C O G N IT IO N A ND E M OT IO N , 1 9 9 7 , 1 1 (4 ), 4 3 3 ± 4 6 5
S u b lim in a l A ffe ctive P rim in g R esists
A ttrib u tio n a l In te rven tio n s
P io tr W in k ie lm a n
U n iv e r sity o f M ich ig a n , A n n A r b o r, U S A
R o b e rt B . Z a jo n c
S ta n fo r d U n ive rs ity , U S A
N o rb e rtS c h w a rz
U n iv e r sity o f M ich ig a n , A n n A r b o r, U S A
W e e x am ine tw o e x pl anati ons o f th e s ubl im i nal af fe c tiv e prim ing e ff e c t. The
fe e l ing s - as- inf orm ati on m ode l (S c hw arz & Cl ore , 1 9 8 8 ) holds th at ju dg e m e nts are bas e d on pe rc e pti ble fe e li ng s. He nc e , af fe c ti v e in¯ u en c e s de pe nd
on the sourc e to w hi c h fe e l ing s are (m i s) attri bute d. In c ontras t, th e af fe c tiv e
pri m ary hy pothe si s ( Zaj onc , 1 9 8 0 ) s ug g e s ts tha t af fe c tiv e i n¯ ue nc e s sh ould
re s is t attribu tional inte rv e nti ons . T his is be c aus e the aff e c ti v e sy s te m re s ponsi ble for pre fe re nc e s is s e parate from the c og ni tiv e s y s te m re s pons ibl e f or
inf e re nc e s; be c aus e e arly af fe c tiv e proc e ss e s are autom ati c and the re f ore
inac c e s s ibl e to hig he r-orde r inte rv e nti ons ; and be c ause e arly af fe c tiv e
re s pons e s are not re pre s e nte d as c ons c i ous fe e l ing s. W e te ste d the s e e x pl anati ons i n tw o e x p e rim e nts that c ros se d s ubl im i nal af fe c ti v e pri m in g w i th
(m i s) attribu tion m anip ulati ons . B oth studi e s found re l iabl e s hif ts i n ju dg e m e nts o f ne utral s tim uli as a re s ul t of pri m e s e v e n w he n s ubj e c ts w e re aw are
that the ir f e e li ng s m ig h t not be diag no stic f or th e j udg e m e nt at hand.
S ubje c ts d id not re port e x pe rie nc ing an y fe e l ing s in re s pons e to the
pri m e s . Th e o btai ne d af fe c tiv e prim i ng e f fe c t w as in de pe nde nt of re sp ons e
ti m e s and s ubje ctiv e re p orts o f e ng ag ing in j udg e m e ntal c orre c ti ons . How e v e r, the prim i ng e ff e c t di d prov e s e nsi ti v e to the e x pe rim e ntal in struc tion s.
W e di sc us s th e im pli c ati ons of the s e ® ndi ng s f or the af fe c tiv e prim ac y
hy pothe si s and the fe e l ing s -a s- inf orm ati on m ode l .
Re que s ts for re p rin ts s hould be s e nt to P io tr W in kie lm an, D epart m e nt of P sy c holo g y ,
U niv e rs ity of M ic hig an, A nn A rbor, M I 4 8 1 0 9 ± 1 1 0 9 , U S A ; e -m ail m ay be s e nt to
w in kpio @ um ic h.e du.
T he au thors w ou ld li ke to thank K ent B e rri dg e , D ov C ohe n, M a re k D rog os z , P hoe be
E lls w ort h, K e nt Harbe r, B arbe l K naupe r, M e lv in M a ni s , D anny M c Intosh, S he il a M urphy ,
C hris N e ls on, A ndrz e j N ow ak, A le x Ro thm a n, K evi n T ay lo r, an d Phil W ong f or the ir he lp at
v ario us s tag e s of thi s proje c t. In part ic ular, w e thank Je rry C l ore and s e v e ral anony m ous
re v ie w e rs for the ir v e ry he lp ful c om m e nts on a pre v io us v e rs io n of this artic le .
Ó
1 9 9 7 P s y c holo g y P re s s , an im pri nt of E rlb aum (U K) T ay l or & Fran c i s L td
4 34
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
IN TR O D U C T IO N
Num e rous s tudi e s hav e d e m ons trate d a p ronounc e d i m p ac t of af fe c tiv e
s tate s on e v al uati v e ju dg e m e n ts (f o r re v ie w s s e e C lore , S c hw arz , & C on w ay , 1 9 9 4 ; Forg as , 1 9 9 5 ; S c hw arz & C l ore , 1 9 9 6 ). In the pre s e nt pape r, w e
addre s s a s pe c i ® c as pe c t of the i nte rpl ay be tw e e n af fe c t and c og niti on,
nam e ly , h ow e x pos ure to a ff e c tiv e s ti m uli pre s e n te d be l ow the thre s h old
of aw are ne s s in ¯ ue nc e s e v alu ati ons of unre l ate d targ e t s ti m u li . In a re c e nt
s tud y , M urphy and Z aj onc (1 9 9 3 ) e x p os e d s ubj e c ts to s u prali m inal l y p re s e n te d ne utral s ti m ul i i n the form o f C hi ne s e ide o g raphs and as ke d th e m to
m ake a l ik in g j udg e m e n t (s tud y 1 ) o r to ju dg e w he the r the id e og raphs
re pre s e n te d `` g ood’ ’ or `` bad’ ’ ob je c ts (s tudy 2 ). T he s ub je c ts di d not
kn ow that th e id e o g raphs w e re p re c e de d by af fe c ti v e and nonaf fe c tiv e
s u bl im in al prim es . A ffe c tiv e prim e s w e re pi c ture s of s m i li ng o r ang ry
fac e s , w he re as no naf fe c ti v e prim e s w e re pi c ture s o f rand om po ly g ons .
S ubl im i nal af fe c tiv e prim e s produc e d s y s te m atic s hi fts i n s ubj e c ts ’ j ud g e m e nts of the i de og rap hs Ð i de og raphs pre c e de d by s m i l in g fac e s w e re li ke d
the m os t an d i de og raph s pre c e de d by frow nin g fac e s w e re li ke d the le as t,
w i th id e og raphs pre c e de d by pol y g o ns fal li ng in be tw e e n. M urph y , M on ahan , and Z aj onc (1 9 9 5 ) re p li c ate d the s e e ffe c ts i n a m ore e x te ns i v e s tudy .
De s pi te num e rous s tudie s that hav e found af fe c ti v e p rim in g , th e m e di ati ng proc e s s h as re c e i v e d li ttl e atte nti on. Pre v i ou s re s e arc h foc u s e d prim ari ly on de m ons tratin g that af fe c tiv e prim i ng c an be ac hi e v e d w i th m i ni m al
s ti m ul us e x pos ure s (e .g . B arg h & Pi e trom o nac o, 1 9 8 2 ; M urphy & Z aj onc ,
1 9 9 3 ; Ni e de nthal, 1 9 9 0 ), and on e x pl oring the i nte rac ti ons be tw e e n c og ni tiv e an d aff e c ti v e proc e s s e s (e .g . E dw ards , 1 9 9 0 ; Ki tay am a, 1 9 9 1 ). T h e
pre s e n t p ap e r ad dre s s e s the af fe c t-j ud g e m e nt l in k m ore di re c tly . W e s e e k
to de te rm i ne w he the r s ubl i m i nal af fe c ti v e prim i ng e f fe c ts are m e d iate d b y
c ontrol l abl e proc e s s e s in v ol v i ng i nfe re nc e s from c o ns c i ous l y e x pe rie n c e d
af fe c t, or by autom atic p roc e s s e s i m pe rv i ous to hi g he r-orde r inte rv e nti ons .
W e be g i n b y c om paring tw o e x pl anati ons of s ubl i m i nal af fe c tiv e prim ing
e ffe c ts an d su bs e qu e ntl y re port tw o s tudi e s d e s ig ne d to te s t the s e c ontras ti ng e x pl anation s .
A Fe eling s-as-in form ation A cc o un t of
A ffective P rim ing
A c c ordi ng to the fe e l i ng s -as -i nform ati on m ode l , af fe c tiv e i n¯ u e nc e s oc c u r
be c aus e j udg e m e nts are bas e d on pe rc e p ti bl e af fe c ti v e s tate s . S c hw arz and
C lore (1 9 8 3 , 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 6 ; C l ore , 1 9 9 2 ) p ropos e d that pe opl e m ay s im pl ify
c om pl e x ju dg e m e n tal tas ks by turning to the i r appare nt af fe c ti v e re ac tion
to the targ e t, e s s e nti al ly as ki ng th e m s e l v e s , `` How do I fe e l abo ut i t? ’ ’ In s o
do in g , the y m ay m i s re ad p re-e x is ti ng fe e l i ng s as a re ac ti on to the targ e t,
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
43 5
re s ul ting i n m o re pos i tiv e e v alu ati ons w h e n i n a p os iti v e rathe r than
ne g ativ e af fe c ti v e s tate . Re f e rring to an e arly v e rs io n of the M u rphy and
Z aj onc p ap e r (1 9 9 3 ), S c hw arz (1 9 9 0 , p. 5 3 8 ) s pe c ul ate d on how the
fe e li ng s -as -in form atio n m ode l m ay e x pl ai n s ubl im i nal af fe c ti v e prim i ng
e ffe c ts : `` Gi v e n the abs e n c e of any us e ful k now le dg e about the i de og raph,
s ubj e c ts m ay be l ik e ly to tu rn to the i r aff e c ti v e re s po ns e , as k in g the m s e l v e s , `How d o I fe e l abou t i t? ’ If the y e n c o unte r pos i ti v e fe e li ng s , the y
m ay c on c lud e that the i de og rap h m ay m e an s om e thi ng pos iti v e Ð unl e s s
the y h av e re as on to doub t the i nform ati onal v al ue of the i r fe e l i ng s .’ ’
A c c ordin g to the fe e l in g s -as -i nform ati on m od e l , ju dg e m e n ts are onl y
bas e d o n aff e c ti v e e x pe rie nc e s i f the e x pe rie nc e s are pe rc e i v e d as di ag nos ti c for the ju dg e m e n t at hand . If th e info rm atio nal v alue of the e x pe rie nc e i s c all e d i nto que s ti on, for e x am ple , if s ubj e c ts (m i s )attri bute th e ir
fe e li ng s to a s ourc e un re late d to the targ e t, the im pac t of af fe c tiv e s tate s on
j udg e m e n t is e l i m i nate d (e .g . S c hw arz & C l ore , 1 9 8 3 ). T hi s m ode l as s u m e s
re li anc e on on e ’ s fe e l i ng s as a d e fa u lt th at do e s not req ui re c o ns c io us
attri buti on of the fe e l i ng to the ob je c t of ju dg e m e nt, bu t h old s th at
c ons c i ous attri buti on of the fe e l in g to an i rre le v an t s o urc e e l im in ate s the
othe rw is e obs e rv e d af fe c tiv e i n¯ u e n c e .
A l thoug h m any s tu die s s up port the p re dic ti ons of the fe e li ng -as -i nform ati on m ode l fo r th e i m pac t o f m ood s and othe r ph e n om e nal e x pe rie nc e s
(s e e C l ore e t al . 1 9 9 4 ; S c hw arz & C lore , 1 9 9 6 for re v i e w s ), it i s an ope n
i s s ue w h e the r th e m od e l appl ie s to s u bl im in al prim in g e ffe c ts . T he re are
g ood re as ons to th in k i t m i g ht. C le arl y , the proc e dure s us e d i n s u bl im in al
prim i ng e x pe rim e nts g uarante e th at s ubj e c ts are n ot aw are of the s ourc e of
the ir af fe c tiv e re ac ti on. He nc e , the y are l i ke ly to p e rce iv e the i r ow n af fe c t
as a re s pons e to the s upral im in all y pre s e n te d targ e t, th us re nde ring i t
re le v an t to the j udg e m e nt. If s o, m akin g s ubj e c ts aw are of the pote nti al
i m pac t of s ubl im i nal prim e s s houl d e li m i nate the i m p ac t o f af fe c ti v e
prim i ng , b e c au s e it re nde rs s ali e nt an i rrel e v ant s ou rc e o f th e i r af fe c ti v e
e x pe rie nc e . C on s is te nt w i th thi s pre di c tion , M u rphy and Z ajo nc (1 9 9 3 )
obtai ne d no prim i ng e ffe c t w he n the y pre s e nte d s m i li ng o r frow ni ng fac e s
s upral i m i nal ly , s ug g e s ti ng that aw are ne s s of th e s o urc e o f on e ’ s fe e l i ng s
e li m inate d the ir im pac t. He n c e , the av ail abl e ® ndi ng s are c o m patib le w ith
a fe e l in g s -as -i nform ati on ac c o unt of af fe c ti v e p rim ing e ffe c ts , al thou g h a
s pe c i ® c e m pi ric al te s t i s m is s in g .
A n A ffective P rim acy A cco u nt of A ffective P rim in g
In 1 9 8 0 , Z aj onc propos e d the a ff e c tiv e prim ac y hy p othe s i s (Z aj onc , 1 9 8 0 ,
1 9 8 4 , 1 9 9 4 ). T he h y pothe s i s h ol ds that af fe c tiv e re ac ti ons re qui re m in im al
s tim ul us e l aborati on an d c an o c c ur v e ry qui c kl y . T he hy p othe s i s al s o
s ug g e s ts that the af fe c ti v e sy s te m , c onc e rne d w i th s ti m ulus e v al uati on , i s
4 36
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
s e p arate and partial l y in de pe nde n t from the c og n iti v e s y s te m c onc e rne d
w i th s tim ulu s m e aning . T ran s lati ng Z aj onc ’ s hy pothe s i s into the l ang u ag e
propos e d b y Fodo r (1 9 8 3 ), the af fe c tiv e s y s te m re pre s e nts a m e ntal m od ul e . S u c h a m odule i s d om ai n-s pe c i ® c (c onc e rne d w ith th e e v al uatio n o f
e m otion al si g ni ® c anc e ), o pe rate s on pre -s e m anti c i nput (be fore the le v e l o f
m e anin g ), e n c aps ul ate d (i nde pe nde n t from m odu le s th at proc e s s oth e r
attri bu te s ), and c o g ni ti v e l y i m p e ne trabl e (i m pe rv io us to hi g h e r-o rde r i nflu e nc e s ). T he as s um pti on s of the af fe c ti v e prim ac y hy pothe s is are c ons i s te nt
w i th p s y c ho log ic al and ne u rophy s iol og ic al e v i de nc e (A g g l e ton & M i s hki n,
1 9 8 6 ; Dam as i o, 1 9 9 4 ; Ku ns t- W i l s on & Z ajo nc , 1 9 8 0 ; L e Doux , 1 9 8 9 ,
1 9 9 3 ).
T he af fe c tiv e p rim ac y hy pothe s i s pre d ic ts i nde pe nd e nc e of s ubl i m i nal
af fe c tiv e prim i ng from attribu ti on al m ani pul ati ons for s e v e ral reas o ns .
A ttri buti onal inte rv e nti ons atte m pt to c h ang e pre fe re nc e s by targ e ting
c ons c io us in fe re nc e s . Infe re n c e s , h ow e v e r, are a p art of the hi g h-orde r,
s e m antic s y s te m that has no d ire c t ac c e s s to the lo w -orde r, non s e m anti c
pre fe re nc e s y s te m . C ons is te nt w i th thi s a s s um pti on , s tudi e s o n autom ati c
v i g i l anc e (P ratto, 1 9 9 4 ; Pratto & John , 1 9 9 1 ) and au tom ati c e v al uation
(B arg h, C hai ke n, Gov e n de r, & P ratto, 1 9 9 2 ) fo und tha t the ope rati on o f
af fe c tiv e proc e s s e s i s h ig hl y i nde pe nd e nt of infe re nti al g oal s (B arg h,
1 9 8 9 ).
Note , ho w e v e r, th at s ubl i m i nal af fe c ti v e p rim ing s ho uld n o t be e x pe c te d
to be i nde pe nde nt of al l as pe c ts o f attri buti onal m a nip ulati ons . T h e s e
m ani pul ati ons s hou ld hav e no in fe r e n ti a l e ffe c ts , y e t the y m ay i n¯ u e nc e
s u c h v ari abl e s as atte n ti on or af fe c ti v e state s that, i n tu rn, m ay m odify
af fe c tiv e prim ing v ia af fe c t- af fe c t inte rac ti on s (M u rphy , M o nahan, &
Z aj onc , 1 9 9 5 ) or atte n ti on-af fe c t i nte rac ti ons (L ang , 1 9 9 5 ).
A nothe r re as on w hy , ac c ordi ng to the af fe c ti v e p rim ac y hy pothe s i s ,
attri bu ti onal i nte rv e nti ons s hou ld be i ne ff e c ti v e i s re late d to the as s um p tio ns about the form of e arl y af fe c ti v e e x pe rie n c e s . A ny s u c c e ss ful m anip ul atio n of the in fe re nc e s th at s ubj e c ts m ay draw from th e i r fe e l i ng s req ui re s
s o m e aw are ne s s o f th e s e fe e li ng s in th e ® rst pl ac e . How e v e r, af fe c tiv e
prim in g m ay n o t inv ol v e a c hang e in c ons c i ous ly e x pe rie nc e d fe e l i ng s .
