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Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations
The Graduate School
2010
Over Conformity to the Sport Ethic Among
Adolescent Athletes and Injury
Marguerite Amber Shipherd
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
OVER CONFORMITY TO THE SPORT ETHIC AMONG ADOLESCENT ATHLETES AND
INJURY
By
AMBER M. SHIPHERD
A Thesis submitted to the
Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
Degree Awarded:
Spring Semester, 2010
The members of the committee approve the thesis of Amber M. Shipherd defended on March 30,
2010.
_______________________________________
Robert C. Eklund
Professor Directing Thesis
_______________________________________
Gershon Tenenbaum
Committee Member
_______________________________________
David W. Eccles
Committee Member
Approved
___________________________________________________________________________
Betsy Becker, Chairperson, Educational Psychology and Learning Systems
___________________________________________________________________________
Marcy P. Driscoll, Dean, College of Education
The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members.
ii
For my family and friends:
Thank you for your unconditional love and support, and continually pushing me to be better.
I could not have done this without all of you.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to extend my sincerest appreciation to my major professor, Dr. Robert
Eklund, who taught me, guided me, and supported me through it all. I would also like to
acknowledge my gratitude to the members of my committee, Dr. Gershon Tenenbaum and Dr.
David Eccles. Your advice and input was invaluable.
I would like to especially thank my parents for allowing me to follow my dreams. Your
endless support is what allowed me to continually reach higher. To my friends Itay and Les for
your patience with my countless questions and your immense statistical knowledge. Your
support and insights made this process much easier and smoother. Lastly, to my dear friend Lael
for always being there to support me, for igniting the competitive edge in me and pushing me to
strive to be better.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables………………………………………………………………………..
vii
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………….
viii
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………..
ix
I. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………..
1
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE……………………………………………………
3
Deviance and Conformity…………………………………………………...
Athletic Identity……………………………………………………………..
Health Damaging Behaviors…………………………………………………
Injury………………………………………………………………………...
Sport Ethic…………………………………………………………………...
Self-Determination Theory…………………………………………………..
Participation in the Culture of Risk………………………………………….
Current Considerations………………………………………………………
3
5
5
6
7
9
10
12
III. METHODS……………………………………………………………………...
13
Participants…………………………………………………………………..
Instrumentation……………………………………………………………...
Informed Consent
Sport Demographic Data and History
Injury Tracking Forms
Predictor Variables………………………………………………………….
Sport Attitudes Questionnaire
Dependent Variables………………………………………………………..
Number of Injuries
Severity of Injuries
Procedure…………………………………………………………………...
Statistical Analysis………………………………………………………….
13
13
14
15
15
16
IV. RESULTS………………………………………………………………………
17
Analysis of the Sport Attitudes Questionnaire……………………………..
Descriptive Statistics……………………………………………………….
Explanation for Establishment of Two Extreme Groups….……………….
Testing Hypotheses 1 and 2………………………………………………..
Additional Analyses for Hypotheses 1 and 2………………………………
Testing Hypothesis 3……………………………………………………….
17
18
19
21
25
30
v
V. DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………….
Limitations and Future Directions…………………………………………..
APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………..
Sport Demographic Data and History………………………………………
Coach Injury Tracking Form………………………………………………..
Athlete Injury Tracking Form………………………………………………
Sport Attitudes Questionnaire………………………………………………
Human Subjects Committee Approval Letter………………………………
Human Subjects Change in Protocol Approval Letter……………………...
Informed Assent……………………………………………………………
Parental Informed Consent…………………………………………………
Parental Permission Form…………………………………………………..
36
39
41
41
47
48
50
56
58
59
60
61
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………….
62
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH………………………………………………………
66
vi
LIST OF TABLES
1. Demographic characteristics of participants………………….…………………..
13
2. Rotated principal axis factor matrix for the Sport Attitudes Questionnaire…..….
17
3. Correlations among SAQ factors……………………………..…………………..
18
4. Participants’ injuries………………………………………………………………
19
5. High and low groups on conformity variables……………………………………
21
6. Group means and SDs for hypotheses 1 and 2 ……….……….………………....
22
7. ANOVA results for SAQ-Total (high vs. low) groups…………………………...
23
8. ANOVA results for SAQ-MA (high vs. low) groups…………………………….
24
9. ANOVA results for SAQ-PC (high vs. low) groups……………………………...
25
10. Means and SDs for reasons for over conformity…………………………..…….
26
11. ANOVA results for SAQ-Total reasons…………………………………………
27
12. ANOVA results for SAQ-MA reasons…………………………………………..
28
13. ANOVA results for SAQ-PC reasons……………………………………………
28
14. Group means and SDs for item average of all 13 Sport Attitudes Questionnaire
items (SAQ-Total) with level of competition as covariate……………..………..
