A SOCIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR MUSIC EDUCATION
STEVEN N. KELLY
Florida State University, USA
ABSTRACT
This paper seeks to illustrate that the social contributions of music education are vital to the
justification of music in the schools. This position is based on the following: 1) Music behaviors
are global behaviors associated with the earliest human existence; 2) If humans have
maintained music, then some manner of music education has always been associated with
humans; 3) If music is a global behavior, then some form of music education is a global practice;
4) If music and music education are globally associated with humans, it seems appropriate
both should be part of a school curriculum.
Teaching and learning music may be viewed from a variety of epistemological perspectives
including historical, philosophical, psychological, even biological and anthropological
positions. An additional view is the sociological perspective. According to the noted
sociologist Macionis (1997), sociology is the study of human behavior, its origins,
organizations, institutions, and the development of human society. Because music is a form
of human behavior (Gaston, 1968; Nettl, 1956) it fundamentally reflects the definition
of sociology. From a sociological perspective, through the process of enculturation people
learn to be human in terms of their particular culture (Macionis, 1997). Enculturation is
one of the primary purposes of education in most societies. As a component of education,
music education also plays a role in the enculturation process by using music to transmit
cultural values, skills, and traditions. Thus, music education is a fundamental social component of education that is vital to the continuity of each culture. However, the sociological
perspective is often overlooked or underappreciated by many music educators. Yet, it is
the sociological perspective that can contribute much to the understanding of how music
is globally used and learned within a human context, and therefore a social context.
human experience and a large part of many societies. In fact,
that
all human communities at all times and in all places, have engaged
anthropologists
in musical behaviors (Nettl, 1956). Music, as a mode of human activity, is a cultural
phenomenon constituting a fundamental social entity (Bowman, 1998) as humans create
music and create their relationship to music (Gaston, 1968). As a cultural phenomenon,
music is constantly created and re-created to reflect changing sociocultural functions
(Bowman, 1998). Music education, as a component of music, is also a cultural phenomenon
affected by cultural constructs, values, and functions. Similar to all education, what is taught
in music education classes is relative to what each culture deems important for individuals
Music is
a common
note
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know and experience. As these values shift, so does (or should) the emphasis of music
education. Consequently, in every culture it is difficult to separate music education from
sociological influences.
to
Like music, music education has been linked in some form with culture since primitive
humans (Etzkorn, 1973; Nettl, 1956; Sloboda, 1985). Throughout time the function of
this relationship has remained the same: to assist in the enculturation of society by passing
down cultural traditions, skills, and values through the performance of music (Etzkorn,
1973). Since music and music education are linked to human socialization, both may be
considered a social practice. Humans can learn and perfect musical skills individually, but
these acts are usually ultimately shared with another individual or group. Music education,
like much of education mirrors each society and the people living in the society’s various
cultures. Understanding how individuals behave and learn musically requires understanding
a person’s cultural development outside of school. The culture influences decisions
regarding desired musical activities, literature selected for performance or hearing, and what
purposes music activities should serve.
However, opportunities are often missed to connect experiences in the music class to cultures
outside of schools. According to Regelski (1997), the routine of education has become
institutionalized, which Berger and Luckman ( 1966) defined as a social creation based on
accepted and expected habitual behaviors, values, and needs. Regelski stated that as institutions’
expected habitual patterns are passed down through generations they become realities, or
paradigms, which govern the institutions. Paradigms become socially expected patterns of
understanding and behaving. With the expectations come considerable amounts of coercive
power, as deviants from these norms may be viewed as cultural misfits. Thus education often
falls victim to expected routines and information. When new practices, thoughts, or
information are introduced, they may be viewed as counter-cultural or simply wrong, resulting
in few opportunities to learn and apply information in individually unique ways.
Music education, as a component of education, is not exempt from this institutional reality.
Music education is often viewed as a large performing ensemble process in which members
are taught to think as a single team. Individualism and creativity are often frowned upon,
and the emphasis is often on functional experiences (Regelski, 1997). Very little attention
in given to the social process, which Adorno (1976) stated, is inherently within the musical
experience. The human connection, critical to fusing musical sounds to cultural
understanding, becomes lost.
