A Level Media Studies
Dictionary
A Linguistic Toolbox for A-Level Students
A-Z
by Simon Rees
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Note to Students
Media Studies is built upon a number of key concepts – e.g. representation. Everything
you do as part of an AS/A2 course will relate to one or more key concepts, and they
should underpin your response to any assessment task. For convenience all key concepts
have been highlighted with the symbol below.
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Key Concept
All exam boards expect students to make use of a range of subject-specific terminology
in their answers. Take care to ensure you do not misuse or overuse terms. You may find
it helpful to illustrate this guide with your own examples or case studies, or attempt
writing a definition in your own words. You could also cut up a copy of the guide and
attempt to link each term with the correct definition.
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A
ABC scale A method of classification devised by government and often used by the
media to target audiences. The system is based on occupation, education and
financial factors.
Also known as: NRS scale
Group
A
B
C1
C2
D
E
Definition & Examples
Upper Middle Class
Higher level professionals including lawyers,
doctors, managers of large organisations
Middle Class
Other professionals including teachers and
other white collar workers
Lower Middle Class
Skilled / professional work. E.g. blue collar
workers, junior nurses, admin assistants.
Skilled Working Class
Skilled manual work. E.g. electricians,
mechanics & plumbers
Working Class
Semi-skilled & unskilled manual workers. E.g.
bus drivers, factory line workers, shop workers
Subsistence
Pensioners, students, casual workers.
Approximate
% of the
population
3%
18%
27%
22%
19%
11%
Due to changes in the workforce and the process of embourgeoisment many critics
now argue this form of classification is outdated.
See also: target audience, Rubicam & Young
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active, semi-active and passive audiences There are a range of audience theories
in media studies which try to explain:
a. the effect the media has on the audience
b. how audiences use texts
In broad terms, these theories can be described as belonging to one of three
categories:
1. Passive: Includes the hypodermic needle / magic bullet, and inoculation theories. All
view the audience as passive recipients of media messages.
2. Semi-active: Semi-active theories such as the two step flow model suggest some
action on the part of the audience, but ultimately they are still affected by media
messages.
3. Active: Audiences actively control and select media texts according to their own
needs and desires. Examples include the uses & gratifications theory.
The uses and gratification tradition suggests audiences are active consumers of
media texts, not passive recipients. Many passive audience theories are often
criticised for being over simplistic.
See also: audience
advertising techniques Advertisers use a variety of techniques to make their
products appeal to audiences. These include:
Use of humour
Celebrity endorsement
Sex appeal
Catchphrase
Music
Reward & punishment
Style of language (mode of address)
Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) The body responsible for regulating
advertising in the UK. The authority’s code stipulates that advertisements should
be legal, decent, honest and truthful. Examples of advertisements that have caused
concern in recent times are the Wriggly chewing gum ‘dog breath advert’ and a
Boots No. 7 mascara advertisement Examples of other complaints, concerns and
adjudications can be found on the ASA website, alongside a number of studentfriendly resources.
See: www.asa.org.uk/asa/about/Guided+Tours/Schools+and+Colleges/
agenda setting News media organisations select which issues should be covered in
their products, i.e. the agenda is set.
See also: gatekeeping
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AIDA Advertisements work in four stages. This can be remembered by the mnemonic
AIDA:
Awareness that the product exists
Interaction with the advert
Desire to want the product
Action – Buying the product
See also: drip
alliteration Repetition of the same sound at the beginning of two or more words:
e.g. ‘bigger, better, brighter.’
alternative media Media that is counter to the mainstream. Often produced by
independent companies, such texts often have a cult following. Some suggest that
what is ‘alternative’ today, will become ‘mainstream’ tomorrow.
assonance The repetition of the same vowel sound in a phrase: ‘so alone’.
anchorage The use of words in a caption to hold or limit the meaning of an image.
astro-turfing To create the impression of being spontaneous and grassroots, some
music artists are represented as having a working class background / ideology,
when in fact they may have had quite a privileged upbringing. This constructed
identity is thought to give artists more kudos / ‘street cred’. The reference to the
artificial grass AstroTurf highlights the manufactured nature of such texts. Lilly
Allen has been criticised for such image creation.
See also: faux grassroots
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Key Concept
audience Without an audience the media could not exist. Media Studies is concerned
with:
1. How audiences are targeted.
2. How audiences use the media.
3. How texts position audiences.
4. How audiences are affected by the media.
5. How audiences affect / shape the media.
‘ Complex area of Media Studies which emphasises the importance of how
socially formed readers engage with the media’ (Branston & Stafford 1996).
‘Audience defines the receivers of mass media communication (also readers and
viewers). It may be measured in terms such as numbers, gender and spending
habits’ (Burton 2002).
See also: active, semi-active and passive audiences, target audience, audience positioning,
ABC scale, Rubicam & Young, uses and gratifications theory, Mulvey, pleasure,
hypodermic needle theory, cultural effects theory, inoculation theory, two step flow
audience expectations What the audience expects from a particular media text.
e.g. the Disney logo at the start of a film directs the viewer to expect a certain type
of film, e.g. Hero versus Villain.
audience gratification Pleasure that an audience gains from a text. An audience
might feel pleased with themselves if they solve an enigma or recognise an example
of intertextuality.
See also: Mulvey, pleasure, uses and gratifications theory
audience positioning How texts are structured in ways that position audiences to
adopt a particular perspective. This may be done through mode of address,
representation or narrative.
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Barthes, Roland Amongst other things, Roland Barthes believed all narrative is a
collection of puzzles or enigmas that need to be solved, i.e. what will happen next?
BBFC The regulatory body that classifies films and video games. The board is funded
through fees it charges to those who submit films and games for classification.
When classifying texts the Board considers:
•
•
•
•
theme
language
nudity
sex
•
•
•
•
violence
imitable techniques
horror
drugs
Such issues are always considered within the context of the text in which they
appear, and current societal issues.
For further information see: www.bbfc.co.uk and www.sbbfc.co.uk
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Berliner Sometimes referred to as ‘compact’, the ‘Berliner’ is half way between a
tabloid and broadsheet in size. Currently, The Guardian uses this format to produce
a layout that is similar to the traditional broadsheet in appearance.
See also: broadsheet, tabloid
bias Term used to suggest a lack of impartiality.
Newspapers and other media texts are often
accused of having a left, or right wing bias.
See also: left wing, right wing
big close-up A shot that shows the face filling the
frame, good for expressing strong emotions.
binary opposite See Lévi-Strauss.
‘Big Close-Up’
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broadsheet A newspaper printed on sheets of paper 116.83 x 81.28 cm (46 x 32 inches).