29
15. ANCOVA results for item average of all 13 Sport Attitudes Questionnaire items
(SAQ-Total) (High vs. Low) groups with level of competition as covariate…....
30
16. Means and SDs for reasons for over conformity………………………………...
31
17. ANOVA results for item average of all 13 Sport Attitudes Questionnaire items
(SAQ-Total) reasons……………………………………………………………..
32
18. ANOVA results for SAQ-Meaning of being an athlete (SAQ-MA) reasons……
33
19. ANOVA results for SAQ-Playing at all costs (SAQ-PC) reasons………………
34
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Self-determination theory continuum…………………………………………….
10
2. Participant overall over conformity scores distribution……………………….….
20
viii
ABSTRACT
Iconic media moments include: Kerri Strug’s 1996 Olympic vault with two torn
ligaments in her ankle, and Tiger Woods’ win in the 2008 US Open with a torn left anterior
cruciate ligament and a double stress fracture on his left tibia. Both athletes were regarded as
heroes for competing while injured and particularly because they were successful in doing so.
Even fourth grade athletes accept pain and injury as inevitable outcomes of playing sports, and
continue to play through the pain and injury (Singer, 2004). Over conformity to the sport ethic
can include behaviors such as: risking injury or prolonged illness to compete, playing through
pain, inclination to avoid medical attention, or winning regardless of the physical costs (Hughes
& Coakley, 1991; Miller, 2008). The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship
between over conformity to the sport ethic and injury in adolescent athletes. Male (n = 98) and
female (n = 105) athletes between the ages of 13 and 18 in Tallahassee, FL were recruited to
participate in the study. Athletes provided demographic, sport and injury history data and
completed the Sport Attitudes Questionnaire developed for this study. The Sport Attitudes
Questionnaire measured degree of and reasons for conformity to the sport ethic. Data analysis
revealed athletes who were found to be higher in sport ethic conformity reported incurring a
significantly greater number of injuries at the .05 level (m = 2.02) than their peers (m = .80) who
were found to be lower in sport ethic conformity. Athletes high in conformity reported engaging
in sport ethic conformity behaviors because they believed athletes should be tough. Athletes low
in sport ethic conformity reported engaging in sport ethic conformity behaviors because they
loved their sport. Implications of these results for athletes, coaches and sport psychology
practitioners are discussed.
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
“Every Sunday, an NFL [National Football League] player plays through pain that would
make the average human cry and stay home from work for a few days... The measure of a
football player isn’t how well he performs on Sunday but how well he performs in pain” (NFL
running back Ricky Williams, in Williams & Le Batard, 1999).
In many sports, injury is to be expected at some point in an athlete’s career. American
Sports Data (2002) reports that there are more than 23 million sport injuries each year (as cited in
Williams & Andersen, 2007). Young (1993) reported that all NFL players can expect to sustain
at least one injury during a four month season. Sports-related injuries are not only prevalent
among competitive athletes; the number of non-competitive athletes who suffer sports-related
injuries is high as well. Hardy and Crace (1990 as cited in Williams & Andersen, 2007) note that
nearly half of all non-competitive athletes suffer injuries that prevent temporary participation in
sport. Athletic injuries affect both the young and old. Bijur, Trumble, Harel, Overpeck, Jones,
and Scheidt (1995 as cited in Kontos, 2004, p. 447) reported that “the proportion of serious
injuries resulting in long-term, or permanent disability, or disfigurement that occur as a result of
sport participation among athletes aged 10 to 13 years is significantly higher than that for any
other age group of youth athletes.” In the 2004-2005 school year, over seven million students
participated in interscholastic high school athletics, up from four million during the 1971-1972
school year (Center for Disease Control, 2006). 46.4% of all emergency-room visits for persons
aged 15 to 19 were accounted for by sports- and recreation-related injuries (Knowles et al.,
2006). Even emergency-room visits for Americans 65 years or older increased by 54% from
1990 to 1996 as a result of sport participation (Brown, 2005). With increasingly high numbers of
injuries in both competitive and non-competitive athletes, the need for additional research
regarding the sources of injury is paramount. Research in this area could demonstrate the
necessity for more injury prevention programs with both sports teams and coaches. Additional
research on the specific causes of injury could lead to more and better injury prevention
programs.