Void of the human connection, it is no wonder that music education must constantly defend
itself as a necessary curricular component. This may relate in part to what Radocy and
Boyle (1997, p. 25) noted as a &dquo;curious paradox,&dquo; where widespread availability makes
many people take music for granted as just another commodity. It is the human connection
that makes the need for the sociological component of music education necessary and makes
a valid argument for the inclusion of music in the school curricula. However, while much
has been written on the sociology of music, little attention has been directed at music
education’s social components. Yet because of the inherent human element, music may
be the best subject within a school curriculum for connecting students to society overall.
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Furthermore,
in
increasingly pluralistic world,
factor shared throughout the world.
an
music may be the
single
most
uniting
SOCIAL PERSPECTIVES
Because of cultural and musical enculturation processes, it is difficult to separate music
from some form of &dquo;music education.&dquo; Thus, understanding music education’s social
components require an understanding of music’s social perspectives. Evidence of music’s
possible social influences and its cultural value dates back to theories pertaining to the
origins of music (Blacking, 1973; Nettl, 1956; Sloboda, 1985). Among the theories
alluding to human involvement in music’s origins are music’s links to the supernatural, its
potential for communicating, and its association with movement and dance (Nettl, 1956).
Human involvement in music seems apparent, despite anthropologists and archaeologists
having little physical evidence of music’s beginnings. However, human association with
music appears evident from perhaps from as far back as prehistoric times (Blacking, 1973;
Nettl, 1956; Sloboda, 1985).
clear from early human existence that music is a form of human behavior that
within a cultural context. Through enculturation, each social order develops its
institutions and symbolic artifacts that serve as both a cohesive and perpetuating force
(Macionis, 1997). By helping to define various cultural values, music has been a tool in
the enculturation process (Reimer, 2000). Music often serves as a microcosm of the larger
world while operating on similar social principles. By serving as a mirror to society, music
can reflect how people live, what they think, and how they feel. Music can be found at
home, in schools, at the marketplace, in religion, during special occasions, in politics, in
the military, in medicine, in the media, in recreational areas, and in the work
place. Consequently, society has a tremendous influence on music. Music of all cultures
reflects issues such as war, love, sex, and poverty.
It
seems
occurs
Music also influences culture. Portnoy ( 1963, p. 113 ) suggested that music’s value does
not exist in the musical structure but rather in its effect on people. Thus, while we shape
music for our own purposes, it also shapes us. Acting as a bonding force, music affects
our attitudes, behaviors, dress, and language. One would only have to examine the power
and influence of MTV and the mass media to understand this appeal. Because of music’s
vast presence and power, it is a social force that needs to be studied and understood. Haack
(1997, p. 93) underscored the need for understanding music’s power by stating &dquo;Music
is an uncontrolled substance, a multi-billion dollar industry, and a potent social entity.&dquo;
The power of music’s social components is apparently global. According to Nettl (1956),
music exists in all known cultures and along with other arts may be the only human-created
phenomenon shared by all cultures. While the existence of musical behavior is global,
music’s particular form and existence, and influence within a society, reflects a sociological
nature unique to each culture. Thus, there are probably as many different uses of music
as there are people who use it (Merriam, 1964). One could conclude that while individuals
are constantly exposed to musical sounds, most people never think about the various
functions of music and how these uses affect their lives.
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MUSIC EDUCATION’S SOCIAL COMPONENT
of the sociological perspective is that almost everything humans do is learned and
not the result of genetic disposition (Macionis, 1997). Accordingly, most human behavior
is not instinctive, as through the process of socialization individuals learn how to behave
as human beings. Part of socialization is learning behaviors that are acceptable to members
of a specific society. In many societies, music education, as part of the education process,
is a component of this process.
A
tenet
next to the family the school may be the most important socializing
is
often
a communal process aimed at developing individuals for society’s
agent. Schooling
benefit (Spring, 2002). Within this process the school’s primary role may be viewed as a
social agency with two basic interdependent functions: (a) providing students with basic
knowledge and skills that cannot be gained through informal education; and (b) promoting
the development of personal identification within the ideological system encompassing those
of the family and the local community in which students live (Valsiner, 1989). Dewey
(1900) was influential with this view by suggesting that school is an integral part of a
culture’s total social process, and that the processes of the school are social processes. The
school’s social system reflects the larger society it serves and is instrumental in socializing
individuals through the transmission of cultural values. Music education contributes to
socialization by providing opportunities for individuals to experience the human relationship
to music.
In Western
societies,
Spring (2002) stated that one goal of education should be to teach a society’s social
expectations. As an educational component, music education should be concerned with
teaching the social influences, standards, and expectations associated with music in a society.
The variety of purposes in which music is used reflects society’s relation with music
education by demonstrating that, through music, individuals can learn social roles and
values which contribute to cultural identity and continuity (Merriam, 1964; Reimer, 2000).
The various uses and functions of music which Merriam (1964) proposes could actually
form a social thematic framework for a music curriculum at any educational level by
providing a foundational base for arts related courses or themes for integrated curricula.
principal proponent for curricular implementation is the teacher. Ironically, teachers
products of the enculturation process. Often teachers are enculturated into the accepted
role by completing training that instructs individuals in how to feel, think, and act like a
&dquo;teacher&dquo; (Regelski, 1997). Individuals are influenced into understanding that teaching
music is both an art and a social process involving the teacher as the key component in
cultural transmission (Spring, 2002). Schools promote a civil society by transmitting cultural
values primarily through curricular experiences organized and presented by a teacher.
Through the delivery of information, teachers function as a primary component in the
enculturation process. Thus, by implementing the curriculum the teacher becomes one of
the strongest socialization agents in a culture. This is certainly true of the music class. By
choosing to perform a national anthem or a traditional folksong, the teacher is exposing
students to the society’s values and heritage as well as to the teacher’s reflections of those
values and heritage.
The
are
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challenge for teachers is the process of enculturation, which is becoming an increasingly
important issue for education in a multicultural, multimusical society (Reimer, 2000). Given
the multitude of manners in which music is used, a &dquo;socio-functional&dquo; understanding of
music appears useful for success in a multicultural, multimusical world (Haack, 1997). In
this regard, the music class functions as a social structure within the large society of the
school and surrounding community that the school serves. Each student brings a diverse
background of social, musical, and academic experiences into the class. The music teacher’s
challenge is to bring this diverse group together into a coherent group while allowing for
individual experiences. Students need to understand that music’s functions and influences
A
select and use music within environments rather than
the
whims and dictates of the media and other &dquo;experts.&dquo;
constantly being subjected
Thus, one goal of music education is to develop the independent-thinking musical being.
A successful teacher combines knowledge of each student’s social background with
knowledge of music to develop successful teaching strategies to achieve this goal (Madsen
& Kuhn, 1994). By thinking from a social perspective, the teacher can integrate social,
musical, and academic interactions to connect what occurs in schools with society’s &dquo;real
world&dquo; experiences.
correlate with their
ability
to
to
THE NEED FOR MUSIC EDUCATION
Much of the material presented in this paper so far is not novel. However, because many
music education programs are still facing the same challenges they have faced for years,
the material still appears relevant. The need for music education is still being questioned
(Gates, 2000). If music is such a powerful force, providing a means to understand its
influence should be of obvious importance. However, while the need for music in most
societies is unquestionable, music education is not always viewed as important (Haack,
1997). Even the very definition of &dquo;music education&dquo; is often questioned, as has been
discussed in recent symposia (Rideout, 1997; Rideout & Paul, 2000 ) and discussion groups
(Mayday Group, 2002). Contemporary authors point out that multiple perceptions of music
education’s role exist. With so many questions, it is not surprising that it appears as if some
segment of society constantly seeks assurances that music study makes sense. This is not a
recent occurrence. Years ago, Mueller ( 1958, p. 110) noted that musicians and music
educators were excessively and unnecessarily preoccupied with justifying their own existence,
as though they were in a perennial crisis.
An answer to why we need music education could be because music has always been part
of our lives. In America the very foundation of music education is the belief that every
child can benefit from music instruction (Music Educators National Conference, 1994).
Our profession rests on the assumption that music education is not only valuable but
necessary, with many advocates attempting to place music instruction within the school
core curriculum (Music Educators National Conference, 1994). Music educators often
argue that music is a necessary curricular component which contributes to educating
individuals to function successfully in society (Gates, 2000; Music Educators National
Conference, 1994; Reimer, 1989, 2000). Their arguments are primarily based on cognitive,
physical, and emotional concepts. While valid, such arguments frequently exclude the social
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experiences occur. Because of its inclusion of a variety of
different knowledge perspectives, the social view may be the best approach to incorporate
all of the existing learning concepts.
context
in which many musical
Music may be defined simply as &dquo;sound that is organized into socially accepted patterns&dquo;
(Blacking, 1973, p. 25). As such, music is a societal symbol that helps to define individual
cultures within a society (Shepherd & Wicke, 1997). Virtually everyone is drawn to music
of some kind and, despite cultural differences, almost every individual understands what
music is, or at least what his or her culture defines as music (Radocy & Boyle, 1997, p.
19). Music education is necessary to explain how cultural variations exemplified through
music may actually link cultural generations. It informs people about a human phenomenon
that is simultaneously universal in nature, uniquely particular to each culture, and
individually possessed.
Because of its social component, music is a global phenomenon. Merriam (1964)
summarized the power of music’s vast occurrence, stating, &dquo;there is probably no other
human cultural activity which is so all-pervasive and which reaches into, shapes, and often
controls so much of human behavior&dquo; (p. 218). Music’s pervasiveness may be its strength
and its weakness. No other human phenomenon may be so ubiquitous throughout the
world as music. Music has always existed where humans have existed and is often valued
for its ability to promote cultural identity by expressing cultural traditions and expectations
(Reimer, 2000). However, in some societies music could be so available that many people
may take its existence for granted. This opposing experience could help explain why music
may be valued, but music education may not be as valued. In these situations music
education could be considered a curricular frill and not representative of society’s musical
values. This also may explain why some individuals attempt to replace music classes with
other subjects that they view as more necessary for individuals.
If music is a universal phenomenon, music education must be a universal process, serving
as a transmitter of musical skills and heritage through different generations. Just as music’s
functions vary among global cultures, so does &dquo;music education.&dquo; The transmission of
musical knowledge can be visual or oral, formal or informal. However, because music exists
in all known cultures as a universal behavior, some form of music education behavior must
also exist to maintain and perpetuate musical traditions. Thus, not only can music be
justified in the schools because of its universality, so can the practice of music education,
owing to its global practice.
practices within a culture reflect the value of music instruction. In the United States,
a recent study by the National Association of Music Merchants (2000) demonstrated that
music and music education may be increasingly valued. The investigators randomly selected
and telephoned individuals ( N--1,504). Some participants currently played an instrument,
some formerly played an instrument, and some never had played an instrument. The
subjects, ages 12 or older, were surveyed to ascertain a profile of household participation
and attitudes regarding playing musical instruments. The results were compared with those
of a 1997 study. Among the current findings, the results showed:
Music
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.
.
·
·
·
·
·
·
.
.
50% of the households have at least one person age 5 or older who currently plays a
musical instrument. This figure was up from 38% in the 1997 study.
92% of individuals who are current players and 77% of the subjects who do not play an
instrument stated that music was a very important part of life.
85% of the non-players wished they had learned to play a musical instrument.
95% agree that music is part of a well rounded education, up from 90% in 1997.
93% believe that music should be part of the regular school curriculum, an increase
from 88% in 1997.
97% believe that playing in a school band develops teamwork skills, a slight increase
from the previous study.
81% believe that participating in school music corresponds with better grades. This was
an increase from 69% in 1997.
73% believe that teenagers who play a musical instrument were less likely to have
discipline problems.
95% believe that making music provides a sense of accomplishment.
This
from 90% in 1997.
98% of the respondents believe that music should be learned because it is
throughout life.
a
figure was
useful
up
activity
NAMM concluded that social attitudes are an integral part of how people perceive their
involvement in music and music education. They summarized that (a) music is a very
important part of life, (b) music brings families together, (c) individuals believed they were
never too old to learn a musical instrument, and (d) playing an instrument is something
an individual was always glad to have learned. These values appear to part of music’s
universal appeal (Kaplan, 1990; Merriam, 1964). Despite these findings, people still
frequently question the need for music education. It seems music instruction is easy to
defend but hard to rationalize.
&dquo;GOOD&dquo; AND &dquo;REAL&dquo; REASONS
The inclusion of music into the school curriculum may be best assessed by considering
the &dquo;good&dquo; and &dquo;real&dquo; reasons for music’s place in the education (Madsen & Kuhn, 1994).
The choices made to justify music instruction may be most effective if they are based on
&dquo;real&dquo; reasons. While initially the &dquo;good&dquo; reasons may be most apparent, the &dquo;real&dquo; reasons
may promote the longevity of the art. If schools are indeed a microcosm of society,
examining the &dquo;good&dquo; and &dquo;real&dquo; reasons could present a distinct difference in the types
of learning that may be achieved. Providing opportunities for students to learn to perform,
understand, and appreciate music are examples of &dquo;good&dquo; reasons to include music in the
curriculum. These reasons traditionally have formed the foundation for many music
education programs and reflect the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective learning domains,
all of which are vitally important.
However, the &dquo;real&dquo;
for including music in the curriculum may be found in music’s
global cultural uniqueness. The &dquo;real&dquo; reason for including music in the school curriculum
could be that music (along with other arts) may be the only universal human-created
phenomenon linking our diverse global society. It is important to remember that while cultures
reason
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constantly changing, music’s existence has been and remains a constant element (Kaplan,
1990). The music class may provide the only opportunity in a school curriculum to experience
a form of human behavior which is shared with all other known cultures. Advocating music
on a sociological basis may provide music educators with a more balanced educational stance,
grounded in music’s unique aspects. Providing opportunities to better understand the
differences existing within our culture should be the &dquo;real&dquo; reason for music participation.
are
CONCLUSIONS
of the world’s societies, and their expectations for schools, are constantly
changing. By reflecting the many cultures within society, schools serve as a link between
the familiar past, the present, and the unpredictable future. The increased cultural diversity
within society is reflected in schools and will challenge music educators to embrace a more
sociological understanding of music education. This social perspective embraces music as
a global human phenomenon serving multiple roles for the individuals within diverse
cultures. Due to the human need to perpetuate itself, music and music education always
have been and always will be linked to humans through the need for cultural transmission.
Similarly, music education exists globally in some form as a link in the enculturation process.
This global role highlights music education’s importance for any individual to function in
a diverse world.
The
nature
The complex relationship between music education and society deserves much investigation.
Music’s undeniable social influence and power needs further understanding. From a
sociological perspective, humans have never been so exposed to, and have had access to,
so many different kinds of music. Music education’s role in society is clear. As Hodges
and Haack (1996) stated, &dquo;When all of us have been made aware of the tremendous
influence of music on human behavior and its influential role as a uniquely human
knowledge system, music will be more accurately acknowledged for the significant role it
plays in human society&dquo; (p. 547).
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M.
(1990).
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ABSTRACTS
Une base
sociologique pour 1’enseignement de la musique
Cet article cherche a illustrer que les contributions sociales de 1’education musicale sont essentiels
a la justification des cours de musique dans les écoles. Cette position est bas6e sur les points
suivants: 1) les comportements musicaux sont des comportements globaux lies a 1’existence
humaine; 2) si les humains ont encore de la musique, c’est qu’une certaine education musicale
a toujours 6t6 associ6e aux humains; 3) si la musique est un comportement global, alors une
certaine forme d’6ducation musicale est une pratique globale; 4) si la musique et 1&dquo;education
musicale sont globalement associ6es aux humains, il semble appropri6 que les deux devraient
faire partie d’un programme d’6tudes ~ 1’ecole.
48
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sociologica para la educaci6n musical
Este trabajo busca demostrar que las contribuciones sociales de la educaci6n musical son vitales
para la justificaci6n de la musica en las escuelas. Esta postura se basa en lo siguiente: 1) Las
conductas musicales son conductas globales asociadas con la mis antigua existencia humana;
2) Si el hombre ha mantenido a la m6sica, entonces, cierta forma de educaci6n musical ha
estado siempre asociada a las personas; 3) Si la musica es una conducta global, entonces cierta
forma de educaci6n es una prictica global; 4) Si la musica y la educaci6n musical se asocian
globalmente con las personas, seria apropiado que ambos sean parte del curriculo escolar.
Una base
Eine
soziologische Grundlage des Musikunterrichts
Der Artikel versucht aufzuzeigen, dass der gesellschaftliche Beitrag der Musikerziehung essentiell
fiir die Rechtfertigung von Musik in Schulen ist. Diese Meinung beruht auf folgenden
LTberlegungen: 1) Musikalisches Verhalten ist ein globales Verhalten seit dem Auftreten des
Menschen; 2) Wenn Menschen Musik gepflegt haben, dann ist immer eine Art von musikalischer
Erziehung mit Menschen verbunden; 3) Wenn Musik eine globale Verhaltensform darstellt,
dann entspricht eine gewisse Form von Musikerziehung auch einer global feststellbaren Praxis;
4) Wenn Musik und Musikerziehung allgemein mit Menschen in Verbindung stehen, dann
scheint es angemessen zu sein, dass beide auch im schulischen Curriculum verankert sind.
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