CHAPTER - 3
WATER SCARCITY
MEANING
Water Scarcity involves water stress, water deficits, water shortage and water
crisis. The concept of water stress is relatively new to us due to seviour problem
of water shortage. Water stress is the difficulty of obtaining sources of fresh water
for use because of depleting resources. A water crisis is a situation where the
available potable, unpolluted water within a region is less than that’s region
demand. All over the world water is very scarce and polluted. The physical
existence of water in nature to show nations with lower or higher volumes of water
available for use as well as the water availability to population. There is popular
approach which has been made to rank the countries according to the amount of
annual water resources available per person1.
Imbalances
between
availability
and
demand,
the degradation
of
groundwater and surface water quality, inter sectoral competition, interregional
and international conflicts, all contributes to water scarcity. Scarcity often has its
roots in water shortage, and it is in the arid and semiarid regions affected by
droughts and wide climate variability, combined with population growth and
economic development. Water use has been growing at more than twice the rate
of population increase in the last century, and, although there is no global water
scarcity as such, an increasing number of regions are chronically short of water.
The situation will be exacerbated as rapidly growing urban areas place heavy
pressure on neighboring water resources.
According to the Falkenmark Water stress is an indicator of a country or region is
said to experience water scarcity among the water supply to the population. When
annual water supplies drop below 1700 cubic meters per person per year, it
indicates that at the levels between 1700 and 1000 cubic meters per person per
year it is periodic or limited water shortages can be expected as water stress.
When water supplies drop below 1000 cubic meters per person per year the
country faces the water scarcity. In survey by The United Nations’ states that by
the year 2025, 1.9 billion people will be living in countries or regions with
absolute water scarcity, and two – third of the world population could be under
stress conditions. The World Bank adds that climate change could profoundly alter
future patterns of both water availability and use, thereby increasing levels of
water stress and insecurity, both at the global scale and in sectors that depend on
water2.
1
2
An International Food Policy Research Institute book about the intersection of water policy, globalization and food security: Ringler, C., Biswas, A., and Cline,
S., eds. 2010. Global Change: Impacts on Water and Food Security. Heidelberg: Springer.
"Climate Change 2001: Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability". UNEP. Falkenmark and Lindh 1976 quoted in UNEP/WMO Retrieved 3
February 2009.
- 43 -
Water scarcity requires actions at local, national and river basin levels. It also calls
for actions at global and international levels, leading to increased collaboration
between nations on shared management of water resources (rivers, lakes and
aquifers), it requires an intersectional and multidisciplinary approach to managing
water resources in order to maximize economic and social welfare in an equitable
manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems.
It is probably happened in rural areas that water scarcity affects people most. In
large parts of the developing world, irrigation remains the backbone of rural
economies. However, smallholder farmers make up the majority of the world’s
rural poor, and they often occupy marginal land and depend mainly on rainfall for
production. They are highly sensitive to many changes – droughts, floods, but also
shift in market prices. However, rainwater is rarely integrated into water
management strategies, which usually focus exclusively on surface water and
groundwater. Countries need to integrate rainwater fully into their strategies to
cope with water scarcity1.
Another measurement which is calculated as a part of a wider assessment of
water management in the year 2007, aimed to relate the availability of water
resources and how they are actually used. It is therefore divided water scarcity
into ‘physical’ and ‘economic’.
·
1
Physical water scarcity
Physical water scarcity is that where there is not enough water to meet all
the demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function effectively.
Arid regions which are known to be dry regions suffer from physical water
scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources
are over – committed, such as when there is an overdevelopment of
hydraulic living things because every thing needs water to live.
The World's Water 2008–2009: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Washington D.C. : Peter H. Gleick, ed. (2009). Island Press.
p. 402. ISBN 1597265055.
- 44 -
·
Economic Water Scarcity
Economic water scarcity is caused by a lack of investment in water or
insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand for water. Symptoms of
economic water scarcity include a lack of infrastructure, with people often
having to fetch water from rivers for domestic and agriculture uses. Large
parts of the world suffer from economic water scarcity. By developing water
infrastructure in those areas could therefore help to reduce poverty. By
having this type of critical conditions which often arises economically poor
and politically weak communities living in already dry environments. It is
examined that around 2.8 billion people are currently living in water scared
areas1.
“As per the UN estimate, water scarcity already affects every continent. Around
1.2 billion people, or almost one-fifth of the world’s population, live in areas of
physical scarcity, and 500 million people are approaching this situation. Another
1.6 billion people, or almost one quarter of the world’s population, face economic
water shortage where countries lack the necessary infrastructure to take water
from rivers and aquifers”.
Water Stress :
Fifty years ago, when there was fewer than half the current number of people on
the planet, the common perception was that water was an infinite resource.
People were not as wealthy then as they are today, consumed fewer calories and
ate less meat, therefore less water is needed to produce their food. They required
a third of the volume of water we presently take from rivers. In present the
competition of water resources is much more intense in comparison with past.
This is due to having vast and tremendous growth of population. There are now
seven billion people on the planet, their consumption of water – thirsty meat and
vegetables is rising and there is increasing competition for water industry,
urbanization and bio fuel crops. In future, even more water will be needed to
produce food because the earth’s population is forecast to rise 9 billion by 2050.
An additional 2.5 or 3 billion people, choosing to eat fever cereals and more
meat and more vegetables could add an additional five million kilometers to the
virtual canal.
The total amount of available freshwater supply is also decreasing because of
climate change which has caused receding glaciers, reduced stream and river
flow, and shrinking lakes. Many aquifers have been over – pumped and are not
recharging quickly. Although the total fresh water supply is not used up, so much
of water has become polluted, slated, unsuitable or otherwise unavailable for
drinking, industry and agriculture. To avoid global water crisis farmers will have to
strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industries
and cities will work to find out ways to use water more efficiently.
Water Stress versus Water Scarcity :
Hydrologists typically assess scarcity by looking at the population-water equation.
An area is experiencing water stress when annual water supplies drop below
1
Water for food, Water for life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. Molden, D. (Ed) Earthscan / IWMI, 2007, p.11
- 45 -
1,700 mld per person. When annual water supplies drop below 1,000 mld per
person, the population faces water scarcity, and below 500 cubic meters
"absolute scarcity".
Water scarcity is defined as the point at which the aggregate impact of all users
impinges on the supply or quality of water under prevailing institutional
arrangements to the extent that the demand by all sectors, including the
environment, cannot be satisfied fully. Water scarcity is a relative concept and can
occur at any level of supply or demand. Scarcity may be a social construct a
product of affluence, expectations and customary behavior or the consequence of
altered supply patterns - stemming from climate change1.
Water Crisis :
When then there is not enough potable water for given necessity, the threat of a
water crisis is realized. The United Nations and the other world organizations
consider a variety of regions to have water crisis that it is global concern. Other
organizations such as Food and Agriculture Organization argue that there is no
water crises in such places, but that steps must still be taken to avoid one.
There are several principal manifestations of the water crisis:
· Inadequate access to safe drinking water for about million of people.
· Inadequate access to water for sanitation and waste disposal for 2.5 billion
people.
· Groundwater over drafting excessive use leading to diminished agricultural
yields.
· Overuse and pollution of water resources harming biodiversity.
· Regional conflicts over scarce water resources sometimes resulting in warfare.
Waterborne Diseases and the absence of sanitary domestic water are one of the
leading causes of death worldwide. For Children under age five, waterborne
diseases are the leading cause of death. At any time, Half of the world’s hospital
1
http://epaedia.eea.europa.eu/alphabetical.php?letter=W&gid=108#viewterm
- 46 -
beds are occupied by patients suffering from waterborne diseases. According to
the World Bank, 88% of all waterborne diseases are caused by unsafe drinking
eater, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene1.
Water is underlying tenuous balance of safe water supply, but controllable factors
such as the management and distribution of the water supply itself contribute to
further scarcity. A 2011 United Nations report focuses on issues of governance
as the core of water crisis saying that “there is enough water for everyone” and
“water insufficiency is often due to mismanagement, corruption, lack of
appropriate institutions, bureaucratic inertia and a shortage of investment in both
human capacity and physical infrastructure.” It also shows a clear correlation
between access to safe water and GDP per capita.
It also has been claimed, primarily by economists that the water situation has
occurred because of lack of property rights, government regulations and subsidies
in the water sector, causing prices to be too low and consumption too high.
Water Scarcity and the Managing Development Goals:
The way water scarcity issues are addressed impacts upon the successful
achievement of most of the Millennium Development Goals:
· MDG 1: Access to water for domestic and productive uses agriculture,
industry, and other economic activities has a direct impact on poverty and food
security.
· MDG 2: Incidence of catastrophic but often recurrent events, such as droughts,
interrupts educational attainment.
· MDG 3: Access to water, in particular in conditions of scarce resources, has
important gender related implications, which affects the social and economic
capital of women in terms of leadership, earnings and networking
opportunities.
· MDG 4 and 5: Equitable, reliable water resources management programmes
reduce poor people's vulnerability to shocks, which in turn gives them more
secure and fruitful livelihoods to draw upon in caring for their children.
· MDG 6: Access to water, and improved water and wastewater management in
human settlements, reduce transmission risks of mosquito-borne illnesses,
such as malaria and dengue fever.
· MDG 7: Adequate treatment of wastewater contributes to less pressure on
freshwater resources, helping to protect human and environmental health.
· MDG 8: Water scarcity increasingly calls for strengthened international
cooperation in the fields of technologies for enhanced water productivity,
financing opportunities, and an improved environment to share the benefits of
scarce water management2.
World Water Day 2007: Coping with water scarcity :
World Water Day 2007 was dedicated to the theme "Coping with water scarcity". It
highlighted the increasing significance of water scarcity worldwide and the need
for increased integration and cooperation to ensure sustainable, efficient and
equitable management of scarce water resources, both at international and local
levels.
1
http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/library/archives/water-crisis/
2
http://webworld.unesco.org/water/wwap/publications/WWAP_Water_and_MDGs.pdf
- 47 -
Around 700 million people in 43 countries suffer today from water scarcity. By
2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water
scarcity, and two-thirds of the world's population could be living under water
stressed conditions. With the existing climate change scenario, almost half the
world's population will be living in areas of high water stress by 2030. In addition,
water scarcity in some arid and semi-arid places will displace between 24 million
and 700 million people1.
Water Scarcity in India
If the next world war happens; it may well be triggered by water scarcity across
the continents. It has been already found that the third of the world is suffering
from water shortages. Increasing demand for water with rapidly growing rate of
population, inadequate rainfall, uncontrolled use of water and climate change are
some of the reasons behind it.
The thirst of water for India’s rapid development is growing day by day. In spite of
adequate average rainfall in India, there is large area under the less water
conditions/drought prone. There is lot of places, where the quality of groundwater
is not good. Another issue lies in interstate distribution of rivers. Water supply of
the 90% of India’s territory is served by inter-state rivers. It has created growing
number of conflicts across the states and to the whole country on water sharing
issues. Some of the major reasons behind water scarcity are2.
· Population growth and Food production Agriculture
· Increasing construction/ infrastructure development Activities
· Massive urbanization and industrialization throughout the country
· Climatic change and variability- Depleting of natural resources due to changing
climate conditions Deforestation etc.
· Lack of implementation of effective water management systems
1
www.unwater.org/downloads/waterscarcity.pdf
2
"Overcoming Water Scarcity". Vidya Kulkarni UNICEF - India. Retrieved 11
June 2013.
- 48 -
Why should India address water scarcity ?
India’s population is expected to increase from 1.13 Billion in 2005 to 1.66
Billion by 2050. Out of that the urban population is expected to grow from 29.2%
of the total population in 2007 to 55.2% by 2050. First and foremost result of the
increasing population is the growing demand for more food-grains and allied
agricultural produce. It results in expanding area of land under the crops
especially high yielding crop varieties. It is estimated that the production of waterintensive crops is expected to grow by 80% between 2000 and 2050. Rice, wheat
and sugarcane together constitute about 90% of India’s crop production and are
the most water-consuming crops. In addition, states with the highest production of
rice and/or wheat are expected to face groundwater depletion of up to 75% by
2050.
Table No - 3.1
Per Capita Water Availability In India
Year
Population (Million)
361
395
846
1027
1394
1640
Per Capita water Availblity in India
6000
5000
water
Population and Per Capita
1951
1955
1991
2001
2025
2050
Source: Government of India, 2009.
Per capita water
availability (m3/year)
5177
4732
2209
1820
1341
1140
4000
Population (Million)
3000
Per capita water
availability (m3/year)
2000
1000
0
1951
1955
1991
2001
2025
2050
Year
As presented in Table no.3.1 inspite of good rainfall distribution, the country is
unable to make good use of rain water, because of lack of awareness and poor
infrastructure to construct dams and reservoirs. As a result, only about 35-40% of
the cropping area receives irrigation to take 1-2 crops in a year. Out of the total
cultivable area of 182 million hectares, only 140 million hectares are under net
cultivation and of this, 62 million hectares are under irrigation. There is further
potential to increase the area under irrigation 40 million hectares, to 76 million
hectares through surface water and 64 million hectares by using ground water.
- 49 -
So far, the irrigation potentials have already been created to cover 107 million
hectares, although they are not utilized effectively. It is estimated that effective
area under irrigation by 2025 will be 76 million hectares, although the
Government of India is estimating to cover 104 million hectares. Ground water
is the major source of irrigation and this trend will continue. By 2025, 60 million
hectares will be irrigated by using ground water and by 2050, the area under
ground water will increase to 70 million hectares. In 2000, the area under canal
irrigation was 17 million hectares, which will increase to 27 million hectares by
2050. There is further scope to increase the potential by 35 million hectares, by
inter-linking the rivers and harnessing 36 billion m3 through artificial recharging of
ground water. As per Government of India, 2009
Pollution of water resources is another major concern which is affecting the water
supply as well as human health conditions. Although, 5% of the total water is
used for domestic use, 27% of the villages and 4 to 6% urban population in India
do not have access to drinking water. Apart from inadequate supply of water,
there is a serious concern about the quality of water, which is severely affecting
the health. It is reported that over 70% of the water consumed by rural population
in India does not meet the WHO standards. It has been reported that 80% of rural
illnesses, 21% of transmissible diseases and 20% of deaths among children in the
age group of 5 years, are directly linked to consumption of unsafe water1.
Drivers of Water Usage
The demand for water in India is steeply increasing because of the following
reasons:
· The primary reason is population as India’s population which was 1.3 billion in
2010 is expected to rise to 1.66 billion in 2050.
· There is also going to be a major impact on development in the form of
urbanization. In 2007, 28.2% of the Indian population was living in urban areas
and the urban population is expected to increase to 55.2% by 2050.
· The per capita income of Indians will increase from $468 in 2007 to $6735 in
2050.
· Increased industrialization will demand more water as its contribution to GDP
will increase from 29.1% in 2000 to 40% by 2050. Thus, the demand for water
will increase from 30 billion m3 in 2000 to 161 billion m3 in 2050.
· The agriculture development will be more on water intensive cash crops and
there will be 80% increase in the demand for water by 20502.
The National Water Policy (NWP) :
National Water Policy is formulated by the Ministry of Water Resources of
the Government of India to govern the planning and development of water
resources and their optimum utilization. The first National Water Policy was
adopted in September, 1987. It has been reviewed and updated in 2002.
The major provisions under the policy are:
1
http://www.unicef. org/india/wes_2832.htm
2
"National Water Policy 1987". Ministry of Water Resources (GOI). p. 11. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
- 50 -
1. Envisages establishing a standardized national information system with a
network of data banks and data bases.
2. Resource planning and recycling for providing maximum availability.
3. To give importance to the impact of projects on human settlements and
environment.
4. Guidelines for the safety of storage dams and other water-related structures.
5. Regulate exploitation of groundwater.
6. Setting water allocation priorities in the following order: Drinking water,
Irrigation, Hydropower, Navigation, Industrial and other uses.
7. The water rates for surface water and ground water should be rationalized with
due regard to the interests of small and marginal farmers.
The policy also deals with participation of farmers and voluntary agencies, water
quality, water zoning, conservation of water, flood and drought management,
erosion etc.
The main emphasis of National Water Policy 2012 is to treat water as economic
good which the ministry claims to promote its conservation and efficient use. This
provision intended for the privatization of water-delivery services is being criticized
from various quarters. The policy also does away with the priorities for water
allocation mentioned in 1987 and 2002 versions of the policy. The policy was
adopted with disapproval from many states.
The other major features are:
1. To ensure access to a minimum quantity of portable water for essential health
and hygiene to all citizens, available within easy reach of the household
2. To curtail subsidy to agricultural electricity users
3. Setting up of Water Regulatory Authority
4. To keep aside a portion of the river flow to meet the ecological needs and to
ensure that the low and high flow releases correspond in time closely to the
natural flow regime.
5. To give statutory powers to Water Users Associations to maintain the
distribution system
6. Project benefited families to bear part of the cost of resettlement &
rehabilitation of project affected families
7. To remove the large disparity between stipulations for water supply in urban
areas and in rural areas
8. To support a National Water Framework Law1.
Some of the other measures taken by the government are as follows:
· Establishment of National and State level data banks to monitor the demand
and supply.
· Facilitation for transformation of available water resources into utilizable water.
· Non-conventional methods for efficient water use.
· Supply of water from water surplus areas to water shortage areas.
· Judicious allocation of water for different uses and pricing of water to ensure
sustainable development.
1
"National Water Policy 2002". Ministry of Water Resources (GOI). 1 April
2002. p. 2. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
- 51 -
·
·
·
·
·
Regulation on ground water exploitation and close monitoring of water table
using modern scientific techniques.
Sustainability of existing water bodies, involving all the stakeholders and local
communities.
PPP for water resource development and distribution.
Master plan for flood control, by linking different rivers and promoting soil
conservation measures.
Development of drought prone areas through watershed development, a
forestation and sustainable farming practices.
Water Scarcity Madhya Pradesh :
The state of Madhya Pradesh came into existence on 1 November 1956 with the
amalgamation of the then existing states of Bhopal, Madhya Bharat, Mahakoshal,
Vindhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. The boundaries of Madhya Pradesh
underwent a change when the state of Chhattisgarh was carved out from Madhya
Pradesh in November 2000. A landlocked state, Madhya Pradesh is bound by the
state of Uttar Pradesh in the north, Bihar in the north-east, Chhattisgarh in the
east, Andhra Pradesh in the south, Maharashtra in the south-west and Gujarat
and Rajasthan in the west. At present, Madhya Pradesh accounts for 9% of the
landmass of the country and in home to 6% of the country’s population. There are
1,960,631 habitations in the state spread across 52,143 villages (including 923
forest villages) and 394 towns. The low density of population in the state (196
persons per sq. km) reflects the spread and the sparse nature of habitations in
the state. During 1991–2010, the population of the state had registered a growth
rate of 24.34% which was higher than that of the country (21.35%). However,
within the state the growth rate of population was higher in urban (31.19%) than in
rural areas (22.02%).
- 52 -
Though 73.6% of the state’s population currently resides in rural areas, yet the
trend seems to indicate a gradual and a definite demographic shift towards
urbanization in the state. This trend is further supported by the fact that there has
been an addition of 24 new towns in Madhya Pradesh during the past decade,
representing a growth of 6% in towns in the state.
The shortage of water during the summer months is a perennial problem in
several regions of Madhya Pradesh, and the growing population has only added
to the woes. In extreme conditions, people have to draw water from small water
holes. Thousands of villagers trek for miles in search of water and sometimes they
even enter into a brawl.
Many districts of the state have been regularly reporting shortage of water not only
now but even winters. Panchayats in Shivpuri district of the state did not vote in
by-elections held in April this year. The reason was water shortage and fluorosis
which impacted lives of people in the district. Reports from Sagar, another district
of the state point out on areas in the district such as Dawari, Bina, Khurai, Raheli,
Gadahota and Sagar block which are facing acute water shortage. Water levels
have fallen down to a stage of crisis in the district Shivpuri to an extent local
people say district would witness large scale migration in coming years if situation
does not change. This is not only in districts but even in the state capital Bhopal
people are facing water shortage. Media reports do point out more than 20,000
leakages happen in a year in the water pipes of the city and 30 % of water gets
lost due to these leakages, which too contributes to the shortage1.
It is not only about water shortage in the state but even issues of water quality
need immediate attention. Thousands of children and women suffer from diarrhea
in the state due to lack of clean safe drinking water. State every year witness
thousands of cases of gastro – enteritis, probably many of which could be
prevented just by safe drinking water. Though there are hand pumps but in many
places just for namesake. Thousands hardly work and need immediate repair in
the state. 22 districts in the state have excess fluoride in water. It is estimated
that about 16,000 children were suffering in Seoni district alone due to fluoride.
People in 120 villages in Guna district suffer due to fluoride in water2.
1
http://www.epw.in/commentary/madhya-pradesh-panchayats-and-water-scarcity.html
2
Water Supply & Sanitation – Reaching the Poor Through Sustainable Partnerships: The Slum Sanitation Program in Mumbai, India
- 53 -
There are disparities in regards to access for use of water. Caste, economic
disparities and gender play an important role here and in end it is people
especially women and children who have to bear the brunt. A Dalit women was
allegedly beaten up by two young men in Thakurpura area of Shivpuri over the
issue of water. Districts have been reporting that women the ones who normally
get water have to travel kilometers on lanes not easy to traverse for ‘water for life’
for their families.There could be variation or debates on the figures but fact of the
matter is that there is an issue not only of water shortage, but even of water
quality and access which needs stronger attention – a call not only to media, but
also to civil society, water experts, organizations and media advocates working in
the state. Government of India has announced the year 2007 as “Water Year”
with a view to address water-related issues – probably a need which is immediate
here in Madhya Pradesh. May be time has come to move away from realm of
words, to bring change in reality for people of the state. Madhya Pradesh has
been facing acute water shortage for the past many years, but nothing concrete
has been done in this direction. It is high time that the administration looks into the
matter and focuses on providing safe drinking water. Hundreds of men and
women from ward number 3 of Dabra area in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh got
together and submitted a memorandum to the district administration complaining
about the acute water shortage they have been facing for past several months1.
MP High Court directed the Divisional Commissioner, District Collector and Civil
Surgeon Jabalpur to present before the court regarding a hearing on the petition
filed by citizens of the district. The petition challenged the district administration
and the health officers for not providing pure drinking water and hygienic
environment to the people of several areas of the district. The petition also
mentioned about the inadequate medical facilities at the Government Victoria
Hospital, Jabalpur and the inability of health department to provide proper
treatment for seasonal and infectious diseases.
Regional Variation in Rainfall Departure in Madhya Pradesh
1
Benny George:Nirmal Gram Puraskar: A Unique Experiment in Incentivising
Sanitation Coverage in Rural India
- 54 -
Rainfall increases as one moves from north and west towards east. The highest
rainfall occurs in the Chhindwara district in the southeast. The rainfall records
pertaining to the decade 1993-2003 show that the state had adequate rainfall, i.e.,
above 75% of the average rainfall, though with considerable variation. However,
on a longer time frame, 22 districts have been declared as drought-prone for
quite a long period. South Western and Malwa regions show maximum fluctuation
in rainfall. It shows a steady decline of water in Malwa .
Status of Water Supply in Madhya Pradesh :
Though Madhya Pradesh is endowed with five major rivers, Ganga, Godavari,
Narmada, Mahi and Tapi, it depends almost exclusively on ground water 99% for
drinking purpose. Overexploitation of groundwater can be seen in many parts of
the state, which could be due to the increasing use of handpumps / tubewells.
This has led to depletion of groundwater level and the present groundwater status
in half the districts comes under semi-critical, critical and over exploited category
(Scott and IDC, 2005). Nevertheless, there are few districts where groundwater
level has improved over time.
Table No - 3.2
Decrease In The Sources Affected By Low Groundwater Level
(January 2005 To June 2010)
Handpumps With Low Water District Level (Percentage)
January 2005
14.81
19.40
22.92
25.49
16.76
Indore
Ujjain
Ratlam
Mandsaur
Neemuch
June 2010
9.89
12.44
6.43
18.16
16.76
Handpumps with low water District level
30
25
20
Values 15
Jan-05
10
Jun-10
5
0
Indore
Ratlam
City
- 55 -
Neemuch
Unlike the national figures for water supply coverage, Madhya Pradesh data
reflects a negative trend in water supply coverage and 2005 shows an increase in
NC and PC habitations. The share of NC habitations has increased from 1.57% to
11.12%. Whereas, the share of FC habitations have declined from 80.36% to
66.49% during this period.
Overexploitation of Groundwater :
Over-exploitation of groundwater is another important issue that threatens the
sustainability of existing sources. A comparison of 2001 and 2010 Census data on
source of drinking water in rural households shows an increase in the use of
handpump/ tubewell from 34.2% to 50.8%. In 34 districts the groundwater status
has been reported to be semicritical, critical or overexploited. In terms of
geographical spread, the problem is acute in the western region where the rainfall
is also low. Data from the CGWB show continuous decline in the groundwater
level, which has been a cause of concern. As per Census 2001 data, Indore,
Dhar, Jhabua, Ujjain, Ratlam, Sheopur and Dewas are the districts with more than
70% of their drinking water sources as handpump/ tube wells.7 Another reason for
growing water shortage in the state is that 21 districts - concentrated mainly in
Malwa, South Central and Vindhya regions - fall under the basaltic region where
groundwater recharge rate is very low. A groundwater act, however, is in the
process of being finalized. It is important to note that in a fairly large part of the
state groundwater level has not declined to a critical level. This rather encouraging
fact of low rate of groundwater overexploitation can plausibly be linked to IWRM
efforts and large scale watershed development initiatives taken up in earnest in
the state, especially in the dry belts.
Facts about Facing the Water Scarcity :
·
Fact 1 - Water scarcity occurs even in areas where there is plenty of
rainfall or freshwater. How water is conserved, used and distributed in
communities, and the quality of the water available can determine if there is
enough to meet the demands of households, farms, industry and the
environment.
·
Fact 2 - Water scarcity affects one in three people on every continent of the
globe. The situation is getting worse as needs for water rise along with
population growth, urbanization and increases in household and industrial
uses.
·
Fact 3 - Almost one fifth of the world's population (about 1.2 billion
people) live in areas where the water is physically scarce. One quarter of
the global population also live in developing countries that face water
shortages due to a lack of infrastructure to fetch water from rivers and
aquifers.
·
Fact 4 - Water scarcity forces people to rely on unsafe sources of drinking
water. It also means they cannot bathe or clean their clothes or homes
properly.
·
Fact 5 - Poor water quality can increase the risk of such diarrhea diseases
as cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery, and other water-borne infections.
Water scarcity can lead to diseases such as trachoma (an eye infection
that can lead to blindness), plague and typhus
·
Fact 6 - Water scarcity encourages people to store water in their homes.
This can increase the risk of household water contamination and provide
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breeding grounds for mosquitoes - which are carriers of dengue fever,
malaria and other diseases.
Fact 7 - Water scarcity underscores the need for better water
management. Good water management also reduces breeding sites for
such insects as mosquitoes that can transmit diseases and prevents the
spread of water-borne infections such as schistosomiasis, a severe illness.
Fact 8 - A lack of water has driven up the use of wastewater for agricultural
production in poor urban and rural communities. More than 10% of people
worldwide consume foods irrigated by wastewater that can contain
chemicals or disease-causing organisms.
Fact 9 - Millennium Development Goal number 7, target 10 aims to halve,
by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe
drinking water and basic sanitation. Water scarcity could threaten progress
to reach this target.
Fact 10 - Water is an essential resource to sustain life. As governments
and community organizations make it a priority to deliver adequate supplies
of quality water to people, individuals can help by learning how to conserve
and protect the resource in their daily lives.
Water Scarcity In Indore
Indore is the most populated city in the centrally located state of Madhya Pradesh,
and the population is expected to grow to approximately 3.3 million by 2030.
Indore is a trading center, and on account of its strategic location serves as a hub
of trade and commerce for the whole of western India. The city also sees
significant business from various industries, including the textile industry, but
these businesses are increasingly concerned about water and power resources in
the area. There is a high rate of migration into the city of mostly laborers and
students. Being located near the watershed boundary between the Narmada and
Chambal Rivers, the local water resources are no longer able to support the
growing demands of the city. The water supply is intermittent and faces acute
water shortages during summers. Water quality is also a major issue for the city
as studies indicate that 70% of the tube wells in Indore are contaminated1.
CLIMATE :
Temperatures range seasonally from 10°C to 40°C with precipitation dominated
by the monsoon from June to September
CITY CONTEXT :
Located in the Khan River basin on flat terrain at an altitude of approximately 550
m above mean sea level
As mercury is soaring across the state, water crisis has plagued Indore, Bhopal
and other hundred small towns. Indore and other places of the Malwa plateau are
the worst hit as the entire plateau is gradually converting into desert and water
table is receding fast. Last year Indore civic bodies have taken control of borewells which were commercially used2.
1
2
http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/keyword/water-scarcity
www.imagineindore.org/impact_indore.php
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Except for Narmada phase-III, Indore receives 16-17 million litres water per day
(MLD) from Yashwant Sagar dam against its need of 190-200 MLD. Narmada
project is supposed to add another 360 MLD but it is yet to get to its full capacity.
“In most of the areas of the town Indore Municipal Corporation has yet to transport
water through tankers to ensure regular drinking water supply,” a local from Indore
said, who now has to shell out Rs 230 per month to receive regular tap water
supply from the municipal corporation.
The Municipal Corporation of Bhopal has raised water supply charges from Rs 60
to Rs 180 in the state capital though it supplies water once in two days.
“The water supply rates may cross Rs 300 per month per connection once the
Narmada water supply project becomes operational,” a senior official said adding,
“regular water supply in Bhopal is yet far.” Bhopal gets 45% of its water supply
from upper lake and the rest from nearby Kolar dam. “We will restore regular
water supply once demand perks up,” Babulal Gaur said adding, “We have
sufficient water in Bhopal.”
If sources are believed of the total 339 local bodies 120 are facing water shortage
due a continuous dry spell in the recent past and more than 150 could not supply
water regularly. Water scarcity haunts me like a nightmare. It badly affects my
daily routine and some time even restricts my movement. Every day, we have to
store water which always remains insufficient for the day. Dearth of water has
become a real trouble for us.
OVERVIEW :
Despite the challenges, there is significant scope for improvement to both the
water supply and related public health status, in order to build resilience. The main
objective is to demonstrate alternative viable and sustainable models for cost
effective, reliable urban water management through community involvement,
which can be mainstreamed into the municipal system. This comprises of 3 key
phases :
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Community context analysis to understand the city’s water scarcity situation
and provide the context for developing integrated water management options
and community level intervention processes.
Development of tools and methods for the assessment of the present water
resource situation and future projections and technology options.
Community level interventions such as developing tools for community
mobilization and piloting user managed integrated water systems.
EXPECTED IMPACT :
This will initially benefit the four communities selected for participation. However,
the models developed will be of benefit at city level. The intervention provides
cheaper, higher quality, and more diverse local water supply options which will
build resilience against unreliable supplies and help accommodate increasing or
surge demand. This will provide water security for the poor who get differentially
lower levels of services and pay relatively higher rates due to the hidden costs of
poor water supply. It will reduce the poor’s disease burden and domestic burden
of water collection, much of which falls on women and children.
This will also contributes to the following resilience characteristics:
· ‘Flexibility and Diversity’- diversity of water sources means vital assets and
functions are distributed so they are not all affected by a given event at any one
time.
· ‘Redundancy and Modularity’- the project promotes the ability to accommodate
increasing or surge demand through multiple pathways options.
· ‘Resourcefulness’- the activities will increase the city’s capacity to identify
problems with water resources, establish priorities and mobilize resources to
tackle the risk.
· ‘Responsiveness’- the ability to organize/reorganize the water system both in
advance of and following a stress through capacity building measures.
· ‘Learning’- capacity building measure will enhance the city’s ability to internalize
past experiences and failures and make improvements to the water system.
BENEFICIARIES :
The system will directly benefit around 1,000 poor households and Indore
Municipal Corporation as a result of better managed water supply and redundancy
options. It will reduce water borne health risks through improved knowledge about
the water quality of different sources.
The Indore city team conducted a risk and vulnerability assessment to get a better
understanding of the impacts of climate change on Indore. As part of the
ACCCRN initiative, five sector studies (Water Security, Energy Security, Urban
Environment and Health, Green Buildings and Urban Transport) were undertaken
to guide development of a climate resilience strategy.
The largest risk to Indore is water scarcity which is pervasive across the city and
likely to be exacerbated by rising temperatures caused by climate change.
Despite the two major local sources, supplemented by two water supply schemes
using the Narmada River and a third phase near completion, water scarcity
remains an issue for the city due to:
· High variability in rainfall
· Explosive growth in population
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Lags between demand growth and commissioning of supply augmentation
Poor financial health of the urban local body (ULB) to maintain the distribution
infrastructure
Illegal connections, large amounts of unaccounted for water
Low access by the poor to the municipal corporation water supply
Lack of sewerage systems allowing for recycling and reuse of water for
industrial uses.
The city’s flat terrain and poorly draining soils make it prone to flooding, which is
exacerbated by an inefficient drainage system. According to the study, uncollected
solid waste is clogging about 200 km of natural drainage within the city.
Inadequate storage facilities and mixing of different types of solid wastes are
reported due to poor management of solid waste, as well as a lack of public
participation and demand. The city has been unable to provide sustainable
solutions, despite several initiatives and investments under various programs.
Prolonged water logging is believed to have caused the 2009 dengue epidemic in
the city. Poor water quality and vector borne diseases are a health risk to Indore,
particularly as the city’s disease surveillance system does not work effectively
causing responses from city officials to be too reactive to provide a long-term
solution to the city’s health problems.
The study also noted that the increasing frequency and intensity of precipitation is
a major hazard for managing Indore’s transportation network. Intense rainfall and
water logging will be major issues that will increase the maintenance costs of road
networks in the city. Rising temperatures are also likely to increase the impact of
pollution and discomfort during the summer, particularly for drivers of two-wheeled
vehicles.
Other major vulnerabilities identified in Indore include:
· Low level of training for skills-based jobs
· Low income stability, particularly among the lower class and slum dwellers
· High financial vulnerability due to low insurance coverage for asset loss or
medical emergencies and a high volume of loans taken out by the lower class
and slum dwellers
· INDORE: With the summer is gaining momentum, the difficulties of the city
residents too mounted due to the growing water shortage problem, which is
spreading to more areas of the Indore Municipal Corporation (IMC). The civic
body's control room is buzzing with calls for water tankers from different parts
of the city including posh localities and the IMC's all-out efforts to supply
adequate water in the scarcity-hit areas became a regular failure.
· The civic body has allotted one each water tanker to all 69 wards of the city,
but this is proving to be insufficient and every day, the IMC control room
receives around 30 calls from people seeking water tankers from the different
parts of the city including Bengali Colony, Residency, New Palasia, Airport
Area, Sarvoday Nagar, Sneha Nagar, Sai Krupa Colony and Mahalaxmi
Nagar. Baffled with the increasing demand for water tankers from residents,
the IMC has decided to increase the number of water tankers.
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Water works in-charge Sapna Chouhan said that civic body started water supply
through tankers from April 1. All the corporators have been allotted one each
water tankers. After increasing demand for tankers, private tankers have also
been pressed into service. Besides this, the number of supply by tankers has also
been increased, Chouhan said. However, right now situation is under control.
Civic officials said that around 100 tankers are supplying waters in the city now.
Initially they are supplying one time and it was increased to four trips in two shifts
in a day. One tanker takes two rounds in the morning and two in the evening, said
the IMC officer Chouhan said that the quantity of water has also been increased
significantly as borewells are drying up. Supply from borewells constitutes around
40% of the total water supply in the city. Beside this, the city residents get water
from Narmada pipeline also on alternate days.
Leader of opposition in the IMC, Abhay Verma, said, "The civic body had
promised to supply 24-hour water supply, but it is not even able to supply water
for a few hours. People entirely depend on water tankers, even in the areas
through which the Narmada water pipeline passes. The reason is that Narmada
line will be opened on alternate days that too for just 20 minutes, so people have
to call tankers for their daily needs." He further said that till now IMC spent Rs 600
crore on Namrada water project alone but people are still deprived of water.
Energy consultant Nabvin Goyal said that breakdown and technical problems
have become the norm of the day. Water from pipeline in Geetanjali Vatika in
scheme No. 74 has been leaking for past three years. "All my requests to fix the
problem have fallen on deaf ears. Loss of water can be prevented if we plug the
leakages on the supply lines," he said.
A Clean Water Crisis :
The water you drink today has likely been around in one form or another since
dinosaurs roamed the Earth, hundreds of millions of years ago.
While the amount of freshwater on the planet has remained fairly constant over
time—continually recycled through the atmosphere and back into our cups—the
population has exploded. This means that every year competition for a clean,
copious supply of water for drinking, cooking, bathing, and sustaining life
intensifies.
Water scarcity is an abstract concept to many and a stark reality for others. It is
the result of myriad environmental, political, economic, and social forces.
Freshwater makes up a very small fraction of all water on the planet. While nearly
70% of the world is covered by water, only 2.5% of it is fresh. The rest is saline
and ocean-based. Even then, just 1% of our freshwater is easily accessible, with
much of it trapped in glaciers and snowfields. In essence, only 0.007% of the
planet's water is available to fuel and feed its 6.8 billion people.
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Due to geography, climate, engineering, regulation, and competition for resources,
some regions seem relatively flush with freshwater, while others face drought and
debilitating pollution. In much of the developing world, clean water is either hard to
come by or a commodity that requires laborious work or significant currency to
obtain.
Wherever they are, people need water to survive. Not only is the human body 60
percent water, the resource is also essential for producing food, clothing, and
computers, moving our waste stream, and keeping us and the environment
healthy.
Unfortunately, humans have proved to be inefficient water users. The average
hamburger takes 2,400 litres, or 630 gallons, of water to produce, and many
water-intensive crops, such as cotton, are grown in arid regions.
According to the United Nations, water use has grown at more than twice the rate
of population increase in the last century. By 2025, an estimated 1.8 billion people
will live in areas plagued by water scarcity, with two-thirds of the world's
population living in water-stressed regions as a result of use, growth, and climate
change.
The challenge we face now is how to effectively conserve, manage, and distribute
the water we have. National Geographic's Freshwater Website encourages you to
explore the local stories and global trends defining the world's water crisis. Learn
where freshwater resources exist; how they are used; and how climate,
technology, policy, and people play a role in both creating obstacles and finding
solutions. Peruse the site to learn how you can make a difference by reducing
your water footprint and getting involved with local and global water conservation
and advocacy efforts.
Conclusion:
The conclusions of this chapter observes, "Despite the added thrust given to the
Programme since 1999, planning and implementation suffered due to neglect of
priority areas like sustainability, community participation and Quality &
Management. Resultantly, many schemes were abandoned midway and a large
number of nonfunctional assets and unsustainable systems/sources were created
which were indicative of serious planning weaknesses. There is a strong question
mark about the possibility of the achievement of the new envisaged objective of
providing potable drinking water to all. Other aspects of water can be continued in
next chapters.
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