An iconic media moment from the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta occurred when Kerri
Strug of the United States completed her second vault with two torn ligaments in her ankle. No
1
less of a media moment was the coverage of Tiger Woods walking ninety-one holes to win the
2008 US Open with a torn left anterior cruciate ligament and a double stress fracture on his left
tibia. Both of these phenomenal athletes were regarded as heroes for competing while injured
and particularly because they were successful in doing so. These are not isolated examples.
Many competitive athletes are reinforced for endangering their health. Even athletes as young as
fourth grade accept pain and injury as inevitable outcomes of playing sports, and continue to play
through the pain and injury (Singer, 2004). With so many athletes engaging in behaviors that
place them at serious risk of suffering an injury, and the amount of sports-related injuries that
have increased over the past 15 - 20 years, the need for additional research on sport injury
prevention and prediction is crucial (Pargman, 2007).
The sport ethic involves beliefs about what it means to be an athlete and the importance
of striving for distinction and athletic excellence. Examples of the sport ethic include: refusing to
accept limits in the pursuit of possibilities, making sacrifices for the game, accepting personal
risk in the pursuit of victory and being able to manage pain to play “the game” (Coakley, 2007;
Hughes & Coakley, 1991). Over conformity to the sport ethic can include behaviors such as:
declining to wear optional protective gear, inclination to minimize warm-up or stretching, risking
injury to compete, risking prolonged illness to compete, playing through pain, inclination to
avoid medical attention, winning regardless of the physical costs, or failure to tape injuries
(Hughes & Coakley, 1991; Miller, 2008).
Although injury prevention is a popular topic right now in the field of sport psychology,
most of the research has been conducted on university level or elite athletes. There have not been
many studies focused on injury prevention in adolescent or youth athletes of any sort. In
addition, many studies on injury prevention have had very small sample sizes, or high participant
drop-out rates (Brewer & Tripp, 2005). The purpose of this study is to investigate the
relationship between over conformity to the sport ethic and injury in adolescent athletes. Being
able to better identify those athletes at risk of injury would allow researchers and practitioners to
target interventions to those individuals, and to better detect signs of a potential problem.
2
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
In order to more completely understand why athletes engages in behaviors that place their
health at risk, the evidence pertaining to individuals’ deviance or conformity to norms
established by society must be examined. It is also important to examine how an athletic identity
is established and what contributes to the perseverance of the athletic identity. Thus, the
literature review was conducted to gain a more complete understanding of: the concepts of
deviance and conformity, the meaning of engaging in health damaging behaviors, and the
formation and perseverance of an athletic identity.
Deviance and Conformity
Deviance is typically interpreted to mean negative behaviors that are morally condemned
(Ben-Yehuda, 1990; Hughes & Coakley, 1991). Becker (1963), for example, defined deviance as
the result of a process involving responses of other people to a behavior. In this view, an act is
determined deviant (or not) based upon the nature of the act (i.e., if it violates a rule or not) and
the responses of others to the behavior. Becker (1963) outlines four types of deviant behavior.
The “falsely accused deviant” is someone who engages in obedient behavior but is perceived to
be deviant. The “pure deviant” engages in rule-breaking behavior and is perceived to be a
deviant. The “conforming individual” engages in obedient behavior and is not perceived as being
deviant. Lastly, the “secret deviant” engages in rule-breaking behavior but is not perceived as
deviant.
Nonetheless, Ben-Yehuda (1990) points out that a number of definitions of deviance do
not explicitly define deviance in a negative manner; rather they are interpreted to mean only
negative behaviors. Within the social science literature, many definitions of deviance do only
emphasize negative behaviors, which has led to scientists defining the term “positive deviance”
(Ben-Yehuda, 1990).