In recent years newspapers that have traditionally used the broadsheet size have
changed their format.
E.g. The Times and The Independent have become tabloid in size, while The Guardian
has adopted a new ‘compact’ or ‘Berliner’ format. As a result of such changes the
‘broadsheet quality press’ and the ‘popular tabloid press’ are now outdated terms.
Broadsheet audiences are sometimes accredited with the tag ‘information seekers’,
whilst tabloid audiences are sometimes tagged ‘emotional participants’.
See also: Berliner, tabloid
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Bobo doll An experiment carried out with children who watched a violent video
featuring a doll called Bobo. The children were then observed to see if this had an
effect on how they later played with the said doll. Used by scientists Bandura &
Walters to suggest the media has a hypodermic effect.
See also: hypodermic needle
Bollywood The Hindi-language film industry based in Mumbai, India is one of the
largest film producers in the world.
British Film A heavily contested term, there are several definitions of what exactly
constitutes a British Film. Finance, creative input, location, and origin are factors
considered in deciding whether a film is British or not.
The British Film Institute suggests the following form of classification:
1
Films where the cultural and financial impetus is from the UK, and the
majority of personnel are British.
2
Majority UK co-productions. Films in which although there are foreign
partners, there is a UK cultural content and a significant amount of
British finance and personnel.
3
Minority co-productions. Foreign (non-US) films in which there is a
small UK involvement in finance or personnel.
4
American-financed or part-financed films made in the UK. Most titles
have a British cultural content.
5
US films with some British financial involvement.
For further details visit: www.bfi.org.uk
British Film Institute (BFI) A registered charity which encourages the development
of film in the United Kingdom.
BFI have a comprehensive archive of film and relevant film information which can
be accessed via the web site www.bfi.org.uk
byline Information giving the name of the person who wrote an article.
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caption Words beneath a picture which may anchor (limit / focus) its meaning.
censorship Refers to the practice of restricting what can be published or broadcast.
See also: ASA, BBFC, Ofcom
CGI Computer Generated Imagery is the use of computer graphics to create special
effects.
Channel 4 Set up in 1982 with a specific remit to cater for audiences not catered for by
the existing three-channel system. Essentially, Channel Four is a commercially
funded, publicly owned, Public Service Broadcaster.
See also: S4C, PSB
Channel 5 (now known as ‘five’) Launched in 1997 as Channel Five, the company
now brands itself simply as ‘five’. Commercially funded and currently owned by
the German media company RTL Bertelsmann.
channel loyalty Programmes with broad appeal (soaps & quiz shows) are often
placed at the start of prime time in an attempt to keep audiences viewing for the
duration – to create channel loyalty.
cliché A phrase which has been so overused it is almost meaningless.
cliff hanger A situation that keeps the audience
guessing what will happen in the next episode of a
programme or story; i.e. the final enigma.
See also: enigma
close-up A shot in which only a subject’s head is
shown.
colloquialism Informal language or slang. Often used
in tabloid newspapers and advertisements,
especially those aimed at a youth audience.
‘Close-up’
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common junction points Where a number of programmes on the same network
have a similar start time. e.g. “Next here on Four is HollyOaks, meanwhile on More Four /
Film Four / E4 ……. is about to start”
conglomerate A company that consists of a number of companies rolled up together.
Disney would be an example of a conglomerate, as it is a toy manufacturer, a
retailer, a film maker, a television company and a theme park operator. Therefore a
multi-industry company. Some conglomerates diversify their business interests into
a wide variety of industries in order to limit risks to their profits. e.g. Virgin Money,
Virgin Media, Virgin Trains
See also: multinational
connotation The audience’s interpretation of a sign, or an association or idea
suggested by a sign. E.g. the colour red has connotations of love or danger.
See also: denotation
content analysis The process of measuring how many times an issue / image is used
in a media text in order to analyse its significance. E.g. the number of times a
particular image / motif is repeated in a film may impact on the audience’s
understanding of the narrative.
context Media texts are not created, nor consumed in a vacuum. Historical,
institutional, and cultural contexts all come into play.
convention Unwritten rules / typical features of a media text. A text which follows
conventions of its type / genre may contain many typical elements. Audiences are
usually aware of these conventions on a subconscious level.
copy The words in an advertisement or article.
crop To cut / edit an image, usually to create a particular effect / meaning/
cross-genre Texts that combine conventions from more than one genre. In film, Black
Sheep (2007) is a horror comedy. Some cross-genres become so frequently
produced they begin to be recognised as a genre in their own right; e.g. rom-com
(romantic comedy).
See also: genre, sub-genre, hybrid
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cultural capital Sociological concept invented by Pierre Bourdieu.
Cultural capital refers to the knowledge and experiences each audience member
brings to a text. Supporters of this concept suggest that middle class audiences
often have more cultural knowledge to bring to a text than their working class
neighbours.
See also: context, encoding/decoding
cultural competence Linked to ‘cultural capital’ above, Bourdieu suggests that
various classes have different competences that impact on their enjoyment and
understanding of different media forms.
See also: context, encoding/decoding
cultural effects theory A theory which centres on the long term effects of the media.
Particular emphasis is placed on the effect representations have on society’s beliefs
and values.
See also: hypodermic needle, inoculation theory, two step flow, uses and gratifications
theory, pleasure, Mulvey
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D
D notice / DA notice In the interests of national security the government has the
authority to place a ‘D notice’ on material it does not want published. Renamed
‘DA Notice’ in 1993 to reflect its advisory nature.
See the official web site: www.dnotice.org.uk
decoding The translation of meaning from a media text.
The decoding/encoding model devised by Stuart Hall emphasises the notion of
audience interpretation. What is decoded by an audience may be different from
what was encoded by the creator of the text.
See also: encoding, polysemic
dominant ideology Refers to the most prominent ideology (ideas / beliefs/ values)
within a society. Dominant ideology is often perceived to be the ideology of the
dominant class. Gramsci argued that dominant ideologies are maintained through
a process of hegemony.
See also: ideology, hegemony
denotation The everyday, commonsense, or obvious meaning of a sign.
See also: connotation
diegetic sound Sound which is part of the shot, e.g. a conversation or a radio playing
in a pub scene. If the characters within the shot can hear the sound, then it is
diegetic.
See also: non-diegetic
dissolve An editing technique in which one image or scene fades & overlaps (dissolves)
into another.
distribution The stage between production of a media text, and its exhibition to
audiences. In each industry distribution of media texts is dominated by a few large
organisations.
The success of a media text can often depend on how well it is distributed.
See also: production, exhibition
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diversification Many large organisations diversify their business interests, (branch
out) into a range of industries in order to limit risk. i.e. Virgin operates in the
media, finance and transport industries.
See also: conglomerate
double mode of address Where a media text addresses the audience on two levels.
The ‘obvious level’ for the mainstream target audience, and a ‘higher level’ for a
section of the audience who bring additional knowledge to the text. The Simpsons
and Torchwood are examples of texts that operate on more than one level.
See also: cultural capital, cultural competence
doughnut wrap This describes a news bulletin which is in three parts:
1. in the studio
2. on location
3. back in the studio.
dumbing down The practice of simplifying content (and/or mode of address) in a text
in order to reach a wide audience.
See also: tabloidisation
Dunblane Site of 1996 massacre where Thomas Hamilton opened fire on primary
school children in Dunblane, Scotland. Films such as Heat were criticised but there
is no evidence of a link with the film.
See also: hypodermic needle
duopoly Where two companies dominate an industry. (As opposed to monopoly which
refers to one company, or oligopoly which refers to a small number.)
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E
editor The person ultimately responsible for the content of a newspaper magazine or
news programme.
elliptical editing The removal of insignificant shots in film / television. e.g. audiences
do not need to see the main character’s entire journey to work. It is sufficient to see
her get into her car, followed by a shot of her in traffic, followed by her arriving at
her destination.
embourgeoisement The idea that middle class jobs and therefore middle class
culture has grown significantly. Middle class is now the majority / mainstream.
See also: proletarianisation
encoding Meaning and messages ‘put in’ or encoded into a media text. The
decoding/encoding model devised by Stuart Hall emphasises the notion of
audience interpretation. What is encoded by a media producer may be different
from what is later decoded by the audience.
See also: decoding, polysemic
enigma Roland Barthes’ suggestion that all narratives are made up of puzzles
(enigmas) for the audience to solve.
equilibrium Todorov’s first stage of his four stage narrative format. The equilibrium
represents the stage where forces are in balance or harmony.
See also: Todorov, disruption, quest, resolution
establishing shot The opening shot which is used to establish genre / narrative /
character / location.
The shot below would establish the location as Cardiff.
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‘Establishing Shot’
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exhibition The final, but vital stage in bringing a media text to an audience. Exhibition
is concerned with not just bringing the text to an audience, but doing so to an
appropriate audience at an appropriate time.
See also: production, distribution
extreme close-up
extreme long shot
eye-line match The process whereby eye contact is maintained during a scene (e.g. a
shot reverse shot scene) in order to maintain a sense of continuity.
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F
fade An editing technique in which an image disappears gradually, leaving the screen
blank. Often used as fade-to-black.
faux grassroots Describes how stars ‘fake’ their grassroots or working class
background in order to promote a particular image of themselves. E.g. Lilly Allen’s
image is based on street (almost ‘chav’) culture. When the tabloid press and some
Radio stations reported that she had received a very privileged upbringing, and
attended one of the most expensive private schools in the country, her grassroots /
street image was seen as fake by some.
See also: astro-turfing
Film Four Launched in 1998 and owned by Channel Four Television Corporation. Four
years later, the company set up by Channel 4 to act as its film studio closed; its
production capability was reabsorbed into the TV station’s drama wing. The brand
continues to operate as a television channel broadcasting on Freeview.
flash element Any animation / video used to form part of a web page.
foreknowledge Information an audience brings to a text. e.g. prior knowledge of the
main star, or an understanding of the conventional narrative devices used in a
television programme.
See also: context
frame The way the camera is used to place an image within its field of view.
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gatekeeping The process whereby news is selected for broadcast / publication. Such
selection is likely to consider:
The news values held by the organisation in question.
Expectations of the target audience.
See also: news values
gender Social and cultural differences of the two sexes.
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Key Concept
genre The type or category of a film, programme or other media text.
Media Studies is concerned with:
1. The conventions of genre texts (generic conventions).
2. How & why audiences are attracted to genre products.
3. Industries’ use of genre.
4. How genre formats develop and evolve.
“Genres are vague categories with no fixed boundaries. Genres are formed by sets of
conventions, and many works cross into multiple genres by way of borrowing and
recombining these conventions.” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre)
“Genre refers to types of media products that are recognisable through having a
number of common and identifiable elements that add up to a kind of formula for the
creation of story and characters. Genres are also, by nature, popular and commercially
profitable.” (Burton 2002)
“There is always both repetition and difference at play in genre products.” (Branston &
Stafford 2006)
See also: sub-genre, cross-genre, hybrid
global village The notion that the world is getting smaller as a result of technological
advancements in communication systems.
In a global village individual cultural differences and experiences are eroded as we
begin to consume the same cultural texts & commodities.
globalisation The process whereby organisations are increasingly operating on a
worldwide scale and basis.
Gramsci, Antonio See hegemony.
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H
hammocking The process of placing a new or less appealing programme between two
successful shows in order to attract an audience.
hegemony A concept devised by the Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci (pronounced
‘Gram-shee’). Hegemony describes how an unequal balance of power in society is
controlled not by force, but by a process of naturalisation or hegemony.
When the dominant group or ‘power bloc’ have achieved a hegemonic culture the
proletariat (or working class) accept their viewpoint as common sense. The media
have an important role in maintaining this process.
Power Bloc
Proletariat
See also: dominant ideology
hierarchy of needs See: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
high angle shot A shot taken from above a subject, often used
to suggest power over the person.
Hollywood studio system The Hollywood Studio system
existed in Hollywood’s golden age of film production. Often
compared to a factory line production, studios had stars and
other personnel contracted to studios for years on end,
rather than the film by film contracts stars have now.
homogenised In sociology and media studies, the term
homogenised suggests uniformity of culture.
‘High Angle Shot’
See also: global village, Americanisation
hot spot A picture or part of a picture on a web page which is hyperlinked to another
page or site.
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hybrid A text which uses elements from a number of genres. (This is different from a
cross-genre text which combines two genres.) Examples in music include artists such
as The Scissor Sisters and Mika. The appeal of hybrid texts is often their unique
combination of elements from various genres, conversely, it is this uniqueness that
often hinders their ability to be targeted and promoted as they do not fit into preexisting categories.
See also: genre, sub-genre, cross genre
hyperbole Extreme exaggeration. Many film posters use critics’ comments that show
clear signs of hyperbole. Just think of the number of ‘the best film this year’
comments you have read on film posters and trailers.
hypodermic needle The idea that the media injects its consumers with the messages
and meanings it chooses, and that the audience has no real power to resist. This
theory has been criticised by many as being over simplistic.
See also: active, semi-active and passive audiences
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I
icon An image which looks like itself and is instantly
recognised. E.g. the frequently reproduced image of the
Argentinian revolutionary Che Guevara.
ideological state apparatus Institutions which act as an arm
of the state in order to legitimise certain ways of thinking.
This may be formally or informally. During the General
Strike of the 1920s the BBC supported the government by
helping to break the strike. The BBC was criticised by some
for not supporting the invasion of Iraq in 2003, and thus not
acting as an ideological state apparatus.
‘Iconic‘ image of
Che Guevara
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Key Concept
ideology A complex term, broadly relating to a framework of ideas and beliefs. These
may be formally or informally held.
In Media Studies ideology is inextricably linked to representation.
“Ideology is the dominant set of beliefs and values in society that sustain power
relations.” (Bell et al 2005)
“Ideology is a difficult – but important – concept to grasp. Simply put, it is the ideas
behind a media text, the secret (or sometimes not-so secret) agenda of its producers. It
is important to be able to identify the different ideological discourses that may be
present in even an apparently simple photograph.”
http://www.mediaknowall.com/alevkeyconcepts/ideology.html
See also: American Dream, right wing, left wing, hegemony, dominant ideology
imperialism The domination of one nation over another. Traditionally this may have
been through direct, coercive means. In a post-modern world many argue
imperialism has been replaced by a process of cultural or media imperialism.
e.g. Hollywood’s global reach and dominance promotes American ideology and
culture, arguably at the expense of indigenous cultures.
See also: hegemony
inclusive pronouns ‘We’, ‘us’. Used to give a sense of belonging, or to address the
audience directly.
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independent A media organisation that is not one of the major players in its industry.
indexical sign A sign which indicates time. E.g. falling leaves signify autumn.
indigenous culture Culture that is native to a particular country. (E.g. Aboriginal
culture is native to Australia.) Many argue that indigenous cultures are now under
threat from globalisation & media imperialism.
See also: globalisation, media imperialism
industry A collective term describing the area of business in which an organisation
operates. E.g. E-map is a large organisation which operates in the magazine
industry.
inheritance factor A scheduling technique. Audiences often ‘trust’ a channel that has
provided them with a programme they have enjoyed. The inheritance factor
describes the process whereby a programme that follows an already successful one
will inherit some of its audience.
inoculation theory The inoculation theory is part of the effects tradition. It suggests
that long term exposure to media messages and images will desensitise / inoculate
an audience. i.e. the audience will eventually become immune to them. The theory
sees the audience as passive.
See also: active, semi-active and passive audiences, hypodermic needle, cultural effects
theory
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Key Concept
institution Whilst some writers use the terms institution and organisation
interchangeably, others use the term institution to recognise that organisations have
a system of values, usually apparent in the way in which texts are produced.
E.g. a Hollywood studio or a newspaper proprietor.
See also: organisation, multi-national, conglomerate
intertextuality The way in which media texts copy / parody / interact with each other.
When a text makes an intertextual reference, its audience needs an understanding
of an additional media text to have a full understanding of the one they are
consuming. E.g. The Simpsons often use intertextuality – sometimes in a more
obvious way than others. They have referenced or parodied such films as Psycho,
Star Wars, Indiana Jones, and The Graduate.
inverted pyramid Traditionally, newspaper articles are constructed
in this form. They begin broadly, and narrow the focus as the story
develops.
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pyramid’
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J
jump cut An edit in which action appears to jump in an illogical way.
juxtaposition The placing of two (often contradictory) signs / images within close
proximity in order to deliberately create meaning.
K
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Key Concept
key concepts Media studies is concerned with six main ideas or concepts. They
include:
genre
narrative
representation
institutions / organisations
audiences
ideology
These six concepts provide the framework for which media studies is built upon.
Whilst listed separately in this guide, they all interact, and co-exist with each other.
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L
left wing Broadly speaking, left wing politics represents socialist ideology. Extreme left
wing would be communism. Traditionally, the Labour party has been the party of
the left in the UK. When New Labour was invented in the 1990s many criticised the
party for moving towards more centre / right wing policies.
In simple terms, left wing ideology would support the distribution of wealth and
resources in society.
See also: bias, right wing
Lévi-Strauss, Claude Claude Lévi-Strauss said that all narratives are made up of
binary opposites. E.g.:
The Western
Good – Bad
Law Abiding – Law Breaking
Clean Living – Poor Morals
The use of such opposites in both factual and fiction texts helps to accentuate
features by offering comparison.
lexis Bank of words or choice of language.
If a quality broadsheet and a popular tabloid covered the same news story they
would, in all likelihood, use a different lexis. Tabloid newspapers are more likely to
use words from an emotional lexical field, whereas a quality paper may be more
likely to use words from a technical or factual lexical field.
See also: loaded lexis
libel Written or broadcast publication of false and damaging statements about people
and/or groups. (Libel is the written form of slander.) In each industry the
regulatory bodies uphold libel laws.
loaded lexis Choice of words that have multiple or loaded meaning. Often used in
tabloid newspapers and advertisements that wish to employ a dual mode of
address.
See also: dual mode of address
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long shot
low angle shot Often used to accentuate height, or to signify importance.
low brow A term used to describe media texts (and modern culture) that have
(relatively) low intellectual content / require low intellect to appreciate. Tabloid
newspapers are seen to be low brow, especially when compared to the quality
press.
See also: high brow, dumbing down, tabloidisation
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M
magazine front page
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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Abraham H Maslow was a psychologist who stated
that all human beings have basic needs which must be fulfilled in order for them to
survive. Advertisers often play on these needs by very subtly suggesting that
owning a particular product will help fulfil a certain need.
There are several versions of Maslow’s
hierarchy (he added additional levels
to his original work). The most
common needs can be summarised as:
• Physiological (the need for food and
Achievement /
Self-actualisation
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pt, Italic
Esteem
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Social
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pt, Italic
Safety
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Physiological
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water)
• Safety (the need to be secure and free
from threat or harm)
• Social (the need to ’belong’ or ‘fit in’)
• Esteem (to want others to think good,
or highly of you)
• Sense of Achievement (the desire to
feel you have done something good)
‘Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs’
masthead The title of a newspaper positioned on the top of front page.
maxims A term which expresses a general truth or principle, e.g. ‘smaller is better’.
McGuffin A term popularised by Hitchcock. A device or element which drives the
narrative forward. At the end of the narrative the McGuffin is likely to have little or
no importance.
See also: red herring
mean world syndrome The notion that audiences who consume a large amount of
media texts which represent negative images of the world come to feel more at
threat than they really need to. E.g. In the film Bowling for Columbine, Michael
Moore suggests (among other things) that the number of American news texts that
represent a violent and dystopian view of America lead audiences to be more
fearful of attack than they need to be.
media imperialism The idea that dominant (western) media suppress other forms of
media due to their size, reach and financial capabilities. e.g. Hollywood’s global
reach and dominance promotes American ideology and culture, arguably at the
expense of indigenous cultures.
See also: indigenous culture
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media text Any media product designed to be consumed by an audience.
mediation The process of interpreting, constructing and editing in order to represent
an event or issue.
See also: representation, news values
medium close-up A shot between medium shot and close up shot
medium long shot A shot between medium shot and long shot.
medium shot A shot between close-up and long shot.
‘Medium Shot’
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metaphor Comparison between two unconnected elements. Boxing metaphors are
often used in a dispute when one side ‘throws in the towel’.
metonym A sign or signifier that represents something much bigger than the sign
itself. E.g. our views of Wales would very significantly depend on the images
chosen to represent it. Images of The Senedd (Welsh Assembly building) and the
Millennium Stadium would signify a modern, urban, regenerated country. Images
of sheep feeding on hill tops would stand for something quite different.
See also: signifier, signified, connotation, denotation
minority audience A relatively small audience with an interest in a subject not
regarded as popular or widespread. i.e. the opposite of a mass audience.
mise-en-scène A French term borrowed from theatre. In media studies, mise-en-scene
refers to everything included within the frame, its very presence and how it is
presented.
mode of address How the audience is addressed or spoken to. A BBC Radio 4 News
report would have a more formal mode of address than a Radio 1 bulletin for
example.
money shot 1. Literally the shot in film or television that cost the most to produce;
2. The shot that will ‘make the most money’ in that it will draw the audience in.
These two definitions often (but not always) relate to the same shot.
monopoly Total (or near total) control of a marketplace/industry by a single company.
In the UK monopolies are generally frowned upon. Any company merger or
takeover that may result in monopoly control is investigated by the Competition
Commission.
montage A number of shots edited together for effect. The shots are often connected
by theme and/or a non-diegetic sound track.
moral panic An increase in concern about the possible effects of a particular media
text. Recent moral panics include:
• The games Grand Theft Auto and Manhunt 2 – blamed for encouraging youth
crime & violent behaviour.
• Marilyn Manson’s music – blamed for the Columbine killings in America.
• Rap music – blamed for encouraging gun crime in the US.
Stanley Cohen outlines a five stage cycle in which moral panics are created,
promoted, die out, and are reinvented with a new focus.
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multi-national A company which operates in more than one country, often on a
world wide scale. The benefits are obvious: the larger the potential audience, the
larger the profit.
See also: conglomerate
multi-plex A cinema with more than one screen. The first UK multi-plex opened in
Milton Keynes in 1984. The vast majority of UK multi-plexes are owned by just a
few companies, who rarely broadcast art house / independent film.
See also: oligopoly, independent film, exhibition
multi-stranded narrative Refers to narratives that have more than one plot. These
plots may differ in their prominence (main plots and sub plots) and may also
overlap or interweave.
See also: narrative, single-stranded narrative
Mulvey, Laura In 1975 Mulvey wrote the influential essay ‘Visual Pleasure and
Narrative Cinema’.
Mulvey points out that cinema audiences watch characters on screen in a darkened
room; characters that are created for the pleasure of the audience. This, she
believes, encourages audiences to view images in an objectified manner.
E.g. beautiful women are viewed in a scopophilic manner. She coined the term
‘male gaze’ which suggests audiences view these texts voyeuristically.
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Key Concept
narrative How a story is told / how a plot unfolds before an audience.
Media Studies is concerned with:
1. The conventions of narrative (including how conventions are sometimes broken).
2. How narratives inter-relate with each other.
3. How and why audiences are attracted to narratives, and what they gain from
them.
4. Industry’s use of narrative.
It is important to remember that narrative exists in factual and fictitious media
forms.
“The devices, strategies and conventions governing the organisation of a story
(fictional or factual) into sequence: ‘and then’.” (O’Sullivan et al 1995)
“In media terms, narrative is the coherence /organisation given to a series of
facts. The human mind needs narrative to make sense of things. We connect
events and make interpretations based on those connections. In everything we
seek a beginning, a middle and an end. We understand and construct meaning
using our experience of reality and of previous texts. Each text becomes part of
the previous and the next through its relationship with the audience.”
http://www.allisonmedia.net/downloads/Year_12/Narrative_and_Ideology.pdf
See also: single-stranded narrative, multi-stranded narrative, intertextuality, Propp,
Todorov, Barthes, Lévi-Strauss
narrowcasting The opposite of broadcasting.
In a multi-channel environment many television broadcasters have attempted to
attract an audience through broadcasting a very narrow range of genres, enabling
audiences to know what they are getting in advance. e.g. The Discovery Channel,
BBC News 24, TMF.
naturalisation The process whereby hegemony is achieved. Naturalisation describes
how certain ideologies are represented as ‘natural’ or ‘common sense’.
See also: hegemony
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news values The qualities which explain why photos and stories are selected as
newsworthy. The following list is not exhaustive, as each institution will apply its
own set of values, however it outlines some of the most commonly used.
• Immediacy – Has it happened recently?
• Familiarity – Will it mean something to the audience? Will they be able to
relate to it?
• Numbers – How many people are involved?
• Frequency – Does it fit the newscasters schedule?
• Unambiguity – Is it clear? Are the results/effects obvious?
• Predictability – Do we expect it to happen?
• Surprise – Is it a rare or unexpected event?
• Continuity – Has it already been classed as news?
• Elite countries and people – Will the audience be able to identify / relate?
• Personalisation – Is it a personal or human interest story?
• Negativity – Is it bad news?
• Balance – Does it balance out the coverage of home/foreign news,
economic/human interest, or bad/good news?
See also: bias, gatekeeping
nine-o’clock watershed A time in the television schedule which marks the point at
which ‘adult content’ can be shown; e.g. explicit sex or violence. In the UK, Ofcom
monitors adherence to the 9pm watershed, so that parents will know that is safe to
allow their children to watch TV before this time.
See also: Ofcom
non-diegetic sound Sound which has been added for effect, e.g. eerie music in a
horror scene, or a voice over in a documentary. Non-diegetic sound refers to sound
which the people within the scene cannot hear.
See also: diegetic sound
NRS scale See ABC scale.
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180-degree line An invisible line in filming, which the camera does not cross.
Establishing such a line prevents audiences from becoming disorientated, as they
always see action and setting from a particular perspective.
Ofcom Regulatory body which covers television, radio and telecommunications. The
most common complaints to Ofcom tend to concentrate on taste and decency. Three
of the most high profile cases in recent years include:
• Radio 1 presenter Chris Moyle’s use of the word ‘gay’ to describe the quality of a
ringtone;
• An investigation into how phone-votes and phone competitions are used during
programmes such as Ant and Dec’s Takeaway and The X Factor.
• A record number of complaints were received regarding a phone call made by
Russell Brand and Jonathan Ross to the actor Andrew Sachs. The original Radio 2
broadcast was hardly noticed until a Mail on Sunday article drew attention to the
prank.
oligopoly Where a small number of institutions dominate a particular market place.
Since the cinema chain UCI merged with Odeon, some would argue that the
cinema industry is dominated by an oligopoly of Cineworld, Showcase, Warner
and Odeon.
See also: monopoly, duopoly
one voice One voice used in a radio show as opposed to a ‘zoo format’.
See also: zoo format
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Key Concept
organisation Another name for a company. An organisation may play a role in a
specific part of the production process, or control all of it.
See also: multinational, conglomerate, institution
Orwellian George Orwell wrote the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four in which an allpowerful government monitored every thought and move of the individual. (The
origin of the term ‘Big Brother’.) Orwellian describes the situation or idea where
propaganda, misinformation, denial of truth, and manipulation of the past, is used
to control the individual.
See also: propaganda, hegemony
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overlapping editing Editing which repeats the same frame(s) or shot a number of
times. This may be done to:
1. enable an audience to see the same piece of action from more than one angle;
2. allow the audience time to absorb and react to what they have just seen.
It is common for overlapping sequences to be shown in slow motion, though this is
not always the case.
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panning A shot in which the camera moves or tilts horizontally, from a stationary
pivot point. (In tracking the camera would physically move.)
See also: tracking
parody 1. Some media texts are created to mock or comment on an earlier text. They
parody them. See also: intertextuality
2. Also a linguistic term used to describe slight change to a well known phrase or
song: e.g. tabloid story about MP’s love affair: ‘I Just Can’t Get You Out Of My Bed’
(Parodying Kylie’s ‘I just can’t get you out of my head’.)
passive audience See active, semi-active and passive audiences.
pathetic fallacy When the weather indicates that something good/bad is about to
happen in the narrative. A character’s feelings are expressed through his/her
surroundings.
PCC see Press Complaints Commission.
personalisation A writing technique often employed by tabloid newspapers and
gossip magazines. Frequent use of first names / nicknames in an over familiar
manner. The device narrows the gap between readers and politicians or celebrities.
May also refer to websites and adverts being tailored specifically for an individual,
e.g. website adverts which are targeted according to what interests a user has
specified or searched for.
personification When an object or abstract idea is given human traits.
platform release A limited release of a film to a minority of cinemas in order to
a) gain attention, and b) test interest before full nationwide release.
point-of-view shot A shot that shows the audience exactly what a particular
character sees. Often used to encourage the audience to empathise / sympathise
with a character.
polysemic All signs – and therefore texts – may have more than one meaning. On a
simple level, the colour red has connotations of love, romance, blood and danger.
On a slightly more complex level American gangster rap may be decoded by some
people as music that glorifies violence, aggression and gun crime. To others it may
tell the narrative of an individual struggling to fulfil their American dream – to
move out of the slums and gain material possessions.
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postmodernism A complex term with more than one meaning. Postmodernism
literally means ‘after modernism’. It is commonly used in media studies to refer to
texts that mix elements to form a kind of hybrid text that breaks known
conventions.
pre-echo Audiences who tune in early for their favourite show each week will often
‘catch’ the end of the previous programme. Eventually a proportion of this
audience will be attracted to this earlier programme and consume it regularly.
pre-production Term used to describe ‘the planning stage’ of creating a media text.
E.g. storyboarding a sequence before filming.
pre-scheduling Broadcasting a programme minutes before its rival on another
channel. E.g. Broadcasting ‘Strictly Come Dancing’ (BBC) before audiences tune
into ‘Dancing on Ice’ (ITV)
Press Complaints Commission (PCC) An independent body which is responsible
for regulating the British Press (newspapers & magazines). It has no legal powers;
instead it advises publishers in line with the industry’s voluntary code of practice.
E.g. Since Princess Diana’s death the PCC have been more pro-active in warning
the tabloid press against publishing various stories / photographs involving
members of the Royal Family.
prime-time Peak television viewing time, usually the evening between the hours of
7 and 11.
product placement When a product is literally placed into a scene / shot for
advertising purposes. Currently illegal on UK TV, Ofcom have stated that they may
change the rules in the near future.
production The process of making a media text after the pre-production / planning
stage, and prior to the post production / exhibition stage.
See also: distribution, exhibition
production values / production costs The elements (sets, location, quality of
effects etc.) and subsequent costs that make up a media text.
Talk shows have low production costs. There is no action, no rehearsals or
expensive sets. Sci-fi and action movies tend to have high production costs due to
their higher production values.
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propaganda Communication which is manipulated in order to promote a particular
ideological message. The most effective forms of propaganda are ‘invisible’. i.e. the
audience is not aware the material they are consuming is propaganda.
See also: bias, Orwellian
Propp, Vladimir Propp argued that the many different characters that appear in
narratives can be divided into just eight character types or spheres:
1. The hero (not to be confused with someone who has ‘heroic qualities’, the hero is
simply the story carrier).
2. The dispatcher who sends the hero on his way.
3. The villain who tries to stop the hero.
4. The donor who provides the hero with an object.
5. The helper who aids the hero.
6. The princess who is the reward for the hero.
7. The father who rewards the hero.
8. The false / anti-hero.
Although many of these terms are gender specific, they should not be seen as such.
Remember they describe roles, not specific characters.
See also: narrative, Barthes, Todorov, Lévi-Strauss
Public Service Broadcasting (PSB) A heavily debated term, PSB has its roots in
Riethan philosophy, though the two terms are not synonymous.
PSB describes a philosophy / ideology that views the airways as public goods not
private commodities and should be used as such. Public Service Broadcasters have
a concern for minority as well as majority audiences; they cater for a diverse range
of interests and tastes and are free at the point of access.
The BBC justifies its licence fee on the basis that it enables it to be an effective
public service broadcaster.
puff A slogan which informs the reader as to the quality / popularity of the newspaper,
e.g. ‘Britain’s Best Daily’.
puns A simple play on words frequently used by advertisers and tabloid newspapers.
E.g. ‘What’s the big IKEA?’
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qualitative research Qualitative research concentrates on the ‘how’ and ‘why’. It is
interested in depth rather than numbers. Methods of qualitative research include
interviews, focus groups, and observations.
quantitative Quantitative research is often seen as more systematic. It is interested in
‘what’, ‘when’, and ‘where’. Methods of quantitative research include
questionnaires and data analysis.
quality press Traditionally speaking, broadsheet papers were often referred to as
‘the quality press’ due to a more serious approach than the popular tabloids.
(Greater emphasis on political, economic, and other hard news issues.)
Nowadays, some broadsheets have become tabloid or compact in size. Some would
argue that the quality press has also become more like the popular or gutter press, a
process known as tabloidisation.
See also: tabloidisation, dumbing down, broadsheet, tabloid, Berliner
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reach The percentage of the total audience that tunes into a channel or station for at
least some time.
See also: share
realism The use of signs and symbols to represent the real world. All media texts are
constructed representations of reality, and are therefore limited in their realism
qualities.
See also: representation
red herring An element in the narrative that diverts attention from the main plot line.
Commonly used in crime drama / thriller genres.
See also: McGuffin
Reith / Reithian Lord John Reith, first Director General of the BBC. Reith had very
staunch religious beliefs which pervaded all BBC output. His ‘Reithian Philosophy’
was that broadcasting should inform, educate and entertain.
See also: Public Service Broadcasting
repetition Often used by newspapers, politicians and advertisers to emphasise a
point. E.g. Tony Blair’s famous ‘education, education, education’ speech.
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representation Representation forms the foundation of Media Studies. Media texts
are re-presentations of reality, they are an interpretation, an opinion, they are never
a transparent ‘window on the world’
“Making signs stand for their meanings” (O’Sullivan 1995)
“. . . every media form, from a home video to a glossy magazine, is a
representation of someone's concept of existence, codified into a series of signs
and symbols which can be read by an audience.”
http://www.mediaknowall.com/alevkeyconcepts/representation.html
See also: ideology, realism
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rhyme Frequently used by tabloid journalists and advertisers to attract and& maintain
the attention of the audience. ‘We spank their tanks’.
right wing Broadly speaking, right wing politics represent capitalist, free market
ideology. Traditionally, the Conservative Party has been the party of the right in
the UK. When New Labour was invented in the 1990s many criticised the party for
moving towards more centre / right wing policies.
See also: bias, left wing
rollover An image on a web page that changes appearance when a mouse rolls over or
clicks it.
rule of three / three stage crescendo Involves some repetition of idea, but not
necessarily of words. Often used by newspapers, politicians, and advertisers to
emphasise a point. E.g. the film Final Destination used the tagline: ‘no accidents, no
coincidences, no escape’.
Rubicam & Young One of the largest marketing, advertising and branding
organisations in the world. Rubicam & Young have devised a method of targeting
audiences that goes beyond traditional age / gender / class stereotypes. Their ‘Cross
Cultural Consumer Characterisation’ (known as the 4Cs) divides society into seven
kinds of people:
• The explorer
• The aspirer
• The succeeder
• The reformer
• The mainstream
• The struggler
• The resigned
See also: target audience, ABC scale
rushes Unedited film, taken directly from the camera.
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S4C Sianel Pedwar Cymru (Welsh for ‘Channel Four Wales’). Two versions currently
exist: a bilingual version via analogue, and an entirely Welsh version via digital.
S4C does not produce its own programmes but commissions them from the BBC
and various independent producers.
See also: Public Service Broadcasting
semantic field Semantic field refers to the selection of words chosen for
communication.
A quality paper is likely to employ words from the semantic field of economics and
politics, such as inflation, economy, and democracy., When analysing the front
page of a popular newspaper you might expect words from the semantic field of
sex / scandal.
semi active See active, semi-active and passive audiences.
SFX Special effects or devices used to create particular illusions, e.g. explosions.
Increasingly, SFX are now achieved through the use of CGI (Computer Generated
Imagery).
See also: CGI
share The percentage of the total audience that tunes in over a defined period of time.
E.g. if the total television audience for 7–8pm on 7th May 2008 is 15 million, and
5 million of which is tuned to BBC1, they have a 33.3% share of the audience.
See also: reach
signified The meaning attributed to a sign. E.g. a green rubbish bin signifies recycling.
signifier The physical part of a sign. E.g. a green rubbish bin.
single-stranded narrative Refers to narratives that have one plot. More commonly
found in pop music than other media forms.
See also: multi-stranded narrative
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social realism A form of film/television that attempts to represent ‘real life‘. Often
coined, ‘warts and all’ or ‘kitchen sink drama’. Social realism films do not have the
gloss and glamour of Hollywood, but instead attempts to portray working/under
class struggles.
See also: realism
soft focus Shooting a subject slightly out of focus to create a sense of nostalgia, or to
connote a dream sequence.
steadicam A device that enables camera movement without jolting or shaking the
shot.
stereotype / stereotyping Representation of people or groups of people by a few
characteristics.
Stereotypes are generalised representations often based on assumptions.
Stereotypes evolve and change over time. Examples include Vicky Pollard from
Little Britain as the stereotypical ‘chav’, and Phoebe Buffay as the stereotypical
‘dumb blond’.
Modern media texts sometimes challenge stereotypical representations by devising
characters that break the mould. E.g. The gay cowboys from Brokeback Mountain.
Others parody and exaggerate (often outdated) stereotypes for humorous effect –
e.g. Dafydd from ‘Little Britain’.
See also: representation
storyboard A mock-up of how a sequence will look when it has been filmed.
Storyboards can be used in:
• pre-production as a common framework from which to plan filming;
• production stages as prompt for the actors, lighting technicians, camera
operators and editing crew.
sub-genre A genre within a genre. Television drama is a broad genre, within that
category you can find police drama, hospital drama, soap opera, and period drama
amongst others.
synergy Where media texts and organisations operate in a way that provides
promotional benefits for both parties. The fast food chain McDonalds may have a
children’s happy meal that is designed around the latest Disney film. (There might
be a special ingredient used for the meal, with a free toy included and special
edition wrapping and cups.) On the one hand, this is providing promotion for the
film, however, McDonalds are also benefiting by linking their product to a
successful blockbuster.
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tabloid Newspaper half the size of a broadsheet, with pages measuring 58.4 x 40.6cm.
Tabloid audiences are sometimes tagged ‘emotional participants’ while broadsheet
audiences are sometimes accredited with the tag ‘information seekers’.
See also: quality press, popular press
tabloidisation Another term for the process of ‘dumbing down’. Tabloidisation
describes how news in quality newspapers and broadcast media is sometimes
sensationalised, and concerned with gossip. Hence, becoming more ‘tabloid-like’.
See also: dumbing down, low brow, high brow
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tagline The equivalent of a slogan on film posters. Famous taglines include:
‘In space, no one can hear you scream’ (Alien 1979).
‘The legend comes to life’ (Lord of the Rings 2001).
‘May the force be with you’ (Star Wars 1977).
target audience Audiences are often divided into demographic groups for targeting
purposes. Factors involved in categorisations include:
• Age
• Gender
• Sexuality
• Ethnicity
• Class / socio-economic background
• Lifestyle
See also: ABC scale, Rubicam & Young
tent pole films / programmes Films and television texts that are built to a
successful formula, to maximise profits in order to financially support the
organisation that made it. The profits made from a tent pole production help to
soften the blow that any less successful texts may have on an organisation.
three stage crescendo / rule of three See rule of three.
Todorov, Tzvetan Todorov believed that all narratives have four stages.
The equilibrium is a calm stage where any opposing forces are in balance. This is
followed by a disruption to this harmony. (In science fiction this might be an alien
invasion, in a romantic comedy it might be the girl’s first contact with the boy.)
What follows is a quest to ‘mend or fix’ the disruption in order to return to a stage
of balance and harmony once more – the resolution.
tracking shot To move the camera alongside a piece of action, on rails.
two step flow The two step flow model was invented by Lazarsfeld & Katz who
studied voting behaviour in the US. The theory is slightly more complex than the
‘one step flow’ theories that suggest the media has a direct impact on the audience.
Lazarsfeld & Katz suggested that whilst the audience is affected to some extent by
the media, messages are often mediated through opinion leaders.
See also: mediation, active, semi-active and passive audiences
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uses and gratifications theory James Holloran wrote in 1970 that the uses and
gratifications tradition is moving away from what the media does to people and
looks instead at what people do with the media.
Bulmer & Katz suggested a list of reasons why audiences use media texts, and
Dennis McQuail also put forward a detailed catalogue. It can be summarised as:
1. Personal Identity
Audience members might compare themselves to media characters / stars. This
might be done to reinforce personal values, to model one’s appearance or to aspire
to the behaviour of a role model.
2. Information or Surveillance
Audiences use media texts in order to seek out information about the world in
which they live.
3. Entertainment / Escapism
Gaining entertainment from the media may sound obvious, but it is sometimes
more complex than that. audiences may use the media for relaxation, emotional
release, or diversion from the real world.
4. Social Interaction / Integration
The media may be used to simply keep us company, or give us a sense of
belonging. It can also be used as a tool to stimulate discussion and find common
ground with family and friends.
See also: active, semi-active and passive audiences
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vertical integration Where one organisation owns companies at two or more levels of
production, distribution and exhibition. For example, the 2008 Bond film
Quantum of Solace was produced by MGM (20% owned by Sony) and Columbia
Pictures (owned by Sony). The film was distributed by Sony / Columbia Pictures.
See also: production, distribution, exhibition
very long shot
viewspaper A pejorative (derogatory) term used to describe a newspaper that
publishes opinions more readily than it does facts. (The two are often combined in
a way which blurs the line between them.)
violence debate An ongoing debate in media studies that is focused on whether the
media causes a violent society, or whether it is a violent society that demands a
violent media.
See also: hypodermic needle, Bobo doll, cultural effects theory, inoculation theory,
active, semi-active and passive audiences
voice over Off-screen voice (non-diegetic) that usually tells the story, explains the
action, or comments on it.
See also: non-diegetic sound
vox pop A Latin term which literally means ‘voice of the people’. Used in TV news
when a member of the public is asked to express their opinion on a current news
story.
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watershed A threshold point in the television schedules, beyond which it is acceptable
to broadcast ‘adult material’. In the UK this is set at 9pm. Ofcom regulates
broadcasters’ adherence to the watershed.
See also: Ofcom
web 2.0 Web 2.0 refers to a second generation of web users and software developers
who in general terms are more creative and interactive uses of the web. Facebook,
MySpace, YouTube and blogs would be typical of web 2.0.
web page It is difficult to provide a single diagram of a typical web page as there is
such variety in layout. The image below is designed to show some of the common
features.
whip pan A very fast panning shot. It is also possible to whip zoom and whip track.
See also: panning shot, tracking shot, zoom
who, what, where, when, why? (5 Ws) The five questions that journalists use as a
guide when constructing a news report.
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working title A working title is the temporary name of a project used during preproduction and production stages. During the first of the modern series of ‘Dr Who’,
the BBC labelled the project ‘Torchwood’ an anagram of Dr Who in order to maintain
confidentiality. Working titles can also be used simply because the title has not yet
been finalised.
Working Title Films Probably the most successful British film production company of
modern times. It produces feature films and some television productions. Working
Titles is best known for producing a number of rom-coms written by Richard Curtis.
As of 2007, all of its films are distributed by Universal Pictures, which owns a large
stake in the company.
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X
xenophobia Literally means a fear or contempt of foreigners or strangers. Some critics
argue that through their selection and construction processes, some tabloid
newspapers help to engender xenophobic attitudes.
Y
Young & Rubicam See Rubicam & Young.
Z
zeitgeist German term translated as ‘the spirit of the age’. The zeitgeist describes both
the cultural and intellectual climate of a period in time. E.g. the zeitgeist of the
1980s could be described as materialistic and capitalistic, whereas in the late 2000s
ethical purchasing and green issues might reflect the spirit of the age.
Some would argue that the media helps to create or promote the zeitgeist; others
argue that it simply reflects it.
See also: cultural effects theory, two step flow, uses and gratifications theory
zoo format A group of radio presenters ‘chat’ in an informal manner, often placing the
audience as a ‘participant’ in the conversation.
zoom Camera lens movement towards or away from an image or piece of action.
E.g. a shot in which the camera zooms in from a long shot to a big close-up.
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Bibliography
The following texts have been used to provide additional definitions for each key
concept. They are useful sources of information for any AS/A Media Studies student.
Branston, G & Stafford, R (1996) The Media Student’s Book
Second Edition, Routledge, London
Burton, G (2002) More Than Meets the Eye
Third Edition, Arnold, London
Bell, A, Joyce, M & Rivers, D (2005) Advanced Level Media
Second Edition, Hodder & Stoughton, London
O’Sullivan et al (1995) Key Concepts in Communication & Cultural Studies
Second Edition, Routledge, London
The following websites may also be of use.
@ www.allisonmedia.net
@ www.asa.org.uk/asa/about/Guided+Tours/Schools+and+Colleges/
@ www.bbfc.co.uk
@ www.bfi.org.uk
@ www.mediaknowall.com
@ www.wikipedia.org
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Add Your Own Words
Media Studies is a constantly-evolving subject.
Add your own subject-specific words here.
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