First, s o m e aff e c ti v e i n¯ ue nc e s on pe rc e ptio n, in te rpre tati on , a nd d e c is ion
m ay be m e di ate d by l ow -l e v e l s y s te m s that do not p roduc e any ac c om pany in g c o ns c i ous af fe c t at al l (Dam as io, 1 9 9 4 ). S e c ond, e v e n i f af fe c tiv e
prim in g le ads to a noti c e ab le af fe c tiv e re ac tio n, thi s reac ti on m ay n ot b e
re pre s e n te d as a fe e l in g , but o nl y as a c h ang e i n a pre fe re n c e . R ec e nt
the oris i ng s u g g e s ts that th e s y s te m th at e v al uate s the e m o ti onal s i g ni fi c anc e of s ti m ul i is fas te r than th e s y s te m that e l i c its fe e l in g s (L e Doux ,
1 9 9 3 ). L adav as , C i m atti , De l P e sc e , and T uoz z i (1 9 9 3 ) foun d that e v al uativ e di s c rim i natio n re s po ns e s (p re s um ab ly unde rly i ng pre fe ren c e s ) w e re
ob tai ne d w he n s ubl im i nal af fe c ti v e s li de s w e re pre s e nte d to the rig ht and to
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
43 7
the l e ft he m is phe re of a s pl i t- b rai n patie nt. How e v e r, autonom i c re s po ns e s
(pre s um abl y unde rly i ng fe e l in g s ) w e re onl y ob tai ne d w he n s u bl im in al
s l id e s w e re pre s e nte d to the rig h t h e m i s phe re . T he l e ft he m i s phe re , w hi c h
i s le s s abl e to re sp ond to e m oti onal s tim ul i, produc e d au to nom ic re s po ns e s
onl y for s l i de s pre s e nte d s upral im in all y .
In s um , the m in im al e x p os ure c ondi tion s of s ubl i m i nal p rim in g m ay
e li c i t w e ak , un diffe re nti ate d pre fe re nc e re s po ns e s , but m ay no t s upport the
am ou nt of proc e s s in g ne c e s s ary to e li c i t id e n ti ® ab le fe e l i ng s . M ore g e ne rall y , p re fe re nc e s s e e m to re pre s e nt w hat Fod or (1 9 8 3 ) c all s ``s hal low
output’ ’ (i .e . the y are prim i tiv e , pre -s e m an ti c , an d unapprai s e dÐ u ni nte rpre te d). A s Z ajo nc (1 9 9 4 ) s ug g e s te d, an e arl y , unap prais e d a ff e c t m us t be
e labo rate d and i nte g rate d w ith the o utp ut of othe r m odu le s to re s ult in an
i de nti® able fe e l in g . In that res pe c t, s ubl i m inal af fe c ti v e prim i ng m ay be
s i m ilar to the m e re e x pos ure paradi g m , w he re s ubj e c ts do not p e rce i v e
the m s e l v e s as c h ang i ng pre fe re nc e s b y v i rtue o f e x po s ure .
T he pre c e din g di sc us s i on i ndi c ate s that s u bl im in al prim ing m ay no t
e li c i t fe e l i ng s th at c an be us e d as i nput i nto an in fe re n ti al s trate g y . S e v e ral
approac h e s to the af fe c t- j udg e m e nt l i nk s ha re thi s as s um ptio n but dif fe r
re g ardi ng the natu re and lo c us of the p roc e s s e s tha t m e di ate be tw e e n af fe c t
and j udg e m e nt. S om e ac c ounts are c ons is te nt w ith the af fe c ti v e prim ac y
hy po th e s is and po stu late l ow -orde r, s e n s ory , nons e m antic p roc e s s e s . O the r
ac c ounts as s um e hi g h-o rde r s e m anti c m edi ation . M o re ov e r, the ac c ounts
l oc ate th e c ritic al p roc e s s at d iffe re nt s tag e s Ð atte ntio n, pe rc e ptio n, i nte rpre tati on, or g e ne rati on of m otor re s pon s e . First, re s e arc h into th e af fe c tatte nti on li nk propos e s that af fe c ti v e prim es l e ad to he ig hte ne d a tte ntio n to
af fe c t- c ong rue nt i nform ati on (s e e De rry be rry & T uc ke r, 1 9 9 4 for a
re v i e w ). S e c o nd, re se arc h i nto the af fe c t- pe rc e ptio n l i nk s ug g e s ts th at
af fe c ti v e p rim e s trig g e r ac tiv ati on i n pe rc e ptual m e m ory , w hi c h re s u lts
i n a m ore e f® c i e n t pe rc e pti on of af fe c t- c on g rue nt targ e ts (s e e Nie de nthal , S e tte rlun d, & Jone s , 1 9 9 4 for a rev ie w ). T hi rd, s e m anti c n e tw ork
m o de ls s u g g e s t that af fe c ti v e p rim e s b ias i nte rpre tati on of targ e ts by
ac ti v ati ng v ale nc e -c on g rue nt c onc e p ts (s e e B o w e r, 1 9 9 1 for a re v ie w ).
Final ly , af fe c t e l i c i te d by prim e s m ay m o di fy ju dg e m e nt be hav i ou r v ia
c onne c ti ons be tw e e n the af fe c tiv e s y s te m and the m otor re s pon se s y s te m
(s e e Z aj onc & M arku s , 1 9 8 4 for a re v i e w ). W e re turn to the s e i s s ue s in the
Di s c u s s i on s e c tion.
O verview o f S tu dies
A s th e e arl i e r di s c us s i on i ll us trate s , s e v e ral l i ne s of e v i de nc e are c o m patibl e w i th the noti on that af fe c ti v e i n¯ ue nc e s on ju dg e m en t and be hav i our
m ay be m e di ate d b y m e c hani s m s oth e r than the m i s attribu ti on o f e x pe rie nc e d fe e l i ng s . How e v e r, u ntil the role o f the s e m e c hani s m s i n s u bl im in al
4 38
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
prim in g i s m ore p re c i s e l y s pe c i® e d, s y s te m ati c e m p iric al te s ts of the s e
m e c hani s m s re m ai n dif® c ul t. In c ontras t, the fe e l i ng s -as -i nform ation
m ode l g e ne rate s pre di c tion s that are am e n able to e m pi ric al te s ti ng .
He nc e , the pre s e nt s tudi e s foc u s on a te s t o f the p re d ic ti ons g e n e rate d by
the fe e li ng s -as -in form atio n ac c o unt. S pe c i ® c al l y , w e i nform e d s ubj e c ts in
s o m e c ondi tio ns of our e x pe rim ents that the y w oul d be e x pos e d to s ub l im i nal prim es that m i g ht e l i c i t a fe e l in g . De pe nd ing on c ond iti ons , s ub j e c ts w e re e i th e r inf orm e d tha t thi s re ac ti on w o uld be p os i tiv e , i nform e d
that i t w o uld be n e g ati v e , or w e re not i nfo rm e d ab out its v al e n c e . T h e s e
attri bu ti on m an ip ulati ons w e re i ntroduc e d as a be tw e e n-s u bj e c ts fac to r and
w e re c ros s e d w ith the v ale nc e of the s u bl im in al prim e s , w hi c h w as
m ani pul ate d w ithi n su bj e c ts.
B as e d on the se m ani pu latio ns , th e fe e l i ng s -as -info rm ation m od e l p re di c ts the e m e rg e nc e of au g m e ntati o n and dis c ounti ng e ffe c ts (Ke ll e y ,
1 9 7 2 ). W he n s ub je c ts e x pe c t s ubl i m i nal ly pre s e nte d p rim e s to e li c it a
po s i ti v e fe e l i ng , the y s houl d (c o rrec tl y ) attri bu te an y pos iti v e fe e l ing
the y e x pe rie nc e to the i m pac t of the p rim in g m ani pul ati on (i.e . to a
s u bl im in al l y pre s e nte d s m i l in g fa c e ). S i m i larl y , w he n s ub je c ts e x pe c t
s u bl im in al l y p re s e nte d prim e s to e l i c it a ne g ati v e fe e l i ng , the y s ho uld
(c orre c tly ) attri bute any ne g ativ e fe e li ng th e y e x pe rie nc e to the im pac t
of the prim ing m ani pu latio n (i .e . to a s ubl im i nal ly pre s e nte d frow n ing
fac e ). Gi v e n that s ubj e c ts are tol d that the prim i ng m ani pul ati on i s un re l ate d to th e j udg e m e nt tas k, the y s hou ld di s c o unt the info rm ation al v al ue o f
the i r on -li ne af fe c ti v e e x pe rie nc e and th us not e x h ibi t the s ubl i m i nal
prim in g e ffe c t. In c o ntras t, i f an aff e c ti v e e x pe rie n c e e l i c i te d by th e
s u bl im in al prim e s is inc o ns i s te n t w i th s ubj e c ts ’ e x pe c tati ons , the e x pe rie nc e c anno t be attri bute d to the e x pe rim e ntal m ani pu latio n and s hou ld
s e e m parti c ul arl y di ag nos ti c , re s ul tin g in i nc re as e d s ubl im i nal prim ing
e ffe c ts . A c c o rdi ng l y , a d is c o unti ng e ffe c t is pre d ic te d w h e n s ubj e c ts ’
e x pe rie nc e s m atc h the i r e x pe c tati ons and an aug m e ntati on e ffe c t i s p re di c te d w he n th e i r e x pe rie nc e s c ontradi c t th e i r e x pe c tati ons . Final l y , w he n
s u bj e c ts are in form e d that s ubl im i nall y p re s e nte d m ate rials m ay e li c i t an
un s pe c i ® e d re ac ti on, the y m ay d oubt the in form ati onal v al ue of any re ac tio n the y m ay e x pe rie n c e , thus re du c i ng s ubl i m i nal prim ing e ffe c ts in de pe nd e nt of th e v al e nc e o f the i r e x p e rie nc e .
Note that the af ore m e nti one d pre di c ti ons of d is c o unti ng a n d aug m e ntatio n e ffe c ts are in c om pa ti bl e w i th an al te rnati v e s e t of pre di c ti ons that m ay
be de riv e d fro m th e i m pl i c ati ons of the e x pe rim e n tal ins truc ti ons , i nde p e n de nt o f s ubj e c ts ’ af fe c ti v e e x pe rie nc e s . A s S trac k and c ol l e ag ue s (S trac k,
1 9 9 2 ; S trac k, S c hw arz , B l e s s , KuÈ bl e r, & W aÈ nke , 1 9 9 3 ; s e e als o W e g e ne r &
P e tty , 1 9 9 5 ) de m o ns trate d, s ub je c ts m ay c orre c t j udg e m e n ts to c om pe ns ate
for in ¯ ue nc e s s ug g e s te d by the e x pe rim e nte r. If so , s ubj e c ts w ho are
i nform e d abou t po s iti v e i n¯ u e n c e s s ho uld c o rrec t al l j ud g e m e nts d ow n -
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
43 9
w ard, w he re as s ubj e c ts w h o are i nform e d abou t n e g ati v e in¯ ue nc e s s houl d
c orre c t al l j udg e m e nts u pw ard , ind e pe nde nt of the i r a c tual af fe c ti v e e x pe rie nc e . In c o ntras t to s uc h a m ai n e ffe c t of e x p e c tati o ns , the fe e l i ng s -as i nform ati on m o de l pre di c ts an i nte rac ti on of e x pe c tati on s w i th ac tu al
af fe c ti v e e x pe rie n c e s , as de sc ribe d e arl ie r.
T he af fe c tiv e prim ac y hy pothe s i s pre di c ts that the attri buti onal m ani pul ati ons s hou ld not produc e the af ore m e nti one d patte rn of j udg e m e nts .
T hi s p re di c ti on re sts on th ree as s um ptio ns . First, the s y s te m inv ol v e d i n
af fe c ti v e prim ing i s re s i s tan t to i nfe re nc e s , b e c au s e in fe re nc e s are s e m antic
w h e re as pre fe re nc e s are nons e m anti c . S e c o nd, af fe c ti v e prim in g i s autom ati c and s houl d be e nc ap s ul ate d from any hig h e r-orde r i nte rv e ntio n.
T hi rd, af fe c ti v e c hang e s m e di ati ng af fe c tiv e prim in g are e ithe r n ot re p re s e nte d c ons c io us l y at all , o r at l e as t the y are no t re p re s e nte d as fe e l in g s .
He nc e , s ub je c ts are no t aw are of a fe e l ing e x pe rie n c e th at m ay be di s c ounte d or aug m e nte d as a s ou rce of i nform ati on i n form ing a ju dg e m en t
about the targ e t.
Gi v e n that th e af fe c ti v e prim ac y hy p othe s is pre di c ts a nu ll e ffe c t of
attri buti onal in te rv e n ti ons , w e di d not w ant to re j e c t the fe e l i ng s -as -i nform ati on m o de l b e c au s e o f pote ntial l y w e ak m ani pul ati on s , re s ul ting in the
ac c e ptan c e of th e a ff e c ti v e prim ac y hy pothe s i s as a de faul t. T he re fore , w e
took the fo ll ow i ng s te ps : O u r attri butio nal m ani pu latio ns w e re c l e ar and
e x pl i c i t; th e attri buti onal m an ipu lati on w as c h ang e d from s tud y 1 to s tudy
2 ; an d b oth s tu die s i nd e p e n de ntly te s te d for the pre s e nc e of af fe c ti v e
e x pe rie nc e s . T he robus tn e s s of af fe c tiv e prim i ng w i ll be d e m ons trate d if
i t is obtain e d e v e n w h e n the e x p e rim e nt offe rs s ubj e c ts a c l e ar oppo rtun ity
to di s c ou nt the i n¯ ue nc e of af fe c tiv e prim e s .
EX P ER IM EN T 1
M etho d
Sub jects
S i x ty -thre e m al e and fe m al e und e rg raduate s ub je c ts at the Uni v e rsi ty of
M i c h ig an parti c i pate d i n parti al ful ® l m e n t of a c ou rse re qui re m en t. S ub je c ts
w h o kne w C h in e s e , Kore an, or Jap an e s e w e re e x c l ude d from partic i pati on.
M aterials and A pparatu s
O r d e r a n d typ e o f s ti m u l i. T he li ki ng j udg e m e nt tas k c on s i s te d o f the
pre s e ntati on of ta rg e t id e og raphs pre c e de d by v ari ous prim e s . T he re w e re
tw o bl oc ks of 2 0 trial s . E ac h b loc k e m p lo y e d a d iffe re nt arrang e m e nt of
s tim ul i. In the ® rst bl oc k of 2 0 trial s the orde r of prim e s w i thi n a bl oc k w as
4 40
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
rand om i s e d an d c ons is te d of: (a) ® v e dis ti nc t i de og raph s pre c e de d by no
prim e s at al l; (b) ® v e di s tin c t i de og raphs pre c e de d b y p ic ture s o f ® v e
di s ti nc t po ly g ons ; (c ) ® v e di s tin c t i de og raph s pre c e de d by prim e s s ho w ing
ang ry fac e s o f ® v e di s tinc t i ndi v i dual s ; and (d) ® v e di s ti nc t id e og raphs
pre c e d e d by pi c ture s o f happ y fac e s of ® v e dis ti nc t i nd iv iduals .
In the s e c on d bl oc k, the p rim e s c ons i s te d of: (a) ® v e di sti nc t i de og raphs
pre c e d e d by no prim e s at al l ; (b) ® v e di s tinc t i de og raph s pre c e de d by
pi c ture s of ® v e di s tinc t pol y g on s ; (c ) ® v e i de og raphs re pe ate d from th e
® rst b lo c k w e re pre c e de d b y ang ry fac e s of the s am e i ndi v i dual s that
prov id e d happ y e x pre s s i ons us e d i n b loc k 1 ; an d (d) ® v e id e og raphs
re pe ate d from the ® rst bl oc k w e re pre c e de d by h ap py fac e s o f the s am e
i ndi v i dual s tha t prov i de d ang ry e x pre s s ions u s e d in bl oc k 1 .
P r i m e s . P hotog raph s of 1 0 i ndi v i dual s s e rv e d as fac i al prim e s . E ac h
i ndi v i dual p rov i de d tw o e x p re s s i ons Ð h ap pi ne s s an d ang e r. T h e s e 1 0
i ndi v i dual s w e re s e l e c te d from a s e t of 6 5 s li de s pre -te s te d to prov id e
g o od e x am pl e s of an g e r and happi ne s s .
Sti m u lu s p r e s e n ta ti o n . T he e x pos ure c ondi tio ns and the e q uip m e nt w e re
i de nti c al to the o ne us e d by M urph y an d Z aj on c (1 9 9 3 ). Four s l id e
proje c tors w i th a Un ibl i tz s hu tte r and a re d ® l te r w e re us e d to proj e c t
45 cm 3
6 0 c m i m ag e s on a s c re e n at s ubj e c ts ’ e y e l e v e l at a d is tan c e o f
approx i m ate ly 1 .5 m . T h is p re s e ntati on re s ul te d i n a 1 7 -de g re e v is ual
ho riz on tal ang l e an d 2 0 -d e g re e v e rtic al ang le . L um in anc e of the s c re e n
2
® e ld w as ap prox i m ate l y 6 0 c d/m . T he s hu tte rs w e re c ontrol le d b y tw o
Uni bl itz re l ay c o ntrol box e s c onn e c te d to an X T -c o m pu te r. T he s hutte r
s p e e d for the s ubl i m inal prim e w as s e t at 4 m s e c w hi c h, af te r addi ng ope n
and s h ut de l ay , re s ul ts i n a 1 0 m s e c ¯ as h.
Procedure and D esign
Se q u e n c e o f e v e n ts d u r i n g a ffe c ti v e p r im i n g . O n arriv a l at the l aboratory ,
s u bj e c ts w e re to ld th at th e s tudy c ons i s te d of tw o tas ks . In the ® rst tas k the y
w oul d m ak e l i ki ng j udg e m e nts o f s e v e ral C hi ne s e id e o g raphs o n a 6 -b utton
re s p ons e box . Num be r 1 on the b ox i ndi c ate d that the s ub je c t di d not l ik e
the i de og raph at all , w he re as num be r 6 i ndi c ate d that it w as li ke d qui te a
bi t. E ac h trial las te d for ab out 1 1 s e c ond s (s e e Fig . 1 ). T he s ubl i m inal
s ti m ul us (the fac e or th e pol y g o n) w as p re s e nte d for 1 0 m se c and w as
i m m e di ate l y fo ll ow e d by an i de og raph that al s o s e rv e d as a bac k w ard
m as k. T he S O A be tw e e n the p rim e a nd the i de og raph w as app rox i m ate ly
5 m s e c . E ac h i de og raph s tay e d on the s c re e n for 2 0 0 0 m s e c . A fte r an 8 -s e c on d
paus e for the s ub je c t’ s re s pons e , th e ne x t pai r c ons is ti ng o f s ubl i m i nal
prim e and id e o g raph w as s ho w n. A fte r the ® rs t tas k, the re w as a s hort
bre ak. T he s e c on d tas k of th e s tud y te s te d w he the r th e prim e s w e re
pre s e n te d s ub li m inal l y (s e e l ate r).
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
44 1
Ma n ip u l a ti o n o f i n fe r e n c e s . For the ® rst tas k of the s tud y , s ubj e c ts w e re
g i v e n one of the ® v e w ritte n i ns truc ti ons , de s i g ne d to m anip ul ate be li e fs
about the ir af fe c tiv e re ac ti ons d uring th e e x pe rim e nt. In the ® rst c ond iti on,
s ubj e c ts w e re no t info rm ed ab out s ub li m inal s ti m u li , but w e re s i m ply as ke d
to m ake l i ki ng j udg e m ents of i de og rap hs . T hi s c ondi ti on w as de s i g ne d as a
s i m ple re p li c ati on of th e M urphy and Z aj onc (1 9 9 3 ) s tudy 1 , an d w e re fe r
to thi s c o ndi tion as a `` n o e xp e c ta ti o n s ’ ’ c ond iti on.
In the `` n o n s p e c i® c e xp e c ta ti o n c o n d i ti o n ’ ’ , in s tru c ti ons s tate d th at
s hortly be fore the pre s e ntati on o f id e og raphs othe r pi c tu re s w oul d appe ar
v e ry b rie ¯ y o n the sc re e n . T he i ns truc tio n m e ntione d that the s e p ic ture s
w o ul d ap pe ar s o b rie ¯ y that no one w o ul d b e abl e to s e e the m c ons c i ous l y . Po s s i bl e af fe c ti v e re ac ti ons and th e natu re o f s ub li m inal p ic ture s
w e re not m e nti one d. T o j us ti fy to s u bj e c ts the pre se nc e of s u bl im in al
prim e s , the i ns truc tio ns re fe rre d to `` the s e c o nd part o f the s tud y ’ ’ w he re
the s e s l id e s w o uld be re le v an t. T he purpo s e of the ``n ons p e c i ® c e x pe c tation c ondi tio n’ ’ w as to te s t w he the r the s he e r fac t of be i ng in fo rm e d
about pos s ib le prim e s w oul d e li m i nate the bas i c a ff e c ti v e p rim in g e ff e c t.
For thi s c o ndi ti on, and fo r all the re m ai ni ng c on di ti ons , the af fe c ti v e
prim ac y ac c ou nt pre di c ts a re pl i c ati on of the prim ing e ffe c t. T he fe e l i ng s as -i nform ati on ac c o unt pre di c ts that i n the nons pe c i ® c e x pe c tati on c ondi ti on s u bje c ts m ay be c om e dis trus tf u l of the ir af fe c ti v e re ac ti ons , w hi c h
F IG . 1 .
S e q ue n c e o f e v e n ts o n o ne tri al d u rin g l i k in g j u dg e m e n t tas k .
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W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
s h oul d unde rm in e the prim i ng e ffe c t. P rim i ng e ffe c ts s h oul d be w e ake ne d
to the e x te n t that s ubj e c ts th oug ht the s e `` o the r pi c ture s ’ ’ m i g ht i n¯ u e nc e
the i r af fe c ti v e s tate .
In the `` p o s i tiv e e xp e c ta tio n c o n d i ti o n ’ ’ s ub je c ts w e re info rm ed that
s u bl im in al s m i l in g fac e s w o ul d brie ¯ y app e ar be fore s om e id e og raphs
and m ay brin g o n `` s om e pl e as ant fe e l in g s ’ ’ an d c au s e s om e `` pos i tiv e
g u t re ac ti on s ’ ’ . For th is c on diti on the fe e l in g -as -i nform ati on ac c ount p re di c ts th at s ubj e c ts s hou ld di s c o unt the i r pos i tiv e re ac tio ns to the id e og raphs
pre c e d e d b y p os i tiv e prim es , w h e re as the i r j udg e m e nts of id e og raphs
pre c e d e d by n e g ati v e prim e s s h oul d c ontin ue to be i n¯ ue nc e d. M ore ov e r,
the ju dg e m e nts of ide og raphs pre c e de d by ne g ati v e prim e s s ho ul d b e
e s p e c i al l y unfav ou rabl e be c au s e , b y the lo g i c of the aug m e ntin g e ffe c t,
s u bj e c ts s ho ul d tre at the i r ne g ativ e re ac tion s as e sp e c i al l y di ag nos ti c o f
the i r true l i ki ng re s pon se to the targ e t i de og raphs .
In the `` n e g a tiv e e xp e c ta ti o n c o n d i tio n ’ ’ s ubj e c ts w e re i nform e d that
s u bl im in al ang ry fac e s w oul d appe ar be fore i de og raph s and m ay bring
on `` s om e u npl e as ant fe e l i ng s ’ ’ an d c au s e s om e `` ne g ativ e g ut re ac ti ons ’ ’ .
P re dic ti ons for thi s c o ndi ti on are the e x ac t re v e rsal o f pre di c tio ns for th e
po s i ti v e e x pe c tati on c ondi tio n.
In the `` p o s i tiv e a n d n e g a ti v e e xp e c ta tio n c o n d i ti o n ’ ’ s ubj e c ts w e re
i nform e d that ang ry an d happ y fac e s w oul d be s how n an d m i g ht c aus e
c orre s p ondi ng fe e l i ng s and `` g ut re ac ti ons ’ ’ . He re , as s um i ng s u f® c i e nt
di s c ou nting , the fe e li ng -as -i nform ation ac c o unt pre di c ts a di s ap pe aranc e
of th e prim i ng e ffe c t, w he re as the af fe c tiv e prim ary a c c ou nt pre di c ts no
s u c h e ffe c t.
F o r c e d c h o i c e . Fol l ow in g 4 5 trial s , s ubj e c ts i n al l c ondi tio ns w e re g i v e n
a forc e d-c hoi c e te s t of aw are ne s s (s e e Fig . 2 fo r de tai ls ). S ubj e c ts w e re tol d
that thi s part o f th e e x pe rim e nt d e a lt w ith re c o g ni tio n of sti m uli pre s e n te d
v e ry brie ¯ y . A s i n the ® rst part of the s tudy , a prim e (happ y fac e , ang ry
fac e , o r p ol y g on) w as pre s e n te d fo r 1 0 m se c a nd w as i m m ed iate l y m as ke d
by a 2 -s e c o nd pre s e ntati on of an i de og raph. O ne s e c ond af te r the i de og rap h
di s app e are d , tw o pi c tu re s w e re ¯ as he d on th e s c re e n for 7 s e c onds : A n
i m ag e of the ac tu al prim e o n o ne s i de of the s c re e n an d an alte rnate i m ag e
(a d is trac tor) on th e othe r s ide o f the s c re e n. S u bj e c ts in dic ate d w hi c h o f
the tw o i m ag e s the y tho ug ht w as the p rim e by pre s s in g o ne o f the s ix
bu ttons on a res pons e box . T hre e bu tton s to th e l e ft i ndi c ate d , w i th de g ree s
of c e rtai nty v ary in g from `` s ure ’ ’ to `` j us t g ue s s i ng ’ ’ , th at a c orre c t pi c ture
of the prim e w as on the l e ft part of th e s c re e n . T hre e bu ttons to the rig ht
i ndi c ate d , w ith v ari ous de g ree s o f c e rtai nty , that the c orre c t p rim e w as on
the rig ht. Us i ng thi s res pons e s c al e , the num b e r of re s po ns e optio ns on th e
forc e d-c ho ic e te s t w as id e nti c al w i th the num be r of re s p ons e opti ons i n th e
l ik in g p art. T he s c re e n pos i ti on of the c orre c t i m ag e w as ran dom i s e d. T h e
di s trac tor fo r the fac ial prim e w as a fac e w i th the s am e e x p re s s i on and th e
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
F IG . 2.
44 3
S e q u enc e o f e v e n ts o n o n e tria l d uri n g fo rc e d -c h o ic e tas k .
s am e g e n de r, but of a di ffe ren t pe rs on. T h e dis trac tor for the pol y g on w as a
di ffe ren t pol y g o n.
T hi s de s ig n of the forc e d-c ho ic e te s t, u s in g tw o di ffe ren t pe opl e w ith
the s am e fac i al e x pre s s i on, c o ntrols for the abi li ty to re c og ni s e a parti c u lar
fac e . How e v e r, i t doe s n ot c ontrol for w he th e r s ubj e c ts w e re aw are of the
s m il i ng v e rs us th e ang ry e x pre s s io ns us e d as prim es . T hat is , the re s ul ts of
the forc e d-c hoi c e te s t l e av e ope n w he the r s u bj e c ts hav e ac c e s s to the v ale nc e
of th e prim e . A lthou g h a di ffe re nt de s ig n c o ul d he lp an s w e r thi s que s ti on, the
prim ary purpos e of the forc e d-c hoi c e te s t w as to e s tab l is h w he the r s ub je c ts
c oul d pe rc e iv e the de s c riptiv e fe atu re s of th e prim e s c ons c i ous ly .
In te r v ie w s . A fte r the e x p e rim e n t, s ub je c ts w e re i nte rv i e w e d and probe d
for the ir aw are ne s s o f the `` othe r pi c tu res ’ ’ (p rim e s ), the pre s e nc e of
af fe c ti v e re ac ti ons to p rim e s an d i de og raphs , and the i r s trate g ie s for
m aki ng the l iki ng j udg e m e nt. S u bj e c ts w e re al s o as k e d ab out th e i r aw a re ne s s o f the prim e s during the forc e d-c hoi c e tas k, and the i r s trate g i e s for
m aki ng the forc e d-c hoi c e j udg e m e n t. A fte r the i nte rv ie w e ac h s ubj e c t w as
thoroug hly de b rie fe d.
D esig n
T he j udg e m e nt part of the s tud y re ¯ e c ts a 5 3 4 3 2 m i x e d de s i g n . T he
T y pe of E x pe c tati on fac tor w as m ani pu late d be tw e e n s ubj e c ts (n o e x pe c tation s , no ns pe c i ® c p rim e e x pe c tati on, pos iti v e prim e e x p e c tati on, n e g ati v e
4 44
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
prim e e x pe c tati on, po s i ti v e an d ne g ati v e prim e e x p e c tati o n). T he T y pe o f
P rim e fac tor w as m anipu la te d w i thi n s u bj e c ts (ha ppy fac e , ang ry fac e ,
po ly g on, or nonp rim e ). Finall y , the pre s e ntati on orde r w as re pre s e n te d
by the w i thin -s ubj e c ts fac tor B l oc k O rde r (® rst 2 0 trials , las t 2 0 trials ).
R esults
T h e k e y que s ti ons ad dre s s e d b y our anal y s e s are : (1 ) w he the r s ubl i m i nal
prim e s in¯ ue nc e s ubj e c ts ’ j udg e m ents of the i de og raph s ; an d (2 ) w he the r
thi s i n¯ ue nc e i s m odi ® e d by s u bje c ts ’ e x pe c tati ons ab out the al le g e d
i m p ac t o f s ubl i m i nal prim e s . T he anal y s e s g i v e n l ate r are bas e d on data
from the ® rs t bl oc k (2 0 trial s ). T he data from the s e c ond bl oc k (l as t 2 0
trial s ) w e re al s o an aly s e d an d w i l l be dis c us s e d in a la te r s e c ti on. M e ans
from b oth bl oc ks are p re s e nte d i n T abl e 1 .
P r i m i n g e ffe c t. A 4 (ty pe of prim e ) 3 5 (ty pe o f e x pe c tati on) M A NO V A
w as pe rform e d on th e l ik in g j udg e m e nts . T hi s analy s i s re v e al e d a s i g ni fi c ant m ai n e ffe c t fo r ty p e o f p rim e [ F (3 ,1 7 4 ) = 4 .7 2 , P < .0 0 5 ] . T he up pe r
pane l of T abl e 1 s how s that i n e ac h c ond iti on s ubj e c ts rate d the i de og raphs
pre c e d e d b y happy p rim e s hi g he r than i de og raphs p re c e de d by ang ry
prim e s . M ore s pe c i ® c al ly , pai re d t-te s ts re v e al e d that ac ros s all c o ndi ti ons
TA B LE 1
E xp er im e n t 1 : M ea n L ik in g o f Id eo g ra p h s a s a Fu n c tio n o f P r im e , E x p e c ta tio n
C o n d it io n , a n d T ria l B lo c k
E xp e r im e n ta l C o n d itio n
No
E xp e c t.
No n s p e c .
E xp e c t.
Pos.
E xp e c t.
Ne g .
E xp e c t.
P o s . & Ne g .
Exp e c t.
A ll
F ir s t b lo c k
H appy
3 .6 3
3 .9 8
4 .0 3
3 .5 8
3 .8 5
3 .8 1
A ng ry
Poly g on
N o prim e
3 .4 7
3 .4 6
3 .2 7
3 .2 5
3 .4 5
3 .7 2
3 .4 3
3 .7 8
3 .7 7
3 .4
3 .6
3 .8 2
3 .6
3 .6 5
3 .5 7
3 .4 3
3 .5 8
3 .6 2
T otal
3 .4 6
3 .6
3 .7 5
3 .6
3 .6 7
3 .6 1
Se c o n d b lo c k
H appy
A ng ry
3 .6 9
3 .7 4
3 .3 1
4 .2
3 .4
3 .9 3
3 .6 8
3 .6 8
3 .7 2
3 .9
3 .5 6
3 .8 9
Poly g on
N o prim e
3 .4 6
3 .4
3 .3 4
3 .7 1
3 .7 7
3 .5 8
3 .3 5
3 .2
3 .5 8
3 .6 3
3 .5
3 .5
T otal
3 .5 7
3 .6 4
3 .6 7
3 .4 8
3 .7 1
3 .6 1
14
13
12
12
12
63
P rim e
n:
No te : S c a le rang e is 1 ± 6 : 1 , don’ t li ke the id e o g raph; 6 , li ke the id e o g raph a lo t.
44 5
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
i de og raphs pre c e de d b y h appy prim e s w e re rate d hi g he r than ide o g raphs
pre c e de d by an g ry prim e s [ t(6 2 ) = 3 .6 2 , P < .0 1 ; p oly g ons t(6 2 ) = 2 .6 3 , P <
.0 2 ; o r no prim e s t(6 2 ) = 2 .0 2 , P < .0 5 ] . T he s e ® ndi ng s re pre s e nt an ov e ral l
af fe c ti v e prim i ng e ffe c t.
E ffe c ts o f e xp e c ta tio n s . T he M A NO V A re v e al e d n o s ig n i® c ant prim e 3
ty pe o f e x p e c tati o n inte rac tio n, F < 1 , i ndi c ating that the ov e ral l s tre ng th of
the af fe c ti v e prim i ng e ffe c t di d not de pe nd on s u bje c ts ’ e x pe c tati o ns abou t
the al le g e d im pac t of s u bl im inal p rim e s . Mo re de ta il e d anal y s e s c on® rm e d
this c on c l us ion . S pe c i ® c al ly , w e c re ate d tw o i ndi c e s of the e ffe c ti v e ne s s of
af fe c ti v e p rim e s . O ne in de x m e as ure d the e ffe c ti v e ne s s of p os i ti v e p rim e s ,
the othe r m e as ure d th e e ffe c ti v e ne s s of ne g ativ e prim e s . T he s e i nde x e s
w e re c alc ul ate d by tak i ng the di ffe re n c e be tw e e n e ac h s ub je c t’ s l i ki ng of
i de og raphs pre c e de d by af fe c ti v e prim e s and thi s s ub je c t’ s l i ki ng of
i de og raphs p re c e de d by no naf fe c ti v e prim e s (pol y g on s an d bl an k p rim e s ).
A s s how n in T abl e 2 , the patte rn of m e ans did not c on fo rm to the
pre di c ti ons de riv e d from the fe e l i ng s -as -i nform ati on ac c ount. T he
obtai ne d d iffe re nc e s i n j udg e m e nts of i de og raphs pre c e de d by h appy
v e rsus an g ry prim e s w e re m os t pronou nc e d i n th e nons p e c i® c e x pe c tati on
c ondi tio n [ t(1 2 ) = 4 .2 , P < .0 0 2 ] . He n c e , a m ani pul ati on e x pe c te d to
unde rm in e the e ffe c t o f s ubl i m i nal prim ing appe ars to h av e s tre ng the ne d
i t. S i m il arl y , th e e ffe c t of p os i ti v e prim e s in the p os iti v e e x pe c tati on
c ondi tio n, w he re the fe e l in g -as -in fo rm atio n ac c ount p re di c ts a di s c ounti ng
of pos i tiv e af fe c t, w as no ns i g ni ® c antl y s tro ng e r than i n th e n e g ati v e
T A B LE 2
E x p e rim e n t 1: E ffe ctiv e n e s s o f A ffe c tiv e P rim es a s a F u n c tio n o f P rim e ,
E xp ec ta tio n C o n d it io n , an d T r ia l B lo c k
E xp e r im e n ta l C o n d itio n
P r im e
F ir s t b l o c k
H appy
A ng ry
No
E xp e c t.
No n s p e c .
E xp e c t.
.2 6
.1 1
Po s .
E xp e c t.
.4
.3 4
2
.2 6
.3 4
2
Ne g .
E xp e c t.
2
2
.1 2
.3 1
P o s . & Ne g .
E xp e c t.
2
.2 4
.0 1
2
All
.2 1
.1 7
Se c o n d b lo c k
H appy
A ng ry
.2 6
.3 1
n:
14
2
.2 2
.6 8
13
2
.2 7
.2 6
12
.4 1
.4 1
12
.1 1
.2 9
12
.0 6
.3 9
63
No te: T he e ffe c tiv e ne s s rat in g of happy a nd ang ry prim e s re p re s e nts the dif fe re nc e
be tw e e n ratin g s of id e og raphs on tria ls w i th affe c tiv e prim e s and tri als w it h ne utral
prim e s or no prim e s at a ll Ð e .g . e ff e c ti v e ne s s of ha ppy pri m e = happy 2 (ne utral +
none )/ 2 .
4 46
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
e x pe c tati on c ondi ti on, w he re an aug m e ntati on e ff e c t w as pre di c te d [ t(2 2 ) =
1 .4 0 , P < .1 8 ] . M o re o v e r, th e e ffe c t o f ne g ati v e prim e s in the pos i tiv e
e x pe c tati on c ondi ti on w as not di ff e re nt from the ir i m pac t in the ne g ativ e
e x pe c tati on c o ndi ti on [ t(2 2 ) = 0 .1 ] . S i m ilarl y , the e ffe c ts of both ty p e s o f
prim e s in th e c o ndi ti on w he re s u bj e c ts e x p e c te d p os i ti v e as w e l l as
ne g a ti v e in ¯ ue nc e s di d not di ffe r from the no-e x p e c tati o n c o ndi ti ons , in
c ontras t to pred ic ti ons from the fe e li ng - as -info rm ation m ode l . S u rpris i ng l y , i n c o ntras t to M urphy an d Z ajon c ’ s (1 9 9 3 ) p re v i ous ® ndi ng s , in
the n o-e x pe c tati ons c ondi tio n, no s i g ni ® c ant p rim ing e ffe c t w as o btai ne d
[ t(1 3 ) = 0 .9 8 ] , al thou g h th e m e an s w e re in th e pre d ic te d dire c ti on.
In c o m bi natio n, the s e ® ndi ng s i ndi c ate that i nform in g s ub je c ts abo ut a
po s s i bl e i n¯ u e n c e of s ub li m i nal l y pre s e nte d m ate rials di d n ot re s u lt in th e
pre d ic te d aug m e n tati on and di s c oun ti ng e ffe c ts . If any thi ng , in duc i ng th e s e
e x pe c tati ons e n hanc e d the i m pac t of th e prim i ng proc e d ure , i n parti c ul ar
w he n the e x p e c tati o ns w e re nons pe c i® c . In fac t, af fe c tiv e prim in g e ffe c ts
w e re on ly obtai ne d u nde r e x p e c tati o n c on diti ons and not und e r the no e x pe c tati on c ondi ti on that re p li c ate d the proc e du res u s e d by M urphy and
Z aj onc (1 9 9 3 ). T h e l atte r ob s e rv ati on is i nc ons is te n t w ith the pre di c tion
de riv e d from the af fe c ti v e p rim ac y ac c o unt that the af fe c ti v e prim i ng is
ful l y i nd e p e nde nt o f hi g he r-orde r i nte rv e nti on s .
C o r r e c tiv e p r o c e s se s . B as e d on th e fe e l in g s -as -i nform ati on approac h,
on e m i g h t e x pe c t a ne g ati v e re l ati on be tw e e n th e s pe e d w i th w hi c h su bj e c ts
form a ju dg e m e nt and the e ffe c ti v e ne s s of th e prim e s . T hi s w oul d re¯ e c t
the po s s i bi li ty that the dis c ounti ng and aug m e n ti ng proc e s s e s tak e ti m e , a
po s s i bi li ty that h as no t be e n a ddre s s e d i n pre v i ou s m is attrib ution s tud ie s .
T o te s t thi s c onj e c tu re , w e c om pu te d the c o rre l atio n b e tw e e n the e ffe c tiv e ne s s of prim es (as d e ® ne d e arl ie r) and re s po ns e ti m e s (i n bl oc k 1 ). In
the no -e x pe c tati on c o nditi on thi s c orre l atio n w as [ r (1 4 ) = .4 3 , n.s.] . T h e
m e an c o rre l atio n in the four-e x pe c tati on c on di ti ons w as [ r (4 9 ) = .1 4 , n .s.] .
T h is ® nd in g s u g g e s ts the e ffe c t of the prim e s w as i nd e p e nde nt of s ubj e c ts ’
atte m pts to c o ns id e r the i nform ati onal v al ue of the i r fe e l in g s in the c onte x t
of th e e x p e c tati o ns c onv e y e d to the m .
Affe c ti v e e xp e ri e n c e s . S u bje c ts w e re a s ke d i f the y e x pe rie nc e d any
af fe c tiv e re ac tio ns to th e p rim e s or th e targ e t i de og raphs . T he y w e re a ls o
as k e d to d e s c rib e how the y m ade th e i r ju dg e m e nts of i de og rap hs . No
s u bj e c t re porte d e x p e rie nc i ng an y fe e li ng s as a re s ul t of the prim i ng .
S e v e n s ubj e c ts (1 1 % ) re porte d bas i ng the i r judg e m e nts on th e ir ``g utre ac tio ns ’ ’ to the i de og raphs . T he s e s u bje c ts w e re e v e n ly di s tribu te d
ac ros s e x pe c tati on c ondi tion s and d id not s i g ni ® c antl y di ffe r from othe r
s u bj e c ts i n the ir re s po ns e to th e p rim in g m ani pul ati on , F < 1 . O the r
s u bj e c ts re s po nde d th at th e y b as e d the i r jud g e m e nts on ae s the tic fe atu re s
of the i de og rap hs , w hat the y rem i nde d th e m o f, o r s im ply on ho w m uc h
the y li ke d the m . T his ® n di ng i s c o ns i s te nt w i th the p red ic ti on of th e
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
44 7
af fe c ti v e p rim ac y hy pothe s i s that af fe c ti v e re ac ti ons e li c i te d by the s ubl im in al prim e s are not re pre s e nte d as c ons c iou s fe e l in g s .
R e s u l ts o f b l o c k 2 . Foll ow i ng the p roc e dure s u s e d by M urphy and
Z aj onc (1 9 9 3 ), the pre s e nt e x pe rim ent had tw o bl oc ks o f tria ls . In the
s e c ond b lo c k , th e s am e id e og raph s that w e re p re s e nte d i n the ® rst bl oc k
w e re j udg e d ag ai n by the s am e s ubj e c ts . How e v e r, the re pe ate d ide o g raphs
w e re pre c e de d by fac ial e x p re s s i ons o f the opp os i te v ale nc e (i.e . an
i de og raph p rim e d w ith a h appy fac e i n bl oc k 1 w as prim e d w ith an ang ry
fac e i n b lo c k 2 ). In th e M urphy and Z aj onc ( 1 9 9 3 ) e x pe rim e nt, the prim i ng
e ffe c t i n the s e c ond b loc k of trial s w as w e ake r c o m pare d w i th th e e ffe c t i n
the ® rst bloc k. T hi s s ug g e s ts that af fe c ti v e prim i ng e ffe c ts e s tab l i s he d
during th e ® rs t e x pos u re m ay be qu ite rob us t and di f® c ul t to ob li te rate
by af fe c ti v e prim i ng during the s e c ond e x po s ure . T he re fore , data from
bl oc k 2 w e re analy s e d s e parate ly . A 4 (ty p e of prim e ) 3
5 (ty pe of
e x pe c tati on ) M A NO V A w a s pe rform e d o n th e l i ki ng j udg e m e nts from
the s e c on d bl oc k . T h is analy s i s re v e al e d o nl y a s ig ni® c ant m ain e ffe c t
for ty pe of prim e [ F (3 ,1 7 4 ) = 6 .6 7 , P < .0 0 1 ] , and no i nte rac ti ons . T he
patte rn re ¯ e c te d in thi s m ain e ff e c t, ho w e v e r, w as o p p o s ite to th e patte rn
obs e rv e d for th e ® rst bl oc k. S pe c i® c all y , pai re d t-te s ts re v e al e d that ac ros s
all c on di ti ons id e og raphs as s oc i ate d w ith hap py prim e s in bl oc k 2 w e re
l ike d le s s than i de og rap hs as s oc iate d w i th ang ry prim e s i n bl oc k 2 [ t(6 2 ) =
2 .8 7 , P < .0 1 ] . A ll di ffe re nc e s be tw e e n ty pe s of prim e s m irrore d th e e ffe c ts
obtai ne d i n bl oc k 1 . Ide o g raphs pre c e de d by happy prim e s w e re no t li ke d
l e s s than i de og raphs p re c e d e d e i the r by po ly g ons or no-prim e s (t < 1 ),
w h e re as i de og raphs pre c e de d by ang ry prim e s w e re l ik e d m o re than
i de og raphs pre c e de d b y pol y g ons , or n o-prim e s [ t(6 2 ) = 4 .8 6 , P < .0 0 1 ] .
T hi s patte rn pre s u m abl y re ¯ e c ts th at the ide o g raphs be c am e as s oc iate d
w i th an af fe c ti v e e v alu ati on during the ® rst e x pos u re. In o the r w ords , i n
bl oc k 1 s ubj e c ts m ay hav e form e d and re tai ne d an atti tud e tow ard the
i de og raph. T hi s e v alu ati on m ay h av e de te rm ine d ju dg e m e n ts du ring the
s e c ond e nc oun te r w ith th e i de og raph, w hate v e r the prim e that pre c e d e d the
e x pos ure in the s e c o nd bl oc k. If thi s e x pl anati on is c orre c t, on e s houl d
e x pe c t a po s i ti v e c orre lati on be tw e e n the ® rs t j udg e m e nt an d se c ond
j udg e m e n t of the s am e i de og raph, de s p ite p airing w ith oppo si te p rim e s .
In fac t, j udg e m e nts of re p e a te d i de og raphs w e re po s i ti v e l y and s i g ni fi c antl y c orre l ate d [ r (6 3 ) = .4 4 , P < .0 0 1 ] . A s a c ontrol w e al s o c om p ute d the
c orre lati on be tw e e n c om parab le j udg e m e nts of nonre pe ate d i de og raph s .
T he s e j udg e m e nts w e re unc orre l ate d [ r (6 3 ) = .0 0 4 , n.s .] . T he d iffe re nc e
be tw e e n th e af ore m e ntio ne d c orre l ati on c oe f® c i e n ts w as si g ni® c ant, z =
2 .5 6 , P < .0 5 .
T re ati ng bl oc k as a w i thi n-s ubj e c ts fac to r, w e obtai n a tw o-w ay i nte rac ti on of ty pe of prim e an d bl oc k orde r [ F (3 ,1 7 4 ) = 8 .3 7 , P < .0 0 1 ] . T hi s
re ¯ e c ts that the e v al uati on s are c on s i s te n t w i th the v al e nc e of the prim e i n
4 48
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
bl oc k 1 [ F (3 ,1 7 4 ) = 4 .7 2 , P < .0 0 5 ] f or the s im pl e m ain e ffe c t, b ut
i nc ons is te nt w i th the v ale n c e of the prim e i n bl oc k 2 [ F (3 ,1 7 4 ) = 6 .6 7 ,
P < .0 0 1 ] for the s i m ple m ai n e ffe c t.
F o r c e d -c h o i c e te s t. Da ta from the forc e d-c hoi c e te s t of prim e re c og ni tio n in dic ate that the s ubl i m inal p re s e ntati on proc e du res w e re s uc c e s s fu l.
T h e re c og n iti on rati o (i.e . the num be r o f c orre c t re c og ni ti ons of the p rim e
di v i de d b y the total n um b e r of re c og ni tio n j udg e m e n ts m ad e ) w as .4 8 ,
S D = .1 0 , w hi c h i s not s i g ni ® c an tl y di ffe re nt f rom the c hanc e e x pe c tati on
of .5 0 . T he re c og ni tion rati o di d not d iffe r as a func ti on of ty pe of p rim e
(hap py fac e , ang ry fac e , pol y g on), e x pe rim e ntal c ond iti on, and prac ti c e
(® rst 1 5 v s . l as t 1 5 j udg e m e nts ). T h e re w as no re l ation s hi p be tw e e n
s u bj e c ts ’ pe rform anc e on the forc e d-c h oic e tas k an d th e e ffe c ti v e ne s s o f
prim e s i n the j udg e m e nt tas k.
D iscu ss ion
In s u m m ary , an aff e c ti v e p rim i ng e ff e c t ac ros s v ari ous i ns truc ti onal c on di tio ns w as o btai ne d i n th e ® rst blo c k o f trials . T hi s ® ndi ng prov id e s a
g e ne ral re p li c ati on of th e phe no m e no n fou nd b y M u rphy and Z aj on c
(1 9 9 3 ) in s tud y 1 , al thou g h the re s ul ts obtain e d i n the no -e x pe c tati ons
c ond iti on, w hic h prov i de d a di re c t re pli c atio n of M urphy and Z aj on c ’ s
proc e d ure s , w e re not s ig ni® c ant.
In addi tio n, th e re s u lts of the s e c ond b loc k o f trial s s ug g e s t that af fe c tiv e
prim in g has a las ti ng e ffe c t on pre fe re nc e s . Judg e m e nts o f th e id e og raphs
i n the s e c on d bl oc k w e re pos i tiv e l y c o rre l ate d w ith j udg e m e nts of the s am e
i de og rap hs i n the ® rst bl oc k (de s p ite be i ng p ai re d w i th oppos ite prim e s .)
W e s u g g e s t that thi s patte rn re pre s e nts an e ffe c t ob s e rv e d i n s tu di e s that
fou nd that a s i ng l e pai ring of an af fe c ti v e prim e w i th a n e u tral targ e t w as
s u f® c i e nt to bi as the s ubs e que nt i m pre s s io n form e d of th at targ e t (Ni e de nthal, 1 9 9 0 ; Kros ni c k, B e tz , Jus s i m , & L y nn, 1 9 9 2 ). T hi s ® nd ing a ls o
s u g g e s ts that af fe c ti v e prim i ng m ay be e s pe c i all y e ffe c tiv e at the i ni ti al
atti tude -form ati on s tag e and m ay be l e s s e ff e c ti v e at the atti tude -c hang e
s tag e . O n a th e ore ti c al l e v e l , l ite ratu re on au to m atic e v al uation p ropos e s
that a n e utral o bje c t c an ac q ui re an e v al uati on as a re s u lt of pairing w ith a n
e v al uativ e obj e c t (B arg h e t al., 1 9 9 2 ; Faz i o, S an bonm ats u, P ow e l l , &
Karde s , 1 9 8 6 ). O n c e the obj e c t has i ts ow n e v alu ati on as s oc i ate d w i th i t,
i t w i l l be l e s s s u sc e ptibl e to s ubs e que nt p rim ing . T h is in te rpre tati on
as s um e s , of c ourse , that the p rim ing m ani pu latio n c onti nue d to be as
1
e ffe c tiv e i n the s e c ond bl oc k.
1
W e thank an anony m ous re v ie w e r for s ug g e s ting this i nterpre tatio n.
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
44 9
M os t i m portant, how e v e r, th e abs e n c e of attri bu ti on e ffe c ts s u g g e s ts th at
the prim i ng e f fe c t w as m e di ate d by a p roc e s s o th e r th an that s ug g e s te d by
the fe e l i ng s -as -i nform ati on approa c h . S ub je c ts w h o w e re to ld that the
unc on s c io us prim e s m ig h t af fe c t the i r ju dg e m e n ts w e re as s us c e pti bl e to
the ir in¯ ue nc e as un in form ed s ubj e c ts and ne i the r a di s c ounti ng e ffe c t nor
an aug m en tati on e ffe c t w as obs e rv e d. O n the c ontrary , the j ud g e m e nts
prov i de d by s ub je c ts w h o w e re i nfo rm e d th at th e y w o uld be e x pos e d to
s ubl i m i nal p rim e s , but w e re no t in form e d about the s pe c i ® c natu re of th e ir
i m pac t, s ho w e d the s trong e s t prim i ng e ffe c t. Note , ho w e v e r, that this l atte r
® n din g i s als o i nc ons i s te nt w i th th e nul l e ffe c t pre di c tion s g e n e rate d by the
af fe c ti v e prim ac y hy pothe s i s . A s a p o s t- h o c e x p lanati on, w e s ug g e s t th at
the non s pe c i ® c e x pe c tati on m ani pul ati on s i nc re as e d s ubj e c ts ’ atte nti on to
the dis pl ay , th us in c reas in g th e i m p ac t of s ub li m i nal prim e s . T he fac t th at
the s pe e d w ith w hi c h s ub je c ts prov ide d a ju dg e m e nt w as unre l ate d to the
e ffe c ti v e ne s s of the p rim e s furthe r s u g g e s ts that the i m p ac t o f th e prim e s
w as i nde pe nd e nt of s ubj e c ts ’ atte m pts to re late the i r af fe c tiv e re s pon s e to
the s i tuati on al in¯ ue nc e s de s c ribe d to the m . Finall y , s ub je c ts ’ s e lf-re ports
i ndi c ate d that the y w e re not c ons c i ou s ly aw are of any fe e l in g re ac ti ons to
the prim es or the targ e ts .
In g e ne ral , tw o e x plan ati ons m ay be offe re d for the ® n di ng s of E x pe rim e nt 1 . O n one h an d, the data are c ons is te nt w i th the p red ic ti on of the
af fe c ti v e prim ac y ac c ount, w hic h ho ld s that the af fe c ti v e s y s te m i s i m pe ne trab le to m ani pul ati on s of i nfe re nc e and that i t in v ol v e s autom ati c proc e s s e s for w hi c h s ubj e c ts are no t able to c orre c t. M ore ov e r, as pre di c te d,
s ubl i m i nal prim ing prod uc e d af fe c t that w as n ot re pre s e nte d as a fe e l i ng .
From thi s pe rspe c ti v e , th e m is attrib ution m an ip ul ati on w as u ns uc c e s s fu l
be c aus e s ubj e c ts c o ul d n ot c orre c t the i r j udg e m e nts for an i n¯ u e nc e the y
di d not p e rce iv e . O n the oth e r h an d, it i s c onc e iv able that o ur m i s attri bution m anip ul ati on w as n ot s uc c e s s ful for m e thod olog ic al reas ons . R oss and
O l s o n (1 9 8 1 ) di s c u s s e d v ari ous re as on s w h y m i s attri buti on m ani pu lati ons
m ay fai l. T w o re as o ns th at appl y to ou r p arad ig m are : (1 ) the pl aus i bi l ity of
the m isattri buti onal s ourc e as a c aus e of the e x p e rie nc e ; and (2 ) the
s al ie nc e o f th e m i s attri buti on s o urc e at the ti m e of the e x p e rie nc e . Re g ardi ng p laus ibi l ity , our s ubj e c ts w e re tol d that af fe c tiv e c hang e s w o uld be
i nduc e d by s ubl i m i nal p rim e s . A lthoug h the c aus e of af fe c t g iv e n to our
s ubj e c ts w as c l e arly the true c aus e , s ub je c ts m ay not h av e b e l i e v e d th at
s ubl i m i nal prim e s w e re pre s e nte d, or w e re e ffe c tiv e , an d m ay s i m pl y hav e
di s c arde d this i nform ati on as bog us . A l te rnati v e l y , ou r s u bje c ts m ay hav e
be l ie v e d w hat the y w e re tol d, but b e c aus e the prim e s w e re i nv i s i bl e , the y
m ay hav e qui c kl y forg otte n ab out the i r e x is te nc e , re ¯ e c ti ng a l ow s al ie nc e
of the m is attrib ution m ani pul atio n. M ore o v e r, s ub je c ts m ay hav e d is re g arde d th e attri bu ti onal i nfo rm ation as i rre l e v ant b e c aus e the y w e re no t
c ons c i ous of e x pe rie nc in g af fe c ti v e re ac tion s . Fin al l y , e v e n if s ubje c ts
4 50
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
dis c e rned the ir a ff e ctiv e r ea ctions, they m ay h av e felt c on fus e d o r ov e rw helm e d
by the a ttributio na l ar ithm e tic re qu ired fro m the m . F or e x am ple , in the po sitiv e
e x pe c tati ons c ond iti on, th e tas k req ui re d s ubj e c ts to trus t ne g ativ e re ac ti ons ,
bu t to di s tru s t pos i tiv e re ac ti ons . Giv e n that th e v al e nc e of the af fe c tiv e
prim e c h an g e d from trial to trial, as th e o rde r of happy an d ang ry p rim e s w as
rand om , ke e pin g trac k of al l of th e reac ti ons m ay hav e be e n to o di f® c ul t.
E XP ER IM E N T 2
Gi v e n the s e c onc e rns , w e c on duc te d a s e c ond s tudy , bas e d on a m odi ® e d
prim in g m ani pul atio n and a di ffe re nt, m ore s al i e nt, and m ore pl aus i bl e
m is a ttrib utio n m ani pul ati on . In re d e s ig ni ng both th e p rim in g m ani pul ation
and the attri buti on m anip ul ati on w e trie d to ac h ie v e m ax i m um s i m p li c i ty
and phe n om enal c l ari ty for s ubj e c ts . Firs t, i f a d is ti ng ui s hab le fe e li ng is
produc e d by s ubl i m inal m ani pul ation s , i n c ontras t to w hat the af fe c tiv e
prim ac y hy pothe s i s w ou ld s u g g e s t, w e w ante d to m ake i t v e ry e as y fo r
s u bj e c ts to re c o g ni s e it. A c c ordi ng l y , e ac h s e t o f trials w i th af fe c tiv e prim e s
w as pre c e de d by a s e t w i th ne utral prim e s to fac il i tate rec og ni ti on of any
af fe c tiv e re ac ti ons . M ore ov e r, s e que nc e s of ® v e af fe c ti v e prim e s of the s am e
v al e nc e w e re pre s e n te d to prol ong and i nte ns i fy af fe c ti v e re ac ti ons . S e c ond,
w e us e d a m is attri buti on m an ip ulati on that has be e n s uc c e s s ful ly e m ploy e d
i n p re v iou s s tud ie s (S c hw arz e t al., 1 9 9 1 ). S pe c i ® c al l y , w e p lay e d proc e s s e d
Ne w A g e m us ic th roug ho ut the e x pe rim e nt and i nform e d s u bje c ts th at this
m us i c w ould e li c i t p os i ti v e (or n e g ati v e ) fe e l in g s . T o ac c om m odate th e
i ni ti al ne utral trials , s ubj e c ts w e re fu rthe r i nform e d th at the s e fe e l in g s m ay
on ly s e t in af te r s o m e ti m e , thu s al l ow in g the m to attri bute an y af fe c tiv e
e x pe rie nc e s e l ic i te d by the s ubs e q ue nt af fe c t trial s to the i m p ac t of the m u si c .
In c om b in ati on, th e s e c hang e s s houl d fac i li tate th e de te c ti on of af fe c tiv e
c han g e s , i nc re as e the s ali e nc e of the i r all e g e d al te rnati v e s o urc e , and m oti v ate s ubj e c ts to e ng ag e i n ap propriate attri bu ti onal p roc e s s e s . A s i n E x pe rim e nt 1 , the fe e l i ng s -as -info rm ation m od e l pre di c ts dis c ounti ng e ffe c ts on
trial s w he re the aff e c ti v e e x pe rie nc e m atc he s the al l e g e d im pac t of th e
m us i c , and aug m e ntati on e ffe c ts on trials w h e re the af fe c ti v e e x pe rie nc e
c ontradi c ts the al le g e d i m p ac t of the m u s i c . In c ontras t, the af fe c tiv e prim ac y
m ode l pred ic ts no i m p ac t of th e attribu ti on al m an ipu lati ons .
M eth od
S ubjects
E i g hty -s e v e n m al e and fe m al e unde rg rad uate s ubj e c ts at th e Univ e rs ity o f
M i c hi g an p arti c ip ate d i n partial fu l® lm e nt of a c ourse re q ui re m e nt. S ubj e c ts
w ho kn e w C hin e se , Ko re an , or Japane s e w e re e x c l ud e d from partic i patio n.
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
45 1
M aterials, A pparatus, and Procedure
P r i m in g m a n ip u la ti o n . S ubj e c ts w e re ag ai n as ke d to g i v e l i ki ng j udg e m e nts of i de og raphs , us in g the s am e m e thod as i n E x p e rim e nt 1 . Hal f of the
i de og raphs w e re pre c e de d by fac i al af fe c t p rim e s (happ y and ang ry ), and
hal f w e re p rec e de d by ne u tral prim e s . In c o ntras t to E x pe rim e nt 1 , the
ne utral p rim e s w e re n ot poly g ons , but fac e s of i ndi v i dual s w ho w e re as ke d
to pos e not s how i ng any s p e c i ® c e m otio n. T hi s c hang e e l im i nate s the
c om p arab il i ty probl e m be tw e e n af fe c ti v e ly c harg e d p rim e s and ne utral
prim e s . In E x pe rim e nt 2 , al l prim e s w e re fac i al photog raph s th at d iffe re d
onl y on the i r aff e c ti v e di m e ns i on . T he e x po su re , l ig hting , di s tan c e , and
re s pon se c on diti ons w e re i de nti c al to E x p e rim e nt 1 .
O r d e r o f s ti m u li . T he proc e du re s tarte d w i th ® v e w arm -u p ide o g raphs
pre c e de d by ne u tral prim e s . T h e te s t id e o g raphs w e re pre c e d e d by four
g roup s o f ® v e p rim e s tha t alte rnate d be tw e e n ne utral and af fe c ti v e fac e s .
T he ® rs t g roup o f prim e s c on s i s te d of ne utral fac e s , the s e c ond of af fe c ti v e
fac e s , th e thi rd of ne utral fac e s , and the l as t of af fe c tiv e fac e s ag ai n. T he
ty pe of aff e c ti v e prim e (happy or ang ry ) fol l ow in g the ® rs t g roup of ne utral
prim e s w as c ou nte rbalanc e d, c re ati ng tw o orde rs of s ti m uli. T hi s c ou nte rbal an c i ng al low s the e x am in ati on of the i m p ac t of af fe c tiv e re sp ons e s th at
are c o ns i s te nt or i nc ons is te nt w i th e x pe c tati ons ind uc e d by the a ttrib ution al
m ani pu latio ns . A fte r th e bl oc k of 2 0 trial s w as c om pl e te d, i t w as re p e ate d
w i th a n e w s e t o f s ti m u li to e x pl ore c hang e s i n af fe c ti v e prim i ng m ani pul ati on ov e r tim e . Unl i ke E x pe rim ent 1 , how e v e r, sti m uli us e d in bl oc k 2
w e re not re p e ti tio ns o f s ti m ul i us e d i n bl oc k 1 .
Ma n ip u l a ti o n o f i n fe r e n c e s . W hi le s ub je c ts rate d the id e og raphs , e m otion all y am big uous Ne w A g e m u s i c re c o rde d at hal f-s pe e d w as pl ay e d i n
the bac kg round. T h is m u s ic w as c l e arly aud ibl e from the be g i nni ng of the
rati ng tas k , i nc re as e d i n lo udne s s for the ® rst 3 0 s e c o nds , a nd c onti nue d for
W arm -u p trials
------------------- - NNNNN - - - NNNNN - -
T est Tria ls
-------------------------------------------------- - NNNNN - - HHHHH - - NNNNN - - AAAAA - - - NNNNN - - AAAAA - - NNNNN - - HHHHH - -
N o te:
N ± n eu tra l facial ex press io n p rim e
H ± h ap py facial exp re ssion prim e
A ± a ng ry fa cial e xp re ssion prim e
F IG . 3.
E x p e ri m e n t 2 : A rran g e m e n t o f s u b li m i n al fac ia l p ri m e s p re s e n te d b e fo re th e id e o gra p h s.
4 52
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
the re st of the e x pe rim ent. S ub je c ts w e re tol d th at althou g h thi s m us ic w as
no t re l e v ant fo r the i de og raph-ratin g tas k, i t w as pl ay e d be c au s e w e w e re
i nte re s te d in its de l ay e d e ffe c ts on so m e tas ks foll ow i ng the i de og raph
ratin g s . A l l s ubj e c ts w e re told that the m us i c had be e n s how n to hav e an
e m otion al i m p ac t on m os t pe opl e , but th at i t w as u nknow n h ow lo ng i t
w oul d tak e f or the m usi c to hav e an im pac t, o nl y that th is i m p ac t w ould not
be i m m edi ate . T o k e e p th e s ubj e c ts v i g i lan t ab out th e m us ic -re l ate d
c han g e s in the i r af fe c ti v e s tate s , al l s u bj e c ts w e re as ke d fo ur ti m e s
throug hout the e x pe rim e nt: `` Do y ou fe e l af fe c te d by th e m u s i c ? ’ ’ T h e
on s e t of th is q ue s tio n w as ti m e d to pre c e de s ho rtly be fore the on se t o f
af fe c tiv e p rim e s , thus re nde ring the m us i c hi g hly ac c e s s i ble as a po s s i bl e
s o urc e fo r any re ac ti ons that m ay be e l i c i te d by the p rim e s . A s a m an ip ul atio n of e x pe c tati ons , hal f of the s ubj e c ts w e re in form e d tha t af te r a w hi l e
thi s m us i c w oul d m ake th e m fe e l pl e as ant, w he re as the o th e r hal f w e re
i nform e d that the m us ic w oul d m ake the m fe e l un ple as an t.
F o r c e d c h o i c e . A fte r th e ju dg e m e nt tas k, w e te s te d w he the r the prim e s
w e re pre s e n te d at a s ubo pti m al l e v e l . T h e proc e du re w as a s i m p li ® e d
v e rs ion of th e forc e d-c h oi c e tas k from E x pe rim e nt 1 . S ubj e c ts w e re p re s e n te d w i th 2 0 trial s on w hi c h id e og raphs w e re pre c e de d by af fe c tiv e
prim e s . S tim ul i and e x p os ure c ondi tio ns w e re i de nti c al to the ® rs t part o f
the s tu dy . T e n ide o g raphs w e re pre c e de d, i n rando m orde r, b y h ap py fa c e s
and te n w e re pre c e de d by an g ry fac e s . Im m e di ate l y af te r the prim e d
i de og rap h w as s how n, tw o fac e s app e a re d o n the rig ht an d le ft s i de s o f
the s c re e n. O ne fac e w as an e x ac t c o py of the prim e , the othe r w as a
ph otog raph of a d iffe re nt i nd iv i dual of the s am e g e nd e r s ho w i ng the s am e
fac i al e x pre s s i on as a prim e . S u bj e c ts w e re as ke d to i ndi c ate (by p re s s i ng a
bu tton) w h ic h part of the s c re e n s how e d the fac e ¯ as he d j us t b e f ore th e
i de og rap h.
In te r v i e w s . A fte r the m ai n part of th e e x pe rim e nt, w e as ke d s ubj e c ts
s e v e ral q ue s tio ns abo ut th e natu re o f the ir af fe c ti v e and nonaf fe c tiv e
re ac tio ns to the m us i c , i de og rap hs , and prim e s as w e l l as to th e tim i ng o f
the s e re ac ti ons . S ub je c ts w e re al s o as k e d w he the r the y atte m pte d to c orre c t
the i r ju dg e m e n ts or w e re aw are of the prim e s, and w e re prob e d for s u sp i c i ous n e s s . Final ly , a ll s ubj e c ts w e re thoroug hl y de brie fe d and th an ke d.
D esign
In c om bination , the s e m an ip ulati ons re s ulte d i n a 3 (h ap py v s . ne utral
v s . ang ry prim e s ) 3 2 (p os i ti v e v s . n e g ati v e e x p e c tati on abou t th e im pac t
of m usi c ) fac torial de s i g n, w ith the ® rst fac tor m anip ul ate d w i thi n and th e
s e c o nd fac tor m ani pul ate d be tw e e n s ubj e c ts .
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
45 3
R esu lts
T he ke y q ue s tio ns addre s s e d by ou r analy s e s are : ( 1 ) w h e the r s u bl im in al
prim e s i n¯ ue nc e s ub je c ts ’ j udg e m e nts of th e id e o g raphs ; and ( 2 ) w h e the r
2
this i n¯ ue nc e i s m od i® e d b y the attri butio nal m an ip ulati ons .
P r i m in g e ffe c t. A 3 (ty p e o f prim e ) 3 2 (ty pe of e x pe c tati on ) M A NO V A
w as pe rform e d on the l ik in g jud g e m en ts . T hi s analy s i s rev e ale d a s i g ni ® c an t
m ai n e ffe c t for ty pe of prim e [ F (2 ,1 7 0 ) = 3 .8 8 , P < .0 3 ] . A s i n E x pe rim e nt 1 ,
i de og raphs pre c e de d by happy prim e s w e re li ke d s i g ni ® c antl y m ore than
i de og raphs pre c e d e d b y ang ry prim e s , ac ros s b oth e x pe c tati on c ond iti ons
(s e e T abl e 3 ).
E ffe c ts o f e xp e c ta ti o n s . T he M A NO V A al s o re v e al e d a n ons i g ni ® c an t
m ai n e ffe c t of e x p e c tati o ns on j udg e m e nts [ F (1 ,8 5 ) = 2 .9 7 , P < .0 9 ] .
W he n s ubj e c ts e x pe c te d the m u si c to m ake the m fe e l g o od, the y li ke d
the i de og raph s m o re than w he n the y e x pe c te d the m usi c to m ak e the m
fe e l bad. T he s e e x p e c tan c y -c o ng rue nt e v al uatio ns re s e m bl e a pl ac e bo
e ffe c t (s e e Ros s & O ls on, 1 9 8 1 ) and are i nc o m pati ble w i th th e infe re ntial pre d ic tio ns d e riv e d from the fe e l i ng s -as -i nform ation m ode l , as
w e ll as w ith the n ul l e ffe c t pre di c ti on de riv e d f rom the af fe c ti v e
prim ac y hy p othe s i s .
T hi s m ai n e ff e c t w as qu ali ® e d by a non s ig ni ® c ant prim e 3
ty pe of
e x pe c tati on in te rac ti on [ F (2 ,1 7 0 ) = 2 .4 6 , P < .0 9 ] . T his i nte rac ti on
s ug g e s ts that the stre n g th o f the prim i ng e ffe c t de pe nde d on s u bj e c ts ’
e x pe c tati on s about the al le g e d im pac t of the m us ic . M ore de tail e d anal y s e s of thi s i nte rac ti on re v e al e d that the p atte rn i s i nc ons is te nt w ith
pre di c ti ons of the fe e l in g -as -i nform ati on m ode l. A s i n E x p e rim e nt 1 , w e
c re ate d s e parate i nd ic e s of the e ffe c ti v e ne s s of po s iti v e an d n e g ati v e
prim e s . T he s e i ndi c e s re pre s e nt th e d iffe re nc e be tw e e n th e l i ki ng of
i de og raphs pre c e de d by the re s pe c ti v e af fe c tiv e prim e s and i de o g rap hs
pre c e de d by ne utral prim e s .
A s s h ow n i n T abl e 4 , the e ffe c t of th e pos iti v e p rim e s w as s om e w h at
s trong e r w he n s u bje c ts e x pe c te d a pos i tiv e in¯ ue nc e of the m us ic than
w h e n th e y e x pe c te d a ne g ati v e i n¯ u e n c e (t < 1 ). M ore ov e r, th e e ffe c t o f the
2
A ll data in the re s u lts s e c tio n of E x pe rim e nt 2 c om e from the ® rs t blo c k of tria ls . T he
s e c ond bl oc k did not sh ow a ny m ain e f fe c ts or in terac tion e f fe c ts of prim in g a nd e x pe c tation
on ju dg e m e nts of id e og raphs . U nli ke E x pe rim e nt 1 , no s tim uli w e re re pe ate d in the s e c ond
blo c k of E x pe rim e nt 2 . T he s e c ond blo c k re pre s e nted a s im ple c ontin uation of e v e nts from
the ® rs t blo c k w i th ne w pri m e s and targ e ts . T he a bs e nc e of the prim in g e ffe c t p re s um ably
re ¯ e c ts hab ituatio n to the affe c tiv e prim i ng proc e du re .
B e c a use the re w as no e ffe c t of orde r (i.e . w he the r the tone of the ® rs t g roup of affe c tiv e
prim e s w as c ons is tent or in c ons is tent w ith the affe c tiv e tone of the e x pe c tations ), data ac ros s
both orde r c onditio ns w e re c ollap se d.
4 54
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
TA BLE 3
E x p e rim e n t 2: M ea n Lik in g o f
Id eo g ra p h s a s a F u n c tio n o f P rim e
a n d E xp ec ta tio n C o n d it io n
T A B LE 4
E xp erim en t 2 : E ffec tiv en es s o f
A ffe c tiv e P rim es a s a F u n ctio n o f
P rim e a n d E xp ec ta tio n C o n d itio n
E xp e r im e n ta l C o n d itio n
E xp e r im e n ta l C o n d it io n
Prime
Pos.
E xp e c t.
3 .7 6
3 .6 5
3 .5 5
H appy
.1 2
A ng ry
n:
.0 5
44
3 .5 5
3 .6 5
43
87
No te : T h e e ff e c ti v e ne s s rati ng o f
h a pp y a n d a n g ry pri m e s re p re s e n ts
th e d i f f e re n c e b e tw e e n ra ti n g s o f
i d e o g ra ph s o n tri a l s w i th a f f e c ti v e
pri m e s and tri als w ith ne utral pri m e s
(e .g . e ffe c tiv e ne s s of happy prim e =
hap py 2 ne utral) .
Pos.
E xpe c t.
Ne g .
E xp e c t.
B o th
H appy
N e utra l
A ng ry
3 .8 2
3 .6 9
3 .7 5
3 .7 0
3 .6 1
3 .3 6
T otal
3 .7 5
44
P r im e
n:
No te: S c ale ra ng e is 1 ± 6 : 1 , d on’ t
l ik e the i de og ra ph; 6 , l ik e the i de og ra p h a lo t.
Ne g .
E xp e c t.
2
.0 9
B o th
.2 5
43
.1 1
2
.0 9
87
ne g a ti v e prim e s w as s i g ni ® c antl y w e a ke r w he n s ub je c ts e x p e c te d a pos i tiv e
i n¯ ue nc e of the m us i c than w h e n the y e x pe c te d a ne g ati v e in¯ ue nc e [ t(8 5 )
= 2 .1 3 , P < .0 5 ] . T h e s e patte rns are o ppos i te to the dis c ountin g and
aug m e ntati on e ffe c ts pre di c te d und e r the s e c o ndi ti on s . He nc e , for b oth
s e ts o f prim e s , m ani pul ati on s de s i g ne d to e l i c i t a d is c o untin g of any
af fe c tiv e re ac ti on to the p rim e am p li ® e d the prim e s ’ i m pac t, w h e re as
m ani pul ati ons de s i g n e d to aug m e nt any af fe c tiv e re ac ti on to th e prim e s
w e ake ne d the p rim e s ’ i m pac t, i n c o ntras t to p re dic ti ons of th e fe e l i ng s -as i nform ati on m o de l.
A ddi tion al an al y s e s te ste d w h e the r th e e ff e c ts o f prim i ng de pe nde d on
s u bj e c ts ’ ac tual e m oti on al re s p ons e s to the m u s ic , as re v e al e d by the i r s e l fre po rts at the e nd of the e x p e rim e n t. T he m ean li ki ng j udg e m e nts broke n
do w n by th e ty pe o f re s p ons e are s how n i n T abl e 5 . A 3 3
3 m ixe d
M A NO V A w ith prim e (h ap py , n e u tral , ang ry ) and s e l f-re porte d re s pons e
to th e m us ic (pos iti v e , n one , ne g ativ e ) fail e d to re v e al a s i g ni ® c ant p rim e
by m usi c re s pons e i nte rac ti on [ F (1 5 8 ,4 ) < 1 .1 ] . How e v e r, furthe r anal y s e s
re v e al e d that a s i g ni ® c ant af fe c ti v e prim in g e ff e c t w as ob tai ne d on ly w he n
s u bj e c ts re po rte d a n e g ati v e e m o ti on al i m pac t of the m u s i c [ t(4 9 ) = 3 .0 7 ,
P < .0 1 ] . T he fe e li ng s -as -in form ati on m ode l c an not ac c o unt for the ov e ral l
patte rn of ® ndi ng s Ð the abs e n c e of prim i ng i n the po s i ti v e and n o-re s pons e
to m usi c g rou ps , g iv e n a s trong prim ing e ffe c t in the ne g ativ e re s pons e
g roup. T hi s ® n di ng w as al s o n ot pre di c te d b y th e af fe c tiv e prim ac y
ac c oun t. O ne i nte rpre tati on of thi s re s u lt s u g g e s ts that i t ag ain m ay re fl e c t
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
45 5
T A B LE 5
E x p e rim en t 2 : M e an L ik in g o f Id e o g r ap h s a s a
F u n c tio n o f P rim e, an d R ep o rte d E m o tio n a l
R ea c tio n to T h e M u s ic
R e p o r ted E m o tio n a l R ea c tio n
P r im e
Pos.
Mixe d
No n e
Ne g .
All
H appy
N e utral
A ng ry
3 .6 7
3 .7 1
3 .6 5
3 .5 6
3 .2 4
3 .4 4
3 .8 5
3 .8 1
3 .8 2
3 .7 8
3 .6 2
3 .4 4
3 .7 6
3 .6 5
3 .5 5
T otal
3 .6 8
3 .4 1
3 .8 3
3 .6 1
3 .6 5
15
5
17
50
87
n:
N o te : S c a l e ra n g e i s 1 ± 6 : 1 , do n ’ t l i ke th e
id e og raph; 6 , lik e the i de og raph a lo t.
an a tte ntio nal phe no m e non. A s obs e rv e d i n o th e r dom ain s (s e e S c hw arz ,
1 9 9 0 ; S c h w arz & C l ore , 1 9 9 6 for re v i e w s ) , n e g ati v e af fe c t m ay s i g nal a
probl e m a ti c s ituati on, re s u lti ng in i nc re as e d atte ntion a nd m oti v ation. If s o,
i nc re as e d atte ntion m ay ag ai n hav e i nc re as e d th e e ffe c ti v e ne s s o f s ubl i m i nal prim e s , as s ug g e s te d by the ® ndi ng s of E x pe rim e nt 1 .
C o r r e c ti v e p r o c e s s e s . T he fe e l i ng s -as -inf orm ation m ode l s ug g e s ts a
ne g ativ e re lati on be tw e e n th e res pons e ti m es and the e ffe c ti v e ne s s of prim i ng , be c aus e di s c ou nting an d aug m e nti ng proc e s s e s tak e ti m e . A nal y s e s of
c orre lati ons re v e a le d that no s uc h re l ati on w as pre s e nt i n the data [ r (8 7 ) =
2 .0 4 , n .s.] . T hi s re s ult s ug g e s ts that the e ffe c t of the prim e s w as i nde pe nde n t
of w h e th e r s u bj e c ts e ng ag e d i n attri buti onal infe re nc e proc e s s e s .
In ad di ti on, s ubj e c ts w e re as ke d th e fol lo w ing qu e s tion : `` Di d y o u try
to c orre c t for th e pos s i bil i ty that y o ur re ac ti on s to th e id e og raphs m i g h t
be i n¯ ue nc e d b y y ou r re ac ti on produ c e d by the m us ic ? ’ ’ Forty -one (4 7 % )
of th e s ub je c ts ans w e re d `` y e s’ ’ . A M A NO V A i nc l udi ng all re le v ant
e x pe rim e ntal fac to rs and the c orre c t fac tors (y e s /no ) rev e ale d n e ithe r a
m ai n e ff e c t n or any i nte rac ti ons , al l F s < 1 , i nv ol v i ng the c orre c tio n fac tor.
Affe c ti v e e xp e r i e n c e s . In pos t- e x pe rim e n tal i nte rv i e w s , 7 0 (8 0 % ) s ubj e c ts re po rte d hav i ng e x p e rie nc e d an e m otiona l re ac tion to the m us ic
during the j udg e m e nt ta s k. No s ubj e c t m e ntion e d any e m otio nal e x pe rie nc e s tha t c oul d be re l ate d to s ubl im i nal af fe c ti v e p rim e s .
F o r c e d -c h o ic e te s t. T o e s tab l is h w he the r s ubj e c ts c ou ld di s ti ng ui s h
fac ial p rim e s p re s e nte d s ub li m i nal l y from d is trac tors, w e c alc u late d the
rati o o f c orre c t re c og niti ons of the fac i al prim e to the to tal nu m be r of
re c og ni tion j udg e m e nts . T h e res ul ti ng rati o of .5 0 (S D = .1 2 ) w as rig ht at
4 56
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
c han c e e x pe c tati on . S ubj e c ts ’ pe rform an c e di d not i m p rov e w i th prac tic e ,
di d not d e pe nd o n w hat the ty pe o f prim e w as be i ng re c og ni s e d, and di d not
pre d ic t e ffe c tiv e ne s s of p rim e s i n th e j udg e m e nt tas k.
D iscu ss ion
T h e re s u lts of E x pe rim en t 2 re pl ic ate d th e ke y ® ndi ng s of E x p e rim e n t 1 .
First, the y re pl i c ate d a g e ne ral s ubl i m i nal af fe c ti v e prim ing e ffe c t, us in g a
di ffe re nt arrang e m e nt of s ti m ul i . S e c ond , m ani pul ati on s o f the pe rc e i v e d
di ag no s tic i ty o f on e ’ s af fe c tiv e re ac tion to the p rim e s d id no t re s ul t i n th e
di s c ou nting and au g m e ntati o n e ffe c ts pre di c te d by the fe e l i ng s -as -i nform atio n m ode l . Ins te ad , the obtaine d patte rns re ¯ e c te d e x pe c tati on-c ong rue nt
e v al uatio ns . T he re si s tan c e of s u bl im ina l prim i ng to the attri butio nal
m ani pul ati ons us e d i n E x pe rim e nt 2 i s e s pe c i al ly m eani ng ful b e c aus e th e
di s c ou nting m ani pula ti on w as ac c e s s i bl e to s ubj e c ts ’ aw are ne s s (i .e . th e
m us i c w as audi bl e at al l ti m e s ), and w as re g arde d by m os t s ubj e c ts as
hav i ng an e m oti onal e ffe c t. T hi rd, the re w as no e v id e n c e f or a m e di ating
rol e of attri buti onal p roc e s s e s w i th re g ard to the s tre ng th of the o btai ne d
prim in g e ffe c ts . Final ly , s ubj e c ts di d not re port c ons c i ous ly e x pe rie nc ing
af fe c tiv e re ac ti ons re late d to th e prim e s , bu t th e y di d n otic e af fe c tiv e
c han g e s i n re s pons e to th e m u s ic .
G E N E R A L D IS C U S S IO N
O v e ral l, the re s u lts o f both e x pe rim e nts s h ow a form of aff e c tiv e i n¯ u e nc e
di ffe re nt from that e x pl ai ne d b y th e fe e li ng s -as -in fo rm atio n m od e l. S ub j e c ts ’ j udg e m e nts di d n ot s ho w the e x pe c te d patte rn o f di s c ou nti ng and
aug m e ntati on , an d the prim i ng m ani pul atio n d id not e li c it c ons c i ous fe e l i ng s that s ubj e c ts c o uld re po rt. B e fore w e c ons i de r the im pl ic atio n of th e s e
re s u lts , ho w e v e r, w e ne e d to addre s s s o m e m e thod ol og ic al i s s ue s and
c av e ats .
P ow er
T h e ab s e nc e of the attr ibuti onal e ffe c ts pre di c te d by the fe e li ng s -a s -in form ati on m ode l i s a nu ll ® ndi ng . A c c e ptin g a nul l ® ndi ng re qui re s th at th e
s tud ie s g av e th e e ffe c t a re as onabl e c h anc e to m ani fe s t its e l f. C onc e rns
abou t p ow e r are furthe r am p li ® e d b y the fa c t that the (m is )attri b ution
e ffe c ts w e re te s te d be tw e e n s ubj e c ts , w he re as the prim in g e ffe c ts w e re
te s te d w i th in s ubj e c ts . A l thoug h the s e de s ig n fe atu re s prov id e d m ore
po w e r fo r de te c ti ng af fe c ti v e prim ing e ffe c ts th an for d e te c ti ng attribu -
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
45 7
tion al e ffe c ts , s e v e ral re as ons m ake us doubt that the c ruc i al nul l ® ndi ng i s
due to a lac k of pow e r.
First, i n both e x pe rim e nts the o btaine d patte rn of m e ans w as o p p o s i te to
the pre di c ti ons of the fe e l i ng s -as -i nform ati on m ode l . He nc e , an inc re as e i n
pow e r w oul d li ke l y p rov i de s trong e r e v i de nc e ag ai ns t rathe r than for the
pre di c ti ons of the m ode l , if w e as s um e that add iti onal s ubj e c ts w ou ld no t
re v e rse the d ire c ti on of th e o bs e rv e d e ffe c ts . S e c on d, s e v e ral s tudi e s us i ng
c om p arab le c e ll s i z e s hav e s ho w n that attri bu ti onal m ani pul ati on s , s i m ilar
to tho s e w e e m p loy e d, c an unde rm in e the i m pac t of su bj e c tiv e e x pe rie nc e s
l ike m ood s , aro us al , or e x pe rie n c e d e as e of rec al l (e .g . B o rns te in &
D’ A g o s tino , 1 9 9 4 ; S c hw arz & C lore , 1 9 8 3 ; S c h w arz e t al ., 1 9 9 1 ;
S c hw arz , S e rv ay , & Kum pf, 1 9 8 5 ; S i nc l air, M ark, & C lo re , 1 9 9 4 ; Z anna
& C oope r, 1 9 7 4 ). T hi rd, the attri butio nal m ani pul ati on u s e d i n E x pe rim en t
2 w as m ode l le d c l os e l y af te r a s uc c e s s fu l m an ip ulati on us e d by S c hw arz e t
al. (1 9 9 1 ), al tho ug h i t w as targ e te d to addre s s e as e of re trie v al e x pe rie nc e s
i n the i r s tu dy . Final l y , i t i s w orth ke e pi ng i n m i nd that bo th s tudi e s
atte m pte d to c ounte r a s ub li m i nal e ffe c t w i th e x pl i c it s up rali m i nal attri bution m anip ul ati ons .
Im p licatio n s fo r th e A ffe ctiv e P rim a cy H y po th esis
T w o of the k e y ® n di ng s of th e c u rre nt s tudie s are c ons i s te nt w ith the
af fe c ti v e prim ac y hy pothe s i s . Firs t, the p rim ing e ffe c t w as im pe rv i ous to
attri buti onal m anip ul ati ons . T hi s ® ndi ng s u pports th e no ti on of af fe c tc og ni tio n i nd e p e nde nc e (Z ajo nc , 1 9 8 0 ). T hi s noti on i s al s o s tre ng the ne d
by the re c e nt e v i de nc e that fac ial e x pre s s io ns are proc e s s e d i nde pe nd e n tl y
of fac ial id e ntity by the e m oti onal c i rc ui ts o f the am y g dal a ( A do lp hs ,
T rane l , Dam as io , & Dam as i o, 1 9 9 4 ). S e c on d, the prim i ng m an ip ul ati on
di d n ot produ c e c ons c ious fe e l in g s . O ne po s s i ble i m pl i c ati on is that af fe c t
produ c e d by s ub li m inal fa c i al p rim e s i s rudi m entary an d p os s i bl y unc ons c i ous (Z aj onc , 1 9 9 4 ). S uc h un c o ns c i ous af fe c t m ay g u ide partic i pants ’
j udg e m e n ts and de c i s i ons (s e e B e c h ara, Dam as i o, T rane l , & Dam as i o,
1 9 9 7 fo r a re c e n t de m o ns trati on ). A no th e r pos si b il i ty i s th at the p ic ture s
of e m o ti onal fac ial e x p re s s io ns w e re ins uf® c i e nt to trig g e r e m otion al
3
fe e li ng s e v e n i f the y had be e n e x pos e d s up ral i m inal ly .
3
T he e x ac t n ature of affe c tiv e re spons e s e li c ite d by s ubl im in al and s upralim i nal pre s e ntation of fa c ial e x pre s s io n s ne e ds to be in v e s tig ated furt he r. H ow e v e r, a re c e nt s tudy found that
s ublim in a ll y pre s e nte d e x pre s s i ons e lic it fac i al E M G re s pons e s Ð a s e ns it iv e in dic a tor of an
unde rly in g af fe c tiv e s tate (D e G root, 1 9 9 6 ; C ac io pp o, P e tty, L os h, & K im , 1 9 8 6 ). Fu rthe rm ore , the pre fe re nc e s e lic ite d by s ublim i nal fac ial pri m in g c om bin e additiv e ly w ith pre fe re nc e s e l ic ite d by m e re e x pos ure (M urphy , M onahan, & Z ajo n c , 1 9 9 5 ). T he addi tiv e pattern
s ug g e s ts that pre f e re nc e s form e d by bo th pro c e dure s are rat he r undif f e re ntiate d and in de pe nde nt of as s oc i ate d c ontent.
4 58
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
T he re w e re al s o tw o s e ts o f ® ndi ng s th at w e re no t p re dic te d by th e
af fe c tiv e prim ac y . First, i n E x pe rim e nt 1 jud g e m e nts of s ti m u li i n bl oc k 2
w e re s i g n i® c antly and pos iti v e ly c orre l ate d w ith j udg e m e n ts of th e s am e
s ti m ul i in bl oc k 1 . T hi s oc c urre d de s pi te the fac t that in b lo c k 2 the s ti m ul i
w e re pai re d w i th opp os i te aff e c ti v e prim e s . T h e fac t tha t s ubj e c ts re tai ne d a
pre v iou s l y form e d e v al uati on s ug g e s ts tha t e v alu ati v e c on di ti on ing
oc c u rre d . E v aluati v e c on diti oni ng re qui re s a l i nk b e tw e e n af fe c t and
m e m ory for the s ti m ulus , and s u g g e s ts that af fe c t inte rac ts w ith c o g ni tio n
on a l e v e l of p rim iti v e op e rati ons (Kros ni c k e t al ., 1 9 9 2 ; L e v e y & M arti n,
1 9 9 0 ). S e c o nd, af fe c ti v e prim i ng w as s e ns i ti v e to v ario us in¯ ue nc e s . In
bo th e x p e rim e n ts , the prim i ng e ffe c t w as i n¯ ue nc e d by e x pe rim e ntal
i ns truc tio ns . In bo th e x pe rim e nts , th e prim ing w as not ob tai ne d i n th e
s e c o nd bl oc k o f trial s . In E x p e rim e nt 2 the s tre ng th of prim i ng v arie d
w i th th e re s pons e s to the m u s ic . T he s e res ul ts s ug g e s t that, c o ntrary to
the s tro ng th e s is of i nde pe nde n c e , the af fe c ti v e s y s te m i s s e ns i ti v e to
v ari ous m odi fy i ng i n¯ ue nc e s (s e e al s o Parrott & S c h ul ki n, 1 9 9 3 ). How e v e r, as w i l l be di s c us s e d late r, the av ail abl e ® nd in g s s ug g e s t that th e
ob tai ne d e ff e c ts m ay re ¯ e c t a n af fe c t- af fe c t i nte rac ti on, or an i nte rac tion
be tw e e n af fe c t and l ow -l e v e l c og ni tio n.
T he pre s e nt e x pe rim e n ts w e re not de s i g ne d to te s t a s pe c i ® c alte rnativ e
to the fe e li ng s -as -in form ati on m o de l, re ¯ e c tin g th e lac k of s uf® c i e ntly
s p e c i® e d p roc e s s ac c ou nts . How e v e r, i t is us e fu l to e v al uate how othe r
as s um pti ons a bout th e proc e s s e s unde rly i ng af fe c tiv e p rim in g m ay
ac c oun t for the pre s e nt ® ndi ng s. T he re are fo ur d iffe re nt ty pe s of e x pl anato ry m ode l s that m ay b e us e d to ac c oun t for the pre s e nt ® ndi ng s : (1 )
s e m antic ac c ounts ; (2 ) atte nti on/pe rc e ptual m e m ory a c c o unts ; (3 )
re s p ons e s tag e prim i ng ac c oun ts ; and (4 ) p re fe re nc e m isattrib uti on
ac c oun ts .
Se m a n ti c a c c o u n ts . T h e s e ac c ounts , in c o m pati ble w i th the af fe c tiv e
prim ac y , e x pl ain af fe c tiv e p rim ing e ffe c ts by m e d iati on of proc e s s e s
c onc e rne d w i th m e ani ng . A pure l y s e m an ti c m ode l as s um e s th at th e re
i s no d iffe re nc e be tw e e n prim i ng w i th af fe c ti v e and n onaf fe c tiv e s tim ul i.
In b oth c as e s , p rim ing in v ol v e s proc e s s in g of the m e ani ng of th e p rim e
and i nte rpre tati on of the targ e t i n te rm s o f ac tiv ate d c onc e pts (e .g .
Hi g g i ns , Rhol e s , & J one s , 1 9 7 7 ). Re c e n t e v i de n c e arg ue s ag ai ns t a
pu re ly s e m anti c m od e l. In e x pe rim e n ts by M urph y and Z ajo nc (1 9 9 3 )
prim in g at v e ry l ow e x po s ure c ondi tio ns w as obtai ne d onl y w i th af fe c tiv e
prim e s . Non af fe c ti v e prim e s produ c e d p rim ing o nly w he n e x po s ure ti m e s
w e re i nc re as e d, re s ulti ng i n s uprali m ina l e x p os ure . T hi s s u g g e s ts that
af fe c tiv e prim ing , at l e a s t unde r s ubl i m i nal c ond iti ons , i nv ol v e s s om e
un iq ue proc e s s e s .
T he l og i c of an i nte rm e di ate af fe c ti v e -c og n iti v e m ode l ( e .g . B o w e r,
1 9 9 1 ; Forg as , 1 9 9 2 ) al lo w s for a prim ary af fe c tiv e re s pons e to be e l ic i te d
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
45 9
by a prim e. T hi s aff e c ti v e re s p ons e , how e v e r, le ads to af fe c t- c ong rue n t
j udg e m e n ts o n l y if i t re n de rs af fe c t-c on g rue nt c onc e pts ac c e s s i bl e . Unfortunate l y , the s e m antic ne tw o rk m ode l has tro ubl e e x pl ai nin g s e v e ral aff e c tiv e i n¯ u e n c e ph e nom en a (s e e di s c us s ion s b y Ni e de nthal e t al., 1 9 9 4 ;
Forg as , 1 9 9 5 ; B arg h, C haik e n, Ray m ond, & Hy m e s , 1 9 9 6 ).
He n c e , s ati s fac tory e x pl an ati ons of the af fe c ti v e prim i ng e ffe c ts are
l ike l y to be offe re d by m ode l s th at as s i g n a n i m portant rol e to the e a rly
af fe c t an d d o no t as s um e hi g h-l e v e l s e m anti c m e di ati on. T h re e di ff e re n t
ac c ounts s ati s fy thi s c rite rion. T h e y pos tul ate e arl y af fe c ti v e s tate s and
as s um e that the m e d iati ng proc e s s i s l ow -l e v e l and autom a ti c . T he s e
ac c ounts di ffe r i n l oc ati ng the proc e s s re s p ons i bl e fo r p rim i ng at di ff e re n t
s tag e s Ð atte n ti on, pe rc e pti on, or res pons e g e ne rati on.
Atte n ti o n a n d p e r c e p tu a l m e m o r y a c c o u n ts . O ne w ay in w hi c h af fe c t c an
i n¯ ue n c e j udg e m e nts i s by c hang ing the pe rc e pti on of targ e ts v ia a fronte nd prim i ng m e c ha nis m . T h is m e c h anis m m ay i nv o lv e c hang e s i n atte nti on
to af fe c t- c o ng rue nt s ti m uli (B roadb e n t & B roadb e nt, 1 9 8 8 ; De rry be rry &
T uc ke r, 1 9 9 4 ). A l te rnati v e l y , the m e c hani s m c oul d in v ol v e prim i ng of
af fe c t- c ong rue nt p e rc e ptual rep re s e ntati ons (Nie de nthal e t al ., 1 9 9 4 ).
From both the a tte ntio nal and p e rc e ptual m e m ory pe rspe c ti v e , the aff e c tiv e prim i ng e ffe c ts m ay be e x pl ai ne d by as s um i ng that e x p os ure to h appy
prim e s i nc re as e s e ithe r atte nti on to , o r ac ti v ati on of, p os iti v e as pe c ts of the
targ e t ide o g raph, w h e reas e x pos ure to an g ry prim e s in c reas e s e i th e r atte ntion to, or ac tiv ati on of, i ts n e g ativ e as pe c ts . C ons i s te nt w i th th is as s u m ption , w e foun d i n E x pe rim e nt 2 that s ubl im i nal prim e s w e re m ost e ffe c ti v e
w h e n the af fe c ti v e v al e nc e of the prim e s w as c ong rue n t w i th the af fe c t
m e nti one d in the e x pe c tati on in s truc ti on s . T hat is , happ y prim e s te n de d to
be m os t e ff e c ti v e w he n the e x p e c tati on m ani pul ati on l e d s u bj e c ts to e x p e c t
pos i ti v e af fe c t, and ne g ati v e prim e s w e re m os t e ffe c ti v e w h e n th e e x pe c tation m an ip ul ati on le d s ub je c ts to e x pe c t ne g ati v e e ffe c t. T hi s m ay e ithe r
i ndi c ate that the e x pe c tati on m ani pul atio n i ts e l f i n¯ ue nc e d s u bj e c ts ’ a ff e c t,
re s ul ting in d iffe re nti al atte nti on to, or ac ti v ati on of, af fe c t- c ong rue n t
m ate rial , o r that s ubj e c ts ’ e x pe c tati ons in ¯ ue n c e d pe rc e ptio n i nde pe nde n t
4
of an i n¯ ue nc e o n the i r af fe c t.
C om plic ati ng thi s is su e , how e v e r, w e di d no t obs e rv e a paral l e l e ffe c t i n
E x pe rim en t 1 , w he re th e i m pac t of th e prim e s w as on ly e nhan c e d b y the
4
In g e ne ral, the pl aus ib i li ty of the pe rc e ptual /at te ntional e x plan a tion for the c urre nt
s tudie s re s ts on the tw o as s um ptio ns . Firs t i de og raphs as targ e ts hav e fe a ture s that c an be
dif fe re ntiall y attende d to, ac tiv ated, or in te rpre ted de pe n din g on the prim e . S e c ond, s uc h
dif fe re ntiall y ac tiv a te d or in terpre ted fe ature s c an v ary in a n affe c tiv e v al ue . B oth as s um ptions are c o nsis te nt w ith ® ndin g s f rom e x pe rim e ntal ae s the tic s that s how c onte x tual de pe nde nc e of pe rc e ptio ns , in terpre tatio ns, and pre fe re nc e s for s im ple v is ual e le m e nts (B e rly ne ,
1 9 7 4 ; M c M anus , 1 9 8 0 ).
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W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
e x pe c tati on m ani pul ati on w he n s ubje c ts w e re i nform e d th at the y w o uld b e
e x po s e d to s u bl im in al prim e s , bu t w e re no t i nform e d abou t ho w th e s e
prim e s m i g ht af fe c t the m . A l thou g h this latte r ® ndi ng m ay als o be trac e d
to d iffe re nc e s in atte nti on to th e tas k, the s e di ff e re n c e s w e re i nde pe nde nt o f
v al e nc e , i n c o ntras t to the ® ndi ng s i n E x p e rim e n t 2 . A nothe r ® ndi ng that
m ay b e re l ate d to no ns pe c i ® c di ffe re nc e s in atte n ti on i s the di s ap pe aranc e
of prim i ng in the se c ond bl oc k o f bo th e x pe rim e n ts .
R e s p o n s e s ta g e p r i m in g a c c o u n ts . In 1 9 8 4 , Z ajon c and M arku s propos e d
that af fe c t c an i nte rac t w ith c o g ni ti on be c aus e bo th s y s te m s hav e di re c t
l in ks to th e m otor re s pons e s y s te m . A c c ordi ng to thi s ide a, lo w -l e v e l
af fe c tiv e i nfo rm ation in ¯ ue nc e s jud g e m en t by bi as in g the s e l e c ti on o f a
m otor re s pons e , w hic h is norm al l y unde r the c ontrol of the c og ni tiv e
s y s te m . Inte re s ti ng l y , re c e nt re s e arc h s ug g e s ts th at s e ns ory i nform ation
m ay i nd e e d s pe c ify re s p ons e param e te rs w hi l e b y pas s ing h ig h e r l e v e l
re pre s e n tati on. For e x am pl e , Ne um ann an d Kl otz (1 9 9 4 ) found th at a
s u bl im in al , nonaf fe c tiv e v i s ual prim e m ay d ire c tly trig g e r a m o to r
re s p ons e . O the r ® ndi ng s s ug g e s t that af fe c ti v e s ti m ul i m ay hav e e s pe c i al l y
po w e rful unm e d iate d e ffe c ts on the re s pons e s y ste m (B arg h e t al ., 1 9 9 6 ;
C ac iop po, C rite s , Gardne r, & B e rnts on , 1 9 9 4 ; C ac i op po, P rie s te r, &
B e rnts on, 1 9 9 3 ; L ang , 1 9 9 5 ; O hm an & S oare s , 1 9 9 4 ). A l thoug h prov o c ativ e , th e re s po ns e s ta g e p rim ing ac c ou nt c anno t e x pl ai n the i ns truc tion
e ffe c ts an d the di s appe aranc e of prim ing e ffe c ts i n th e s e c on d blo c k o f
bo th e x pe rim e n ts .