Ewald and Jiobu (1985) refer to positive deviance as behavior that is pro-normative,
rather than counter-normative, but deviant because it is pursued with an intensity, and extensity
going beyond conventional bounds. Positive deviance can essentially be viewed as taking a good
thing too far. The types of norms that are violated with positive deviance are also different from
the types of norms violated with negative deviance (Ewald & Jiobu, 1985). It is also important to
3
note that the term positive deviance does not refer to deviance as being good or beneficial
(Coakley, 2007). Instead, positive deviance involves extreme behaviors and thoughts that are
often unhealthy and dangerous. Some examples of positive deviance include: students who study
beyond what is viewed as appropriate or those individuals deemed “workaholics” (Ewald &
Jiobu, 1985). Among athletes, positive deviance can be found in being too devoted to the goals
and norms of the sport (Hughes & Coakley, 1991) even though over conforming athletes often
do not see their over conforming behaviors as deviant.
Despite the extensive literature on positive deviance, some researchers have conceptual
reservations about the notion. Sagarin (1985, p. 169), for example, claimed that “the concept of
‘positive deviance’ is and should remain an oxymoron or self-contradicting phrase.” Even
though he maintained that the underlying issue being addressed by that literature is valid.
Nonetheless, Ben-Yehuda (1990) stressed the importance of examining deviance from both
positive and negative sides in order to understand both deviance and conformity. Conformity can
be thought of as the shifting of beliefs or behaviors in the direction of the majority or the experts
(Asch, 1955).
Social influences are ubiquitous in our lives, from how language is developed to how
social etiquette is learned (Asch, 1955). The pressure to conform often creates internal conflict;
an individual may feel that the opinions, attitudes, or behaviors of others are wrong, yet the
individual does not want to be ostracized by peers. It is not unusual for people to find themselves
going along with a group without much thought or even knowing why (Epley & Gilovich, 1999).
Studies on conformity by researchers such as Epley and Gilovich (1999) have provided evidence
for how strong the pressure to conform can be. Epley and Gilovich’s (1999) study on over
conformity aimed to identify if manipulations that are outside of our conscious awareness could
affect conformity. Asch (1955) conducted an experiment to examine conformity where
participants were asked to identify which of three lines was the same length as another standard
line. Asch found that a participant would accept a wrong answer 31.8% of the time when three or
more individuals contradicted the participant about his or her answer. In sport, over conformity
to the demands of the sport involves a process in which the role of the athlete becomes the most
important to the person’s identity. Over conformity in sport is “the result of caring too much for
or accepting too completely the goals and values of sport” (Hughes & Coakley, 1991, p. 315).
4
Athletic Identity
Athletic identity is typically defined as “the degree to which an individual identifies with
the athletic role” (Brewer, Van Raalte & Linder, 1993, p. 237). A strong athletic identity can
provide motivation and drive needed to succeed in sports, and can positively affect an
individual’s health, fitness and performance (Stephan & Brewer, 2007). A strong athletic identity
can also be detrimental in some situations. The more an individual identifies with the athlete
role, the more likely that individual is to perceive an event, such as an injury, to be disastrous,
and the greater that individual’s chances are of becoming depressed or socially isolated (Brewer,
Van Raalte & Linder, 1993; Stephan & Brewer, 2007). According to Malcom (2003), athletes
with a stronger athletic identity tend to display a stronger belief in the sport ethic and tend to
adopt the attitude of “toughing out” and “shaking off” injuries. In addition, individuals with a
strong athletic identity may be more inclined to participate in exercise or sport to such an
extreme that their physical health is at risk (Brewer, Van Raalte & Linder, 1993).
Health-Damaging Behaviors
Health-damaging behaviors involve both acts of commission and acts of omission
(Martin Ginis & Leary, 2004). Health-damaging acts of commission involve behaviors that
people do to place their health at risk, such as: smoking, steroid use and dieting to excess that
causes harm to one’s health. Health-damaging acts of omission involve behaviors that people do
not do to place their health at risk, such as: failing to wear safety gear, failing to seek medical
treatment for an injury and not exercising regularly.
Nominees for the Darwin award are perfect examples of people engaging in healthdamaging behaviors (Martin Ginis & Leary, 2004). Darwin award nominees are people who die
as a consequence of their own idiotic behavior and awards are given to people who improve the
gene pool by removing themselves from it. One 2008 nominee for the award was a man who
rented an industrial shredder to prune his trees (“Not a shred of sense,” n.d.). He placed the
shredder at the base of an oak tree where he could directly drop the branches into the shredder.
He started the shredder, began climbing up the tree, slipped and promptly fell into the shredder.
Another woman was a biology teacher in Bulgaria who was driving in her car with some noxious
chemicals (“Chemistry went to her head,” n.d.). She stopped suddenly and rushed to a nearby
manhole, where upon she dumped the liquids and containers. The flammable substances caused
an explosion that shot the manhole cover straight into the air, decapitating the woman.
5
Examples of athletes engaging in health-damaging behaviors can be frequently found in
the news. Kerri Strug and Tiger Woods are both popular examples of athletes who engaged in
behaviors that could have been very harmful to their health. Football players commonly put their
health at risk by playing in games or practice when they should not be playing. Andre Waters, a
former defensive back in the NFL died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound (Farrey, 2007). A
forensic pathologist suggested that he had suffered brain damage from multiple, successive
concussions that led to his depression and ultimately his suicide. Former New England Patriots
linebacker Ted Johnson said coach Bill Belichick subjected him to hard hits in practice while he
was recovering from a concussion- against the advice of the team's top trainer. Johnson says he
now forgets people's names, misses appointments and suffers from depression and an addiction
to amphetamines (Associated Press, 2007). Former Vikings player Brent Boyd's depression and
other lingering health problems were finally linked by doctors to the concussions he suffered as a
player (Barr & Berko, 2007). Mike Webster, a former Steelers center, died in 2002 after years of
suffering from ailments linked to concussion-related brain damage sustained during play in the
NFL (Barr & Berko, 2007).
Injury
The stress and injury model developed by Williams and Andersen in 1988 is the most
commonly cited model for examining and predicting athletic injury (e.g., Johnson et al., 2005;
Maddison & Prapavessis, 2005). Williams and Andersen use this model to illustrate their
hypothesis that there are three major factors that put an athlete at risk for an injury: personality
factors, history of stressors, and coping resources (Maddison & Prapavessis, 2005; Williams &
Andersen, 1998). These factors put an athlete at risk for injury by “disrupting one’s coordination
and flexibility as well as interfering with the detection of important environmental cues”
(Maddison & Prapavessis, 2005, p. 290). Additional research on the specific causes of injury
could lead to more and better injury prevention programs.
Sport injuries are also very costly; by implementing more injury prevention programs and
reducing the number of sport injuries, the cost associated could be reduced as well. The
European Home and Leisure Accident Surveillance System (EHLASS) indicated that in 2000,
Austria reported 227,400 sports-related injuries, which totaled approximately $84 million dollars
in direct medical costs (as cited in Williams & Andersen, 2007). The total cost for the combined
economic burden of medical treatment and lost productivity due to injuries in 2000 was $400
6
billion (Bergen, Chen, Warner & Fingerhut, 2008). In some professional sports athletes are seen
as financial investments and have multi-million dollar contracts. Thus, injuries in these sports
could cost team owners, and others involved, significant amounts of money (Brown, 2005).
Injuries are costly in young athletes as well; in addition to the financial costs associated with
doctor’s visits and visits to rehabilitation, when children have to miss school their parents are
often forced to take time off of work, which can lead to lost productivity (Goldberg, Moroz,
Smith & Ganley, 2007). Also, research has begun to show that youth and adolescent athletes are
willing to risk and suffer pain and injury in order to play sports (Nixon, 1993).
Athletes commonly view an injury as a disaster and react with negative psychological
effects such as: stress or anxiety, anger, treatment compliance problems, depression,
concentration or attention problems, and exercise addiction (Williams & Scherzer, 2001). WieseBjornstal, Smith, Shaffer, and Morrey (1998) included the pressure to conform to the sport ethic
as another moderating stressor to deal with for an injured athlete. This is important to consider,
as previous injury is one of the characteristics that falls under “history of stressors” as a risk
factor for injury in Williams and Andersen’s (1988) stress and injury model (Williams &
Andersen, 1998). The availability of efficacious injury prevention programs could reduce the
cost associated with sport injury from professional and elite athletes to non-competitive
recreational athletes as well. Research on injury has already led to changes such as:
recommendation of eye protection in hockey and other sports that involve sticks, educational
campaigns to reduce heat-related injuries in sports, and elimination of racing starts in shallow
pools to reduce swimming injuries (CDC, 2006).
Sport Ethic
The sport ethic involves beliefs about being an athlete and the importance of striving for
distinction and athletic excellence such as: refusing to accept limits in the pursuit of possibilities,
making sacrifices for the game, accepting personal risk in the pursuit of victory, being able to
manage pain to play “the game” (Hughes & Coakley, 1991). “The sport ethic refers to what
many participants in sport have come to use as the criteria for defining what it means to be a real
athlete” (Hughes & Coakley, 1991 p. 308). An athlete that is striving for distinction is always
trying to improve oneself. Improvement requires hard work, which often means tolerating some
degree of pain (Malcom, 2006). Behaviors of over conformity to the sport ethic could include:
declining to wear optional protective gear, inclination to minimize warm-up or stretching, risking
7
injury to compete, risking prolonged illness to compete, playing through pain, inclination to
avoid medical attention, winning regardless of the physical costs, or failure to tape injuries
(Hughes & Coakley, 1991; Miller, 2008).
Often times, athletes consider their over conforming behaviors to be normal and expected
by coaches and others in the sport domain (Johns, 1998). One athlete in Johns’ (1998) study
attributed the development of the sport ethic to the need to conform to certain unhealthy
practices that were accepted by those involved in the sport. Athletes learn the sport ethic from
parents, coaches, officials, teammates and others involved in the sport. These individuals
socialize athletes to the sport ethic by pressuring the athletes to play injured and while in pain, by
providing athletes with painkillers, punishing athletes who miss competition due to injury, and
by glorifying athletes who do play through pain or injury. Coaches also socialize athletes to the
sport ethic by ignoring their complaints about pain, or telling athletes to play through the pain
and not complain. Teammates chide athletes who complain about pain and injuries and also
downplay their previous injuries (Malcom, 2006).
Hughes and Coakley (1991) described two types of athletes who are more likely to over
conform to the sport ethic. Athletes who are less likely to withstand peer pressure, perhaps as a
consequence of low self-esteem, constitute one type who are more likely to over conform to the
sport ethic. The second type involves “those athletes who see sport as an exclusive mobility
route, and for whom mobility demands an extreme commitment to achievement and a
willingness to make great personal sacrifices as they drive for achievement” (Hughes & Coakley,
1991, p. 312). These athletes have such a strong desire to succeed and advance in their sport that
they are willing to do whatever is necessary in order to advance and improve in their sport.
Malcom’s (2003) study on young female softball players describes those who are more likely to
conform to the sport ethic as: the more highly skilled players, the players with better practice and
game attendance, the athletes who have more enthusiasm for their sport, the players who own
their own athletic equipment, and the athletes who are more aware of the larger sporting world.
In addition, Malcom also found several other factors that increased the likelihood that the
softball players she examined would more strongly internalize or conform to the sport ethic: age,
social class and race. The pre-teen girls and the girls around age 14 or 15 in Malcom’s study
were more likely to over conform to the sport ethic than the girls just entering adolescence. Girls
8
who had more material resources and those girls whose race more widely accepted the idea of
female athletes were also more likely to over conform to the sport ethic.
Self-Determination Theory
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) was developed by Ryan and Deci (2000) as a way to
view and understand individual’s motivation. According to SDT, the quality (or type) of
motivation underlying behavior has implications for health or performance outcomes.
Motivational states exist along a continuum as shown in Figure 1, with amotivation at one end
and intrinsic motivation at the other end (Deci, Eghrari, Patrick & Leone, 1994; Ryan & Deci,
2000). An internal locus of causality and higher degree of self-determination also accompanies
intrinsic motivation, while an impersonal locus of causality and lack of self-determination
accompanies amotivation (Weiss & Amorose, 2008). An individual who is amotivated might
participate in an activity because he or she has nothing better to do. An individual who is
extrinsically motivated might participate in that same activity because someone is making him or
her participate, the individual doesn’t want to let others down, or he or she believes that financial
rewards can be gained from participating in the activity. Someone who is intrinsically motivated
might participate in an activity because he or she simply loves doing it. In addition, studies have
found a relationship between self-determined forms of motivation and an increased amount of
effort exerted in physical activities (Weiss & Amorose, 2008).
9
Figure 1. Self determination theory continuum. From Intrinsic motivation and self-determination
in exercise and sport, by Hagger, M. S. and N. L. D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), 2007, Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics Publishing.
Participation in the Culture of Risk
The “culture of risk” is a biased set of beliefs that athletes are exposed to about the
acceptance of risk, pain and injury in sports (Nixon, 1993). The culture of risk is a segment of
the sport ethic that relates to the importance of playing injured and in pain. Most athletes
voluntarily take risks in sport and know there is a possibility of failure, but proceed to play
anyway (Donnelly, 2004). The culture of risk does not protect athletes from the psychological
consequences associated with the dilemma of speaking up about pain or injury, or playing
through it. Athletes may develop guilt, shame, uncertainty, job insecurity or frustration if they
decide to speak up about their pain or injuries (Nixon, 1993). Injured athletes who take
themselves out of play are oftentimes given the “wimp” label by fans, media, teammates and/or
coaches. Athletes who play through pain or injury, however, tend to be regarded as courageous
and tough (Martin Ginis & Leary, 2004). Despite the accolades, athletes suffering debilitating
injuries in the process may experience severe depression (Nixon, 1993).
10
As noted by Sabo (1994), most athletes do not accept pain and injury because it feels
good, but rather because they want or need to remain involved in their sport. Nixon (1993)
observed six themes in his qualitative research on athletes’ acceptance of risk of pain and
injuries. These categories were: structural role constraints, structural inducements and support,
cultural values, institutional rationalization, socialization of athletes, and accepting the risk and
pain (Nixon, 1993, 2004). Athletes participating in the culture of risk due to structural role
constraints may have concerns about replacement, or expect they will have to push their body in
order to perform. Athletes believing they will have opportunities to advance or to gain status
recognition participate due to structural inducements and support. Those athletes who believe
they need to be tough or masculine, and have a high tolerance of pain may participate in the
culture of risk due to cultural values. Institutional rationalization is defined as reasons for
participation in the culture of risk coming from the management or organization. Athletes
participating because they love the sport, have the competitive spirit or believe they are
invincible would be considered to participate because of the socialization of athletes. Athletes
who accept risk and pain participate because they tend to push their body in general or are just
willing to play hurt or in pain (Nixon, 1993, 2004).
In most studies relating to experiences of sports-related pain or injury, researchers have
examined male athletes, but in recent years the literature on women has begun to increase
(Charlesworth & Young, 2004; Young, 2004). The degree to which over conformity to the sport
ethic plays a role when women play through pain or injury as not as clear as it is among their
male counterparts (Young, 2004; Young & White, 1998). In Charlesworth and Young’s (2004)
study, the reasons female athletes gave for participation in the culture of risk were not entirely
dissimilar to those Nixon had observed. Females’ reasons for participating in the culture of risk
included: group bonds or team commitments (i.e., not wanting to let down their teammates),
pressure from significant others (i.e., coaches or peers), body confidence (i.e., fear of gaining
weight or becoming unfit), ambition, fear of losing status on the team, routine pain (i.e.,
acceptance of pain), team camaraderie (i.e., fear of social isolation), questionable medical advice
and support, financial incentives, and disrupted routines.
11
Current Considerations
Athletes who over conform to the sport ethic may be putting themselves at an increased
risk of injury in sports. The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between over
conformity to the sport ethic and injury in adolescent athletes. Being able to better identify those
athletes at risk of injury would allow interventions to be targeted to those individuals at risk, and
to better detect signs of a potential problem. The amount of sports-related injuries has increased
over the past 15 – 20 years and so many athletes are engaging in behaviors that place them at risk
of suffering and injury. Therefore, the need for additional research on sport injury prevention and
prediction is crucial (Pargman, 2007). The hypotheses of this research are as follows:
1) Athletes who reported engaging in more behaviors associated with over conformity to the
sport ethic would report incurring a larger number of injuries in sports than athletes who
reported engaging in fewer behaviors associated with over conformity to the sport ethic.
2) Athletes who reported engaging in more behaviors associated with over conformity to the
sport ethic would report experiencing a greater severity of injuries in sports than athletes
who reported engaging in fewer behaviors associated with over conformity to the sport
ethic.
3) Athletes who reported engaging in behaviors associated with over conformity to the sport
ethic due to love of the sport, their competitive spirit, or the belief that they are invincible
would report incurring a larger number of injuries or a greater severity of injuries.
12
CHAPTER 3
METHODS
Participants
A sample of 203 male (n = 98) and female (n = 105) athletes between 13 and 18 years old
from Tallahassee, FL were recruited to participate in the study. Participants were from the
following sports: soccer (n = 101), volleyball (n = 23), football (n = 2), basketball (n = 36),
baseball/softball (n = 10), gymnastics (n = 4), swimming (n = 1), cross country/track (n = 3) and
wrestling (n = 23). Additional demographic characteristics of the participants are displayed in
Table 1.
Table 1: Demographic characteristics of participants
Frequency
Percentage
Ethnicity
Caucasian
African American
Asian
Hispanic
Native American
Indian
Current Level of Competition
Competitive club
HS Junior Varsity
HS Varsity
Number of Sports Currently
Playing (Including primary)
1
2
3
4
154
28
7
12
1
1
75.9
13.8
3.4
5.9
.5
.5
46
45
112
22.7
22.2
55.2
126
58
17
2
62.1
28.6
8.4
1.0
Instrumentation
Informed consent (Appendix A). Prior to participation, participants were informed of the
requirements of the study along with the minimal risks and the participant’s right to withdraw
13
from the study at any time. Additionally, the participants were informed that confidentiality
would be maintained throughout the study. The participants were then asked to sign an informed
assent form and a parent or guardian was then asked to sign the informed consent form indicating
their willingness to participate. A parent or guardian was also asked to sign a permission form
authorizing the athletes’ coach to release the athletes’ injury data.
Sport demographic data and history (Appendix B). The following demographic
information was obtained from all participants: gender, ethnicity, age, current level of play, total
years of experience in the primary sport, number of years of experience at each level of play (i.e.,
four years of recreational soccer, three years of high school varsity soccer), hours spent per week
participating in the primary sport during season of play and out of season (during practice,
competition, and outside of practice or competition), number of sports played (other than
primary sport), and the number of sports teams currently participating on. In addition, the
following demographic information was taken on previous athletic injuries: injury incidence
beginning with first year of participation in the sport, injury incidence during the previous twelve
months, and a qualitative description of all previous injuries.
Injury Tracking Forms (Appendix C). Ten athletes and one coach from one selected team
were asked to record any injuries that occurred during a ten week period during their sport
season. A form created by the researcher was provided to both athletes and the coach and was
collected biweekly. Injury data was collected at the end of each two week period from both the
coach and the athletes in order to increase the reliability of the data obtained.
Predictor Variables
Sport Attitudes Questionnaire (SAQ; Shipherd, 2009; Appendix D). An index created by
the researcher was used to determine an athlete’s degree of over conformity to the sport ethic and
reason for over conforming to the sport ethic. The first 13 items were used to measure degree of
over conformity to the sport ethic (e.g. How frequently do you participate in your sport when you
are injured or ill?). A 5-item Likert type scale was used, with the answer choices of never, rarely,
sometimes, almost always, and always. Two of these first 13 items were adapted from the
Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (Brewer, Van Raalte & Linder, 2003). The remaining seven
items were used to measure the reason for over conformity to the sport ethic beginning with a
stem statement (e.g. How frequently do you ignore medical advice for an injury or illness that
would prohibit you from participating in your sport because…) followed by multiple reasons for
14
over conforming and a 5-item Likert type scale. The items included were based on previous
research by Charlesworth and Young (2004), Hughes and Coakley (1993), and Nixon (1993,
2004) pertaining to athletes’ reasons for participating in the culture of risk or reasons for over
conforming to the sport ethic.
Piloting. The SAQ was administered to twenty sport psychology graduate students at
Florida State University to establish preliminary reliability data for the SAQ. The twenty
participants ranged from recreational to former NCAA division 1 athletes. The internal
consistency revealed moderate inter-item correlations among the items, with values ranging from
-.44 to .69. The researcher found a moderate Cronbach’s Alpha of .70 from the pilot study. The
two week test-retest reliability value was .89; indicating that the test items are stable over time
and there is a possibility the construct is also stable over time. Face validity for the SAQ was
established by consulting with experts in the field of sport psychology: Dr. Robert C. Eklund, Dr.
Leslie Podlog and Dr. Gershon Tenenbaum.
Dependent Variables
Number of Injuries. The number of injuries incurred for each individual was totaled since
they began playing their primary sport. The total number of injuries incurred for each individual
during the past twelve months was also noted.
Severity of Injuries. The severity of the injury was measured qualitatively by categorizing
the injury as one of the following: (a) requiring surgery, (b) requiring a visