paper seeks answers. When
formulating research questions, the student should again familiarise herself with relevant research in the area as well as with the questions that have been investigated in
these studies. The idea of a research question is to highlight specific elements in the
analysis and, at the same time, to limit the object of study so that the analysis can be
conducted within the scope of the time and resources available. The tentative analytical structure of the presentation emerges from this preparatory work.
Technically, a seminar presentation usually starts with an introduction to the research
area and research question(s). At the same time, the student has an opportunity to consider why her perspective is justified and meaningful. Of course, one justification is
that the study constitutes a thesis. However, a presentation often serves other functions and purposes, and these should be brought up for discussion in the seminar.
When choosing a topic and formulating specific research questions, the student should
spend some time tentatively exploring relevant sources and thinking how it is possible
to access these sources. There is, however, no need to collect large amounts of material in the early stages of a project as this might both prove useless and involve unnecessary expenses. The most important thing is to make sure that the presentation relies
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on sources that are relevant to the topic, readily available and representative of the
area of study. The analysis of some sources may also require special skills, such as a
knowledge of foreign languages, special terminology or special languages or expertise
in quantitative data analysis or text analysis.
The student should not start to write the final version of her presentation until she has
properly digested the source material. It is also ill-advised to finalise the structure and
organisation of the presentation before the student has gone through all the stages of
the research process.
It is generally only after these stages that the student is able to give a title to her paper.
The title should communicate to the reader the theme of the paper and the problem
examined in the presentation as well as the organising concepts that refer the reader to
the theoretical orientation and background of the study. A title should be brief and
apt; it should arouse the reader’s interest but not promise too much. Often scientific
texts have a subtitle in addition to the main title. The idea here is to use the main title,
which may even be slightly dramatic, to capture the reader’s interest in the text. A
metaphorical main title should always be supplemented by a subtitle. It goes without
saying that such a subtitle can also serve as the main title.
The research process normally proceeds in the order that has been described above.
There are, however, no hard and fast rules that govern this process; rather, the process
tends to reflect the personal preferences of a student and a specific piece of research.
Theses
The general requirements for Bachelor’s and Master’s theses can be found in the ISSS
Guide for Studies. It is important to note that a Bachelor’s thesis is not intended as a
small-scale Master’s thesis. Instead, it is an independent and separate piece of work,
the preparation of which the student discusses with her supervisor, who also grades
the thesis. A Bachelor’s thesis is submitted at the end of Intermediate Studies and requires the knowledge and skills provided by the studies completed so far.
The process leading to a Master’s thesis starts when the student reaches Advanced
Studies. As this process may slightly vary from one discipline to another, the student
is invited to familiarise herself with the directions given specifically for her major
subject.
The Master´s thesis exam consists of the following parts:
- Preliminary essay(s)
- Master´s thesis
- Maturity test
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FORM AND STRUCTURE OF WRITTEN
PRESENTATIONS
The same rules that apply to the composition of titles, tables of contents, footnotes
and bibliographies in seminar presentations also apply to literature reviews and essays. In the case of literature reviews and essays, these rules are, however, applied
less strictly. In a literature review, the main arguments inferred from the literature and
in an essay, the questions relevant to the topic of the essay determine the structure of
the presentation.
Seminar Presentations
The language of written presentations should be formal (as opposed to colloquial),
precise and grammatically correct. A presentation must not rely on exclusively personal views, nor should it be a mere collection of quotations. Seminar presentations at
a more advanced level as well as theses should include a chapter that summarises research that has been previously undertaken on a specific topic or theme. In this respect, it is important that the student be familiar with the essential or what are known
as classic studies in her field as well as with more contemporary research, which is
discussed in relevant academic journals and elsewhere. The author’s ability to locate
relevant sources of information that help to elucidate the research question, her skill in
analysing this information in the light of her own ideas and in synthesising separate
pieces of information as well as her ability to draw conclusions on the basis of this
analysis determine the quality of the author’s personal contribution.
The requirements for the substance of a presentation include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
Clear definition of the research topic
Logical progression of analysis
Relevant selection of sources
Precise treatment of concepts
Precise and well-argued conclusions
When planning a presentation, it is often useful to compose a concise outline of the
analytical structure of the presentation not more than one page in length. The purpose
of the outline is to help the student organise the research process. In the early stages
of writing a presentation, the student must decide the order in which she is going to
discuss the different parts of the analysis. The following additional guidelines should
also be noted:
1. The author of a presentation should go straight to the point. Academic papers generally start with an introductory chapter, which leads the reader to the subject at hand.
An introduction is necessary if the topic of the presentation or the treatment of the
topic are unconventional; otherwise the introductory chapter may be omitted. One
should avoid writing a lengthy and unfocused introduction. A research paper may begin directly with an introduction to the analytical framework or purpose of the presentation. In this connection, the author should explain the problem investigated in the
paper and the aim of the study. The author should also define the concepts employed
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in the paper, discuss the relations between these concepts and, whenever feasible,
consider the theory underlying the concepts. If there is a specific research technique
or methodology that plays a pivotal role in the analysis this can also be reported at the
beginning of the presentation.
2. The student should try to find the essential, most representative and most recent
sources and concentrate on the crucial points in these sources. It is advisable that the
student also familiarise herself with articles published in relevant academic journals.
The objective is to construct an interpretation of the matter at hand that is as clear and
well-argued as possible. A superficial examination of many sources does not always
yield the best results. On the other hand, the student should also avoid referring exclusively to one source. Encyclopaedias, handbooks, yearbooks and similar sources may
be referred to in a seminar presentation or thesis. In principle, one should always use
primary sources. Although this is not always possible, one should nevertheless avoid
using oversimplified secondary sources that recount the findings of earlier studies inaccurately and often incorrectly. Whenever possible, one must refer to a source in the
original language and preferably use the latest edition of a book.
3. The student should strive to explain things in her own words. Quotations word-forword as well as lengthy quotations should be avoided. Direct quotations are acceptable when they are carefully considered. Direct citations must invariably be put in
quotation marks and they must be copied verbatim from the text or translated from the
original language as accurately as possible. In the latter case, the quotation in the
original language is inserted either before the translation in the text or in a footnote
(cf. the examples below). It is also advisable that the name of the person responsible
for the translation be inserted in parentheses after the translation, unless this information is given, for example, in the introduction. Direct quotations that are longer than
two lines are put in a separate paragraph which is indented, single-spaced and typed in
a smaller font.
Example:
Peace research analyses the causes of war and the preconditions of peaceful social
relations. As Gaston Boutoul describes the assumptions underlying peace research,
Toutes les aspirations pacifistes, tous les espoirs de créer un monde polémofuge, c’est-à-dire
dont la guerre serait bannie, sont implicitement fondés sur un postulat: celui qui assimile la
guerre à un état pathologique, à l’équivalent sociologique d’une maladie, alors que la paix serait l’état normal, c’est-à-dire la bonne santé. (Boutoul 1967, p. 229.)
All the aspirations of pacifists and all the hopes to create an unpolemical world, that is, a world
where war is banned, are implicitly based on one postulate that identifies war as a pathological
state and the sociological equivalent of a disease. Conversely, peace is identified as the normal
state, that is, good health. (Translation N.N.)
or
Peace research analyses the causes of war and the preconditions of peaceful social
relations. As Gaston Boutoul describes the assumptions underlying peace research,
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Toutes les aspirations pacifistes, tous les espoirs de créer un monde polémofuge, c’est-à-dire
dont la guerre serait bannie, sont implicitement fondés sur un postulat: celui qui assimile la
guerre à un état pathologique, à l’équivalent sociologique d’une maladie, alors que la paix serait l’état normal, c’est-à-dire la bonne santé.4 (Boutoul 1967, p. 229.)
The student should resort to direct quotations when she wants to emphasise particular
phrases in the text, i.e. when paraphrasing is not possible without distorting the meaning of the original phrase or when there is an exceptionally vivid figurative expression
in the original text. If the author is uncertain about the translation of a particular word
or phrase, she may refer to the phrase in the original language in a footnote or in parentheses after the word or phrase in the text. This procedure applies especially to
concepts that are difficult to interpret.
There is usually a lesser need for direct quotations in an empirically-oriented presentation. The aim is to present the basic material and the essential background studies
with the help of well-digested commentaries. In this context, it is usually enough to
document the source material paragraph by paragraph unless the structure of the text
requires a different strategy. In larger research papers, the theoretical background and
debate may be surveyed in essay-type chapters. The student is often required to submit such essays at one stage of the preparation of her Master’s thesis. The theory part
in a seminar presentation is usually more narrow so the notation does not essentially
differ from normal practice. As a rule, the need to insert direct quotations is greater in
more theoretically-oriented papers and in studies applying a text analytical methodology than in empirical studies. This is because in the former the interpretation is
closely connected to the several layers and nuances of textual structure as well as to
the style and the linguistic conventions evidenced by the text; hence the need to preserve the original text to be studied by the reader.
4. Since the student analyses a source from the perspective of the problems investigated in her study, she should only include and scrutinise relevant pieces of information. The student should then make a synthesis of different pieces of information,
which she has absorbed from different sources, and present this synthesis in a clear
and consistent fashion.
Layout of a presentation
The recommended length of a Bachelor'
s thesis is approximately 20-30 pages,
whereas the length of a Master'
s thesis is from 80 to 120 pages. The recommended
spacing between lines in seminar papers and theses is 1.5. However, quotations that
extend over two lines should be single-spaced. Familiarise yourself with the departmental instructions on theses. Ensure that these instructions have been updated to correspond to the new mode of delivery. The thesis will be printed double-sided (if the
page count exceeds 60), and therefore the margins should be of equal width, 2 cm is
enough. For the same reason the page numbering should be in the middle of each
page, either at the top or at the bottom. Begin numbering pages only from the intro4
All the aspirations of pacifists and all the hopes to create an unpolemical world, that is, a world where
war is banned, are implicitly based on one postulate that identifies war as a pathological state and the
sociological equivalent of a disease. Conversely, peace is identified as the normal state, that is, good
health. (Translation N.N.)
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duction section (bodycopy). It is also recommended that the text and footnotes, if
there are any, be justified.
The following instructions should be kept in mind:
1. The headlines of different chapters should be short and they must indicate what follows in the text. The headlines should also be connected with the theme of the presentation (e.g. “General” does not indicate what follows in a subchapter). Headlines in a
text should also be symmetrical.
2. Main headlines and subheads should be written with different letters; for example,
main headlines in UPPER CASE and subheads in lowercase (title case).
3. The chapters should be numbered, but the gradation should not be more than threefold (thus, the main headlines may be written in UPPER CASE and subheads in lowercase etc.). When considering the gradation of chapters, the author should pay attention to the symmetry between the chapters: it is good style to apply, if possible,
symmetrical gradation throughout the main chapters. It is not, however, always possible to divide each main chapter into as many subchapters without impairing the content of the paper. In this case, the content of the presentation rather than symmetry
should determine the gradation of the chapters.
4. Headlines should be numbered with superscript Arabic numbers – not with Roman
numbers or letters. The number of a headline should always end with a full stop (e.g.
not 1.1 but 1.1.).
5. If the paper includes tables and figures, the captions of these should be precise and
relevant to the content of the tables and figures. It is also important to note that the
captions of tables and figures should end with a full stop.
6. The title page of a research paper should include information about the seminar in
question (the name of the seminar and supervisor, the names of discussants and date),
the title of the presentation and the author’s name.
7. The table of contents page should follow the title page. Subchapters should be indented to separate these from main chapters; a page number should be inserted after
each heading to indicate the page where the chapter or subchapter starts. There should
be no full stop after the page number. In a Master’s thesis, the title page is followed
by an abstract page. Instructions for writing an abstract are available separately at the
end of this booklet.
8. The pagination of a research paper should begin with the first text page. The title
and table of contents pages are not paginated.
It is also important to remember that
•
“double quotation marks” and ‘single quotation marks’ differ in that the former
are used normally (e.g. to separate short direct citations from text), while the latter
are only used within quotations or when there is a need to emphasise that a certain
word or phrase is used outside its normal meaning.
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•
brackets are used to inform the reader that the author has changed the quotation
(e.g. by changing a [c]apital letter to a lowercase letter), added something to or
abridged the quotation, e.g. “This statement constitutes a defamation of the KI
[the Komintern] […] and the Communist Party.”
Marking references
The main purpose of references is to enable the reader to check what sources have
been used in the text and how different sources have been utilised. The function of
footnotes, thus, is to identify the source of a specific argument made by the author or
the source of a particular piece of information. A reference, complemented by information given in the bibliography, must be clear enough for the reader to be able to
locate a particular source.
A reference is not needed when the author discusses an issue that is generally known.
For example, when the author informs the reader that “Finland was declared independent on 6 December 1917” or that “The UN was founded in 1945,” a reference is
clearly not required. There is also no need to use a reference when the source has already been discussed in detail in the text.
There are two styles of marking references – notes that are embedded in the text and
footnotes. Footnotes also enable the author to discuss related themes, clarify or comment on a point or criticise a source etc. without upsetting the balance of the presentation.
1. References to Conventional (Paper) Sources
When referring to sources, the following rules should be observed:
1. References to monographs. The author may refer to a source by using embedded
notes or footnotes. Which procedure the author prefers is ultimately a matter of taste.
It is, however, important that the author apply either style consistently throughout the
paper.
It should be noted that footnotes may be used to clarify or comment on a point even
when embedded notes are applied to refer to sources. The author must, however,
make sure that she only uses footnotes to explain the text and not to refer to sources.
A reference should report the name of the author of a monograph, the year of publication and the page number(s) referred to.
Embedded Notes
An embedded note is inserted in the text in parentheses. If the note refers to one
whole or several sentences or to a whole paragraph, a full stop should be inserted before the latter parenthesis. In this case, the sentence preceding the reference also ends
with a full stop; the reference is then inserted in the text after this full stop and a
space.
Example:
. (Rosenau 1969, pp. 425-427.)
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If the note refers to a word, group of words or a clause immediately preceding the
note, a full stop should not be inserted before the latter parenthesis. It should be noted,
however, that there has to be a full stop after the latter parenthesis, if the note is at the
end of a sentence.
Example:
… (Rosenau 1969, pp. 425-427).
If there are references to several publications by the same author which have all been
published in the same year, these works are separated from each other by inserting a
letter (in lowercase) immediately after the year of publication.
Example:
(Rosenau 1969a, pp. 425-427.)
(Rosenau 1969b, pp. 100-112.)
N.B. The place of the full stop in an embedded note and the placing of the reference
number of a footnote are determined by what is referred to. Cf. examples above.
Footnotes
Footnotes may also be used to refer to sources in a presentation. The same rules that
apply to the placing of embedded notes in the text also apply to footnotes. The number of a footnote is, in other words, inserted after a punctuation mark, if the note refers to one whole or several sentences or to a whole paragraph.
Example:
…article.5
Likewise, the number of a footnote is inserted immediately after a word without an
intervening punctuation mark, if the note refers to a word, group of words or a clause
immediately preceding the reference number.
Example:
…article6.
When using footnotes, the author should remember that
•
•
•
•
the numbering of footnotes may start anew from 1 on each page, which means that
the reference number of the first footnote on each page is always 1, the reference
number of the second footnote is 2 and so on
alternatively, footnotes may be placed after each chapter, which means that the
numbering of footnotes starts anew from 1 in each chapter
footnotes may also be placed after the text (as endnotes). Regardless of the style
the author prefers, it is important that she apply one style consistently throughout
the paper
a footnote always ends with a full stop.
2. References to classics. If the author wants to refer, for example, to Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, the note must report the relevant points (as opposed to page numbers) to which the author refers:
5
6
Rosenau 1969a, pp. 425-427.
Rosenau 1969b, pp. 100-112.
14
(Aristotle 1989, 1130a-1130a5.)
or, alternatively, in a footnote as follows.7
3. References to articles in periodicals or edited works etc. The note reports the name
of the author of the article (and not the editor’s name), the year of publication and the
page number(s) referred to.
Example:
Andrew Moravcsik’s article “Negotiating the Single European Act:
National Interests and Conventional Statecraft in the European Community,” published in Vol. 45, No. 1 of International Organization, is
referred to as follows:
(Moravcsik 1991, pp. 651-653.)
or, alternatively, in a footnote.8
N.B. The place of the full stop in an embedded note and the placing of the reference
number of a footnote are determined by what is referred to. Cf. the examples above.
4. References to newspaper articles. The note reports the name of the author of the
article and the date of the paper. When referring to newspapers, the reader must be
informed about the type of the article referred to:
•
•
•
news report: the note only reports the name of the newspaper and date.
editorial: the note reports the name of the newspaper, date and the title of the article in quotation marks.
other articles: the note reports the type of article (e.g. book review).
5. References to whole monographs or articles. General references of this kind are
only allowed when the author wishes to refer to a specific mode of thinking or a general conception.
6. If references can be made to a number of different studies or if the author has reason to expect that the matter is generally known, she can insert the phrase “See e.g.
…” in the note. If the author wishes to point out that roughly similar but nevertheless
slightly different arguments have been presented elsewhere, she can insert the phrase
“cf. …” in the note.
2. References to Electronic Sources
The Internet
When referring to sources in the Internet, the student should, with certain exceptions,
follow the same rules that apply to references to more conventional sources. The crucial differences are the following:
•
7
8
It is highly recommended to save essential parts of text sources from electronic documents, especially if you expect that they can be removed from the
server and a paper version does not exist.
Aristotle 1989, 1130a-1130a5.
Moravcsik 1991, pp. 651-653.
15
•
The student should not specifically mention in the note that the source is an
electronic document. The URL address (e.g. WWW or ftp address) of the
document is reported in the bibliography
Example:
reference:
Derksen 1998.
bibliography:
Derksen, Wilfried. Changed 1 March 1998. The Electoral Web Sites’
Electoral Calendar.
<http://www.geocities.com/ ~derksen/election/calendar.htm>
N.B. The reference should not report the http address; this is only reported in the bibliography!
3. References to Archive Material and Microfilms
When referring to archive material, the reference should report the nature of the
document (e.g. diary, letter, E-mail message, post list, news group etc.), the date of
the document and the name and location of the collection or archive. When referring
to a source which has been microfilmed, the reference should also report the number
of the microfilm.
Example:
A letter by Manner to Kuusinen, 17 December 1922, p. 7. RTsHIDNI,
f. 522, op. 1, d. 123.
Here the code RTsHIDNI refers to the location of the source and f. (=
fond), op. (= opis), d. (= delo) help to locate the source in the archive.
The codes may differ from one archive to another; in this example, a
Russian source is referred to.
Bibliography
The idea of a bibliography is to indicate to the reader the sources referred to in the
text. All the books, articles, archive material, manuscripts, interviews, Internet documents etc. that have been referred to in the text must be included in the bibliography.
The purpose of the bibliography and references is to enable the reader to easily find
the sources employed in the paper. When inserting a reference, it is also useful at the
same time to list the source in the bibliography. The bibliography is placed at the end
of the presentation before the appendices.
If the bibliography includes unpublished sources, such as letters or minutes, these are
listed first. In these cases, the archive or library in which the material is kept should
be mentioned. Other sources, such as theses, research reports, books, journals etc., are
listed after the primary sources.
16
The appearance of a bibliography may vary considerably. Whereas one writer may
prefer to divide the bibliography into two columns, thus separating the name(s) of the
author(s) from other bibliographical information, another writer may decide to put all
bibliographical information together and use hanging indents.
Example:
Campbell, David
Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics
of Identity. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 1992.
Campbell, David, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of
Identity. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 1992.
Furthermore, the student may decide whether to insert the year of publication immediately after the author’s name in parentheses or at the end of all bibliographical information. Which style the student prefers is ultimately her own choice; it is,
however, important that the author apply one style consistently throughout the bibliography. More important than the layout is to include the following information in the
bibliography:
In monographs, bibliographical information can be found on the title page. This information should be reported in the following order:
•
•
Family name(s) and first name(s) of the author(s), separated by a comma. The
names of authors are separated by a dash (preceded and followed by a space) or
by an “&” sign. In some rare cases, the name of the author cannot be found; this is
reported by marking s.n. (= sine nomine, no author) in the bibliography. Sometimes the name of the author of a literary work can be detected from another
source; in this case, the author’s name is put in brackets in the bibliography.
If a book is an edited work, this is marked in the bibliography by inserting (ed.)
after the name of the author. If the book in question is written in a foreign language, the respective abbreviation – e.g. the German (Hrsg.) – is reproduced.
Examples:
Tully, James (ed.) (1988), Meaning and Context. Quentin Skinner and his Critics.
Cambridge: Polity Press.
Weidenfeld, Werner (Hrsg.) (1994), Das europäische Einwanderungskonzept:
Strategien und Optionen für Europa. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung.
•
•
•
•
•
Full title (including subtitle, if there is one). The full title is put in italics.
Volume or part, if there are several volumes or parts.
Name of the publication series and number in the series, if the book has appeared
in a publication series.
Edition, if other than first edition.
Publisher, place of publisher and year of publication. If the year of printing cannot
be found, the copyright year is reported. If the place of publisher or year of publication cannot be found, this is reported by marking respectively s.l. (= sine loco,
no place) or s.a. (= sine anno, no year) in the bibliography. If these pieces of in-
17
•
formation can be detected from another source they are mentioned in brackets in
the bibliography.
Year of publication is inserted in parentheses, followed by a comma or semicolon
immediately after the name of the author.
Examples:
Robertson, A.H. – J.G. Merrills (1996), Human Rights in the World. An Introduction
to the Study of the International Protection of Human Rights. Fourth edition.
Glasgow: Manchester University Press.
[Berestnev, V.F. et al.] [1963], Marxilaisen filosofian perusteet. Oppikirja. Moskova:
Vieraskielisen kirjallisuuden kustannusliike.
N.B. When there are two or more authors in a book, the name of the first author is reported in reverse order (family name before first name). The names of other authors
are reported in normal order (first name before family name).
•
If the student has referred to several sources by the same author, these should be
reported in the bibliography in chronological order. If the student has referred to
several sources by the same author which have been published in the same year,
these should be reported in order of appearance in the text.
In the case of articles that have been published in edited works and periodicals, the
following bibliographical information should be mentioned:
•
•
•
•
Name of the author.
Title of the article.
Type of newspaper article, date of the paper and number of issue.
If an article has been published in an edited work, the normal bibliographical information is reported along with the page numbers of the article, e.g.:
Pijpers, Alfred A. (1991) “European Political Cooperation and the Realist Paradigm”
in Holland, Martin (ed.), The Future of European Political Cooperation. Essays on Theory and Practice, pp. 8-35, Basingstoke: Macmillan.
•
If an article has been published in a periodical etc., the name of the periodical,
volume and the number of the issue as well as the page numbers of the article
should be reported, e.g.:
Moravcsik, Andrew (1991) “Negotiating the Single European Act: National Interests
and Conventional Statecraft in the European Community.” International Organization 45:1, pp. 651-688.
In the case of unpublished material (e.g. theses and seminar presentations that are kept
in a departmental or scientific library), bibliographical information should include the
name of the department or library, the name of the university and the year when the
document was written.
18
A great number of academic papers are published in various publication series. In order to enable the reader to find a specific paper, the bibliography must report the name
of the publication series, part or number of issue, place and year of publication. If the
document in question is a research report, one must – in addition to the normal bibliographical information – mention the type of report and the name of the institution
where the document was produced, e.g.:
Griffin, Keith – Azizur Rahman Khan (1992), Globalization and the Developing
World: An Essay on the International Dimensions of Development in the PostCold War Era. UNRISD Report, 92.3. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.
Bibliography (examples)
Books and articles
Brown, Chris (1997), Understanding International Relations. Hong Kong: Macmillan.
Clapham, Christopher (1998),”Rwanda: The Perils of Peacemaking.” Journal of
Peace Research 35:2, pp. 193-210.
George, David (1996), “National Identity and National Self-Determination” in Caney,
Simon – David George – Peter Jones (eds.), National Rights, International Obligations. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, pp. 13-33.
Habermas, Jürgen (1990), Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action. Translated by Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Introduction by
Thomas McCarthy. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Hollis, Martin - Steve Smith (1991), Explaining and Understanding International Relations. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Lindberg, Leon N. - Stuart A. Scheingold (1970), Europe’s Would-be Polity. Patterns
of Change in the European Community. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: PrenticeHall, Inc.
Link, Arthur S. (ed.) (1984), The Papers of Woodrow Wilson. Vol. 45: November 11,
1917 - January 15, 1918. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Mitchell, Christopher – Michael Banks (1996), Handbook of Conflict Resolution. The
Analytical Problem-Solving Approach. New York: Printer.
Robertson, A.H. – J.G. Merrills (1996), Human Rights in the World. An Introduction
to the Study of the International Protection of Human Rights. Fourth edition.
Glasgow: Manchester University Press.
Committee reports
Report No. 1/1994 of the Special Parliamentary Committee Set up to Consider the
Government Report on Charting Finland’s Future Options. Helsinki 1995.
Newspaper articles
“Women from N-S Korea, Japan Urge Tokyo to Take State Responsibility for ‘Comfort Women’ Issue.” News Report. The People’s Korea, 31 October 1998.
Gove, Michael, “The Flight from History: How Labour has Unravelled the Union.”
Commentary. The Times Literary Supplement, 8 January 1999.
19
Interviews
Vihne, Mikko, Head of Secretariat. Interview in the Ministry of Justice, 7 March
1980.
Other sources
Agreement on Illicit Traffic by Sea, Implementing Article 17 of the United Nations
Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. European Treaty Series / Council of Europe, 156. Strasbourg: Council
of Europe Press 1995.
Single European Act in Treaties Establishing the European Communities (1987),
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Supplement of the Bulletin of the European Communities, 3-1981.
Treaty on European Union (1992), Luxembourg: Council of the European Communities.
Abbreviations
Latin Abbreviations in References
et al.
et alii: and others, and so on. Used to indicate that a book or article has
several authors.
ibid.
ibidem: the same book, article etc. or the same pages of a book, article
etc. referred to in the previous note.
op. cit.
opero citato: the same book, article etc. referred to above
passim
scattered in the book
sqq.
sequentes: the pages as follows…
s.a.
sine anno: no year
s.l.
sine loco: no place
s.n.
sine nomine: no author
N.B. If a Latin or any other abbreviation starts a sentence, it is written with a capital
letter.
Example:
…in that book. (Ibid, 25.) or …in that book. (Ibid.)
N.B.
to this case.
…the above-mentioned general rule (ibid.) does not apply
20
Abbreviations of Finnish Political Parties
Deva
Kesk
Kok
LKP
Nuors
RKP
SDP
SKDL
SKL
SMP
Vas
Vihr
Demokraattinen Vaihtoehto / Demokratiska Alternativet / The Democratic Alternative Party
Suomen Keskusta / Centern i Finland / The Center Party
Kansallinen Kokoomus / Samlingpartiet / The National Coalition Party
Liberaalinen Kansanpuolue / Liberala Folkpartiet / Liberal People’s
Party
Nuorsuomalainen Puolue / Ungfinnarna Partiet / Young Finns Party
Ruotsalainen Kansanpuolue / Svenska Folkpartiet (i Finland), Sfp /
Swedish People’s Party (in Finland), SPP
Suomen Sosialidemokraattinen Puolue / Finlands Socialdemokratiska
Partiet / Finnish Social Democratic Party
Suomen Kansan Demokraattinen Liitto / Demokratiska Förbundet för
Finlands Folk / The Democratic Union of Finland’s People
Suomen Kristillinen Liitto / Finlands Kristliga Förbund / The Finnish
Christian Union
Suomen Maaseudun Puolue / Finnish Rural Party
Vasemmistoliitto / Vänsterförbundet / The Left-Wing Alliance
Vihreä Liitto / Gröna Förbundet / The Green League of Finland
Grammar
In all types of written presentations, it is important that the student make an effort to
use clear and grammatically correct language. The use of vague expressions may obscure the arguments presented in a paper and, at worst, give rise to unfortunate misunderstandings. When using foreign words, the student should make sure that the
reader is not inadvertently misled. As a general rule, it should be remembered that the
excessive use of foreign words in a presentation – especially if the words are misused
– is no proof of the high scientific standard of a research paper.
To avoid excessive repetition of words the student is advised to look up words in a
thesaurus. The student can also utilise text processors to check the spelling and
grammar of her presentation.
21
Plagiarism
Plagiarism means using direct or paraphrased quotations or ideas from other sources,
including both print references and the internet, in your own writing without specifically citing these in a way consistent with good academic practice.
Plagiarism is a serious academic offence!!
If uncited sources are used, your examiners will discover them and disciplinary action
will be taken.
Be prepared in sending your seminar papers in an electronic format. The ISSS will
randomly select some of the papers to be checked by plagiarism programmes. Please
note also that if you are caught, all possible costs (for the use of that programme etc.)
will be charged from you.
If you are uncertain what sources to cite and how to cite them, please consult your instructor for advice before submitting a paper.
22
INSTRUCTIONS FOR WRITING A MASTER’S THESIS
AND COMPLETING A MASTER’S DEGREE
The Master’s thesis exam consists of the following parts:
• Preliminary essay(s)
• Master’s thesis
• Maturity test
General
The Master’s thesis is an independent piece of work by the student. Its meaning is to
train the student to scientific work in the field of her/his program and major subject.
The thesis should show familiarity with the subject matter, mastery of appropriate research methods and capability for scientific expression.
The extent of the Master’s thesis is 20 credits. The thesis must be a minimum of 60
pages in length. If the length exceeds 150 pages it is good once more to consider
whether the outline is well enough defined. These numbers are only recommendations: Subject, approach, level of analysis and norms of the departments vary and thus
affect the length of the thesis.
Master’s thesis must include a summary of 1-2 pages. The abstract is annexed in the
beginning of the thesis in required format. It shall describe the research problem, material and methods used, and the main research results.
Besides the Master’s thesis itself, preliminary essay(s) and a maturity test are required
for a completed Master’s thesis exam. Preliminary essays are written while the thesis
is in progress, the Maturity test is taken after the completion of the thesis.
Supervision
The topic of the thesis is usually decided at latest during the seminar studies. It is recommended, that the topic is discussed with and agreed upon by the supervisor.
Usually a Professor or an Associate professor from the Department of your major acts
as a supervisor of the thesis writing. You may also consult other persons if necessary.
Preliminary essay
In most of the major subjects one or more extended essays (harjoitusaine) are included in the advanced studies either as an independent module or part of the thesis.
The aim of the preliminary essay is to practise academic writing and to familiarise
you with the topic of the thesis. The essay must be an independent entity even though
it may be incorporated in the thesis. Appropriate bibliography and use of references
are required.
23
Preliminary essay is written in English on an aspect of the thesis. You can start writing the essay(s) as soon as you have taken the compulsory course on academic writing. It is a formal text and should therefore adhere to good academic form (as regards
to tidiness etc.). Its substance has to be accepted by the supervisor of the thesis and
the use of language by an English language examiner. A preliminary essay should
first be accepted by the professor concerned in respect of scientific content and only
then forwarded to the English language examiner. Papers that are not signed will not
be checked.
In the Faculty of Humanities, no preliminary essays are required in connection with
the Master’s thesis. In the Faculties of Social Sciences and Education the requirements are as above.
Submission of the thesis
You can submit your thesis electronically via NettiOpsu, by sending a .pdf file to Juvenes Print/the library via [email protected]. The thesis must be submitted at least
10 days before attending the maturity test (14 days in the Faculty of Education). The
library sends two bound copies to your department (4-5 days after the .pdf file has
been received) for the examination process and one copy is left to the library.
Please read carefully the instructions from the University Library web page
http://www.uta.fi/laitokset/kirjasto/tutkielmat/english/masterthesis.htm.
If you submit your thesis in the traditional way, three copies of the thesis must be
submitted to the Department Office at least 10 days before attending the maturity test.
These copies will be stored at the university. Two of the copies must be in binders and
one is to be perforated and enveloped.
An abstract of 1-2 pages must be delivered together with the thesis (maximum one
page in the Faculty of Education). It must contain information about the purpose of
the study, the source material and the methods used, and the main conclusions. Guidelines are available at the Faculty Office.
Maturity test
After you have submitted your thesis, you are required to take a maturity test before
the thesis can be assessed. The maturity test is a written examination, which is taken
on the general examination day of the department concerned. Registration is at
least 10 days beforehand, using a normal registration envelope. Registration is not
possible before the thesis has been handed in. The maturity test questions are given by
the main examiner of the thesis.
The maturity test requires an essay-type answer. Three alternative questions (which
are used as the title of the essay) are given on the general theme of your thesis - you
choose one of them. When writing the answer it should be kept in mind that the reader
is a person familiar with the scientific discipline in general but not necessarily the
specific subject of the thesis work. The maturity test answer must be an independent
24
entity which can be understood without any previous knowledge of the actual thesis.
The maturity test is examined by the examiner(s) of the thesis.
You should pay special attention to the language as the maturity test is also examined
by an English language examiner. The students in the programme with Finnish/Swedish as the language of their elementary school education will write the
test in Finnish/Swedish, and it will be examined by a Finnish/Swedish language
examiner.
The maturity test must meet the following minimum requirements (adapted from the
instructions given by the maturity test examiners from the University Language Center).
1. Select one of the given topics. Write an essay with clear handwriting approximately
length of four pages. Remember the title.
2. Writing is not a memory test. The command of both the entity and the language is
evaluated.
3. The content must follow the title. Writing should be well structured and form a coherent whole. Division of chapters must be indicted clearly.
4. Do not use very long and complex sentences.
5. Stylistically the maturity test should be written according to the standards of academic writing. Avoid too abstract language, moderate use of theoretical terms is recommended.
Grading
Each thesis has at least two examiners. At least one of them must be a Professor, Associate professor or a Docent of the University of Tampere. The examiners must submit a statement in three weeks time from the date of the maturity test.
The Department Council officially grades thesis after the maturity test has been accepted. It usually meets once a month. The Department Council decides on the acceptance of the thesis and the grade on the basis of the statements of the examiners. The
Department Council is allowed to delegate its powers to the Director of the Department.
The statements of the examiners, the acceptance of the maturity test, the grade, and
information about your rights are sent to you at least four days before the Department
Council meeting. You may, before the Department Council meeting (or the decision
of the Director), withdraw your thesis from the meeting until the next one in order to
write a reply on the statements of the examiners.
The review inquiry must be submitted in writing within 14 days of the time you have
been notified of the statements. If you are still dissatisfied with the decision made at
the inquiry by the Department Council, you may appeal to the faculty council to have
25
it altered within 14 days from the day you are notified about the Department Council’s / Director’s decision.
If the Department Council decides the grade according to the statements of the examiners no separate notice will be sent to you. The Department Council’s presenting official signs the acceptance of the thesis into the study book: the name of the presenter
can be found in the letter sent to you concerning the grade.
In the grading the following scale is used (from the lowest to the highest):
- approbatur
- lubenter approbatur
- non sine laude approbatur
- cum laude approbatur
- magna cum laude approbatur
- eximia cum laude approbatur
- laudatur
Applying for a degree certificate
When you have completed all the requirements for the Master'
s degree, you should
apply for a certificate. The application forms are available at the Faculty Office.
Remember to get your different study entities registered and graded by the teachers in
charge. The major subject studies are registered by the professor after the Master'
s
thesis is completed. The minor subjects are registered in the certificate in case you
have obtained 10 or more credits in these subjects. Additional minor subjects are
marked under "additional studies".
In the Faculty of Education, the degree certificate is granted by the Faculty Dean. The
deadline for application is two weeks prior to the date you wish to receive the certificate.
26
Model page of a Master’s thesis
Harold Smith
CHANGES IN EUROPEAN POLITICS IN
AFRICA
University of Tampere
International School of Social Sciences
Department of Political Science and
International Relations
International Politics
Master’s Thesis
May 1996
27
Model of the abstract page
University of Tampere
International School of Social Sciences
Department of Political Science and International Relations
SMITH, HAROLD: Changes in European Politics in Africa
Master’s Thesis, 80 pages, 6 appendices
International Politics
May 1996
The abstract page is to be placed after the title page. The purpose of the abstract is to summarise the contents of the thesis.
The upper part of the abstract page (about 60 mm) consists of the following information:
- name of university and department
- family name and first name(s) of the author (in CAPITAL LETTERS)
- title of thesis
- level of thesis (e.g. Master’s thesis, Licentiate thesis, etc.), number of
pages and appendices
- name of discipline (e.g. International Politics)
- month and year of completion
- a separating line
After this bibliographical information, the actual abstract is presented. It must be
based on the assumption that the reader has general knowledge of the topic. The
reader must be able to understand the abstract without having read the thesis. The sentences in the abstract must be complete – a list of chapter headings is not sufficient.
References and quotations must not be used, nor should there be anything in the abstract that does not appear in the thesis. The abstract should be as concise as possible:
it is recommended that it does not exceed one single-spaced page (c. 120 to 250
words). On no account should the abstract exceed two pages.
An abstract should contain the following information:
- topic of thesis
- object of study
- research methodology (if the thesis is mainly theoretical and based on specific literary sources, the principal sources must be identified; if the thesis
is mainly empirical, the methods of analysis must be mentioned)
- main results
- conclusions and possible recommendations