P r e fe r e n c e a ttr i b u tio n a c c o u n ts . Finall y , a m odi ® e d attrib uti on al m ode l
c an be p ropos e d. A c c o rdin g to th is m ode l , s ub li m inal af fe c ti v e prim e s
autom ati c al ly ac ti v ate an as s oc iate d e v al uation (Faz i o e t al ., 1 9 8 6 ; B arg h
e t al ., 1 9 9 2 ), w hi c h is m is i nte rpre te d as an e v al uati v e re s po ns e to th e
s u prali m inal l y pre s e nte d targ e t. A l thou g h th is i nte rpre tati on s hare s th e
attri bu ti onal as s um pti on of the fe e li ng s- as -in fo rm atio n m ode l , it d oe s not
po s tulate a rol e for e x pe rie n c e d `` fe e l ing s ’ ’ that are ac c e s s i bl e fo r c on s c i ous i nfe re n c e s . He nc e , (m is )attri buti on m ani pul atio ns w oul d no t b e
e x pe c te d to in ¯ ue nc e s ubj e c ts’ autom ati c pre fe re nc e j udg e m e nts . M o re ov e r, thi s ac c ount d oe s no t ne e d to trac e th e e li m ina ti on o f af fe c ti v e prim in g
e ffe c ts to any aw are ne s s of an irre l e v ant s ourc e that unde rm in e s th e in form ati onal v al ue of s ubj e c tiv e e x pe rie nc e s . T hi s w ay , the m ode l c an ac c o unt
for th e b loc k e ffe c ts o bs e rv e d in E x pe rim e nt 1 . From thi s p e rs pe c ti v e ,
s u bj e c ts m ay hav e `` m is re ad’ ’ the i r pre fe re nc e re s pon s e to the s ubl i m i nal
prim e s as a re s p ons e to the id e o g raphs pre s e n te d in the ® rst bl oc k, pre s um abl y be c aus e the ne utral i de og raph s di d n ot e l ic it any s y s te m ati c pref e re n c e s
on the i r o w n. How e v e r, w he n th e s am e i de og rap hs w e re s how n i n the s e c ond
bl oc k, th e y had al re ady ac qui re d an e v al uatio n during the pre v io us e nc oun te r. C o ns e que n tl y , the id e og raphs c o uld e li c it the ir `` ow n’ ’ pre fe re nc e
re s p ons e , re s u lti ng i n a l ac k of i m pac t of the pre fe re nc e e l ic i te d by the prim e .
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
46 1
In s u m , th e e m e rg e n c e of af fe c tiv e prim i ng e ffe c ts , the l ac k o f di s c ou nti ng and aug m e ntati on e ffe c ts , the abs e nc e of fe e l i ng s , and th e bl oc k e ffe c ts
obs e rv e d i n E x p e rim e n t 1 are c om pati bl e w ith the pref e re n c e m i s attri bution ac c ount. How e v e r, thi s ac c ou nt prov ide s no c om p e l l i ng e x plan ati on
for th e i ns truc ti onal e ffe c ts obs e rv e d i n both e x pe rim e nts and di s appe aranc e o f prim i ng i n the s e c ond bl oc k of E x pe rim e nt 2 .
Im p licatio n s fo r th e Fee lin g -a s-inform a tion M od el
Re s e arc h on af fe c tiv e in ¯ ue nc e s on j udg e m e nt has pre dom inan tl y
addre s s e d the i m pac t o f c ons c i ous ly e x pe rie nc e d af fe c t i n the form of
m o ods and e m oti ons . M os t of this re s e arc h i s c ons i s te nt w ith the as s u m ption that af fe c ti v e i n¯ ue nc e s are m e di ate d by the us e of on e ’ s af fe c ti v e
s tate s as a s ourc e of in fo rm atio n, as c o nc e ptu ali s e d i n the fe e l in g s -as i nform ati on m ode l (s e e C l ore e t al., 1 9 9 4 ; S c h w arz & C lo re, 1 9 9 6 for
re c e n t re v ie w s ). T he alte rnati v e ac c ounts di s c us s e d e arli e r, the s e m antic
ne tw o rk ac c ount, the re s pons e p rim ing ac c o unt, and the atte nti on and
pe rc e ptual m e m ory a c c o unt, do no t e x pl ain the re pe ate dl y o bs e rv e d de pe nde nc e of af fe c ti v e i n¯ ue nc e s on the pe rc e iv e d inf orm ation al v al ue of
i ndi v id uals ’ fe e l in g s (S c hw arz & C lo re, 1 9 9 6 ).
T he pre s e nt ® nd in g s , how e v e r, rai s e the pos s i bi l ity that s om e af fe c ti v e
i n¯ ue n c e s are unl ik e ly to foll ow the i nfe re ntial patte rns ob se rv e d for
m o ods and e m oti on s (s e e Forg as, 1 9 9 5 , p. 4 3 for a di s c us s i on of thi s
i s s ue ). T hi s m ay b e th e c as e w he n a ff e c ti v e re ac ti ons f e e d in to c u rre n tl y
unde rs pe c i® e d autom ati c p roc e s s e s , w hi c h re s ul t i n a c hang e i n j udg e m e nts . T hi s m ay al s o b e th e c as e w he n a ff e c ti v e re ac ti ons are no t re pre s e nte d in a form of c ons c i ous fe e li ng . He nc e , the pre s e nt ® ndi ng s do no t
fals ify the fe e l in g s -as -i nform ati on m ode l as an ac c oun t fo r the i m p ac t of
s ubj e c tiv e e x pe rie nc e s . Rath e r, the y s ug g e s t that the l og i c u nde rly i ng the
m o de l m ay be inap pli c abl e to c o ndi ti ons w he re the af fe c t in duc tio n doe s
not re s ult in c ons c iou s l y e x pe rie nc e d fe e l ing s .
M ore ov e r, as i ndi c ate d e arl ie r, the pre s e nt ® ndi ng s m ay be i nte rpre te d as
s ug g e s tin g that aff e c ti v e p rim i ng inv ol v e s a (m is )attri buti on o f p re fe re nc e
re s pon se s in s te a d of a m is attri butio n of fe e li ng s . A te s t of this pos s i bi l ity
w o ul d re qui re that the e x pe rim e ntal i ns truc ti on s targ e t (m i s) attri buti on of
pre fe re nc e re s pons e s rathe r than of fe e li ng s and `` g ut re ac ti ons ’ ’ . Note ,
how e v e r, that s uc h di s c ounti ng pre di c tio ns ag ai n ass um e that th e e v al uativ e re s pons e an d a ta rg e t s ti m ulus are li nke d by an i nfe re ntial `` attri bution al’ ’ proc e s s , and no t by a m ore prim i ti v e proc e s s . Furthe rm o re, the
di s c oun ti ng pre dic ti on as s um e s th at s ubj e c ts are abl e to de te c t and s e parate
tw o l i ki ng re s pon s e s Ð the ® rst to th e prim e , and the s e c ond to the i de og raph. If th e l ik in g re s p ons e s w e re no t s e parabl e fo r s o m e re as o n (e .g .
be c aus e s ubj e c ts e x pe rie n c e o nl y one s i ng le , o r one c om bi ne d, p re fe re nc e
4 62
W IN K IE L M A N , Z AJ O N C , S C H W A R Z
re s p ons e that i s s i m ultan e ou s to the pe rc e pti on of the ide og raph), attri bu tio nal m an ip ul ati ons w oul d b e i ne f® c i e nt. Ne v e rthe l e s s , the o btai ne d
af fe c tiv e p rim ing e f fe c ts c oul d s ti ll re ¯ e c t a m i s re adi ng of the pre fe re nc e
5
re s p ons e to the p rim e as a p re fe re nc e re s pon se to the i de og raph.
In c onc l us i on, the p re se nt ® n di ng s s ug g e s t that the re are g ood th e o re tic al and e m pi ric al re as ons to c on s id e r m ode l s o f af fe c tiv e i n¯ ue n c e s on
e v al uativ e j udg e m e n ts that do n ot re qui re a m e diati ng role of c ons c i ou s ly
e x pe rie nc e d fe e l in g s . T h e ® ndi ng s al s o s ug g e s t that s om e ty p e s o f af fe c tiv e
i n¯ ue nc e s m ay no t be re s pons iv e to attri buti onal m ani pul ati on s d e s ig ne d to
v ary the i r i nform ati onal v al ue . A lthou g h o ur pre s e n t unde rs tan d in g of th e
pre c i s e m e c hani s m s unde rly i ng s ubl im in al af fe c tiv e prim i ng re m ai ns te n tati v e , c u rren t re s e arc h s ug g e s ts tha t the af fe c ti v e prim ac y hy po the s is
prov id e s a fram e w o rk th at m ay g uid e the s e arc h for a the ore tic al ac c o unt
of th is b as ic phe no m e non.
M anus c rip t re c e i v e d 3 1 O c tobe r 1 9 9 5
Re v is e d m anus c rip t re c e i v e d 9 D e c e m be r 1 9 9 6
R E F E R E N C ES
A dol phs , R., T rane l , D., D am as i o, H ., & D a m as i o, A . ( 1 9 9 4 ). Im pai re d re c og ni tio n of
e m o ti o n i n fa c ia l e x p re s s i on s f ol l o w i ng b i l ate ral da m a g e to the hu m a n a m y g da l a.
Na tu r e , 3 7 2 , 6 6 9 ± 6 7 2 .
A g g le ton, J.P., & M is hkin , M . (1 9 8 6 ). T he a m y g dala: S e ns ory g atew a y to the e m otio ns . In
R. P lu tchik & H . Ke l le rm an ( E ds .) , E m o tio n : Th e o r y, re se a r c h , a n d e xp e r ie n c e (V ol. 3 ,
pp. 2 8 1 ± 2 9 9 ). O rlan do, FL : A c ade m i c P re s s.
B arg h, J.A . (1 9 8 9 ). C on ditio nal autom a tic ity : V arie tie s of autom a tic in ¯ ue n c e in s o c ial
pe rc e pti on an d c og ni ti on. In J.S . U l e m an & J.A . B arg h (E ds .) , U n i n te n d e d th o u g h t
(pp. 3 ± 5 1 ). N e w Y ork: G uil ford P re s s .
B arg h, J.A ., C hai ke n, S ., G ov e nde r, R., & P ratto, F. ( 1 9 9 2 ). T he g e ne rali ty of the autom atic
attitude ac tiv atio n e ffe c t. J o u r n a l o f P e r s o n a li ty a n d So c ia l P s yc h o lo g y, 6 2 , 8 9 3 ± 9 1 2 .
5
T he is s ue of s e parabili ty and dis c rim i nabil ity of affe c tiv e re s pons e s i s o f k e y im portanc e
he re . T his is furthe r hig hli g hte d by re c e nt ® ndin g s by G as pe r and C lo re (1 9 9 6 ). T he s e
authors in form e d s ubje c ts abo ut pla us ib le s it uatio nal c aus e s of the ir m oods , but obtaine d
the us ual di s c ounting e ffe c t only f or s ubje c ts hig h on attention to e m otio n. In c on tras t,
s ubje c ts l ow on atte ntion to e m otio n s how e d an i nc re as e in m ood-c ong rue nt j udg e m e nt unde r
di s c ounting c onditio ns , pre s um ably re ¯ e c tin g e nhanc e d attention to the ir fe e lin g s . T his type
of e v id e nc e s ug g e s ts that w he n de tec tabili ty of affe c tiv e c hang e s is s ituatio nally or dis pos i tionally lo w , a dis c ountin g m anip ula tion m a y ac tually e nhanc e a ffe c t-c ong rue nt e f fe c ts.
T he ® ndin g s of G as pe r and C lo re (1 9 9 6 ) are c on s is te nt w i th the patte rn obs e rv e d i n
E x pe ri m e nt 1 , w he re fore w arnin g le d to a n in c re a s e in the affe c tiv e prim i ng e ffe c t. H ow e v e r, in E x pe rim e nt 1 fore w arne d s ubj e c ts did not re port e x pe rie nc in g fe e lin g s , nor did the y
re port re ly in g m ore on ``g ut re a c tions ’ ’ w hil e m aki ng j udg e m e nts of id e og raphs , thus
s ug g e s tin g that fore w arnin g in c re as e d attentio n to the tas k rat he r than atte ntion to e m otio n.
S U B LIM IN A L A F F E C T IV E P R IM IN G
46 3
B arg h, J.A ., C haik e n, S ., Ray m ond, P., & H y m e s , C . (1 9 9 6 ). T he a utom atic e v alu a tion
e ffe c t: U nc onditio nal autom atic attitude ac tiv atio n w i th a pronunc ia tion tas k . Jo u r n a l o f
E xp e r im e n ta l So c ia l P s yc h o lo g y , 3 2 , 1 0 4 ± 1 2 8 .
B arg h , J.A ., & P ie trom o na c o, P . (1 9 8 2 ). A u tom ati c in form a ti on p roc e s s in g an d s oc ia l
pe rc e ptio n: T he in ¯ ue nc e of trait i nform atio n pre s e nted outs id e of c onsc io us aw are ne s s
on i m pre s s io n form atio n. Jo u r n a l o f P e r s o n a lity a n d So c ia l P s yc h o lo g y, 4 3 , 4 3 7 ± 4 4 9 .
B e c hara, A ., Da m as io , H., T rane l, D., & D am as i o, A .R. (1 9 9 7 ). D e c id i ng adv antag e ous ly
be fore know in g the adv antag e ous s trateg y . Sc i e n c e , 2 7 5 , 1 2 9 3 ± 1 2 9 5 .
B e rly ne , D .E . (1 9 7 4 ). Stud ie s in th e n e w e xp e r im e n ta l a e s th e tic s : s tep s to w a r d a n o b je c tiv e
p s yc h o lo g y o f a e s the tic a p p r e c i a tio n . W as hin g ton, DC : H e m is phe re .
B orns tein, R.F., & D’ A g os tin o, P .R. (1 9 9 4 ). T he attrib ution and dis c ountin g of pe rc e p tual
¯ ue nc y : P re li m in ary te s ts o f a pe rc e ptual ¯ ue nc y /a ttributio nal m ode l of the m e re e x pos ure e ffe c t. So c ia l C o g n it io n , 1 2 , 1 0 3 ± 1 2 8 .
B ow e r, G .H . (1 9 9 1 ). M ood c ong ruity of s oc ia l j udg m e nts . In J.P . Fo rg as (E d.) , E m o tio n a n d
s o c ia l ju d g m en ts (pp. 3 1 ± 5 4 ). O xford, U K : Pe rg am on.
B ro adb e n t, D ., & B ro adb e nt, M . ( 1 9 8 8 ). A n x ie ty a nd a tte n ti ona l bi as : S tate and tra it.
C o g n itio n a n d E m o tio n , 2 , 1 6 5 ± 1 8 3 .
C ac io ppo, J.T ., C ri tes , S .L ., Gardne r, W .L ., & B e rn tson, G .G . (1 9 9 4 ). B io e le c tric al e c hoe s
from e v a lu ativ e c ateg oriz a tions . I: A la te pos it iv e brain pote ntia l that v a rie s as a func tio n of
trai t ne g a tiv ity and e x tre m ity . J o u rn a l o f P e r s o n a lity a n d So c ia l P s yc h o lo g y, 6 7 , 1 1 5 ± 1 2 5 .
C ac io ppo, J.T ., P e tty , R.E ., L os h, M .E ., & K im , H .S . ( 1 9 8 6 ). E l e c trom y og raphic ac tiv ity
ov e r fac ia l m us c le re g io n c an dif fe re ntiate the v a le nc e and in tensity of a ffe c tiv e re ac tions . Jo u r n a l o f P e rs o n a l ity a n d So c ia l P s yc h o lo g y, 5 0 , 2 6 0 ± 2 6 8 .
C a c i op po , J.T ., P ri e s te r, J.R., & B e rnts o n, G .G . ( 1 9 9 3 ). R ud im e ntary de te rm in an ts of
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D e rry be rry , D ., & T uc ke r, D .M . (1 9 9 4 ). M otiv atin g the foc us of a ttentio n. In P.M . N ie de nthal & S . K itay am a ( E ds .) , Th e h e a r t’ s e ye : E m otio n a l in ¯ u e n c e s in p e r c e p tio n a n d
a tten tio n (pp. 1 6 7 ± 1 9 6 ). S an Die g o, C A : A c ade m i c Pre s s .
E dw ards , K . (1 9 9 0 ). T he i nterpl ay of a ffe c t and c og nitio n i n attitude form atio n and c hang e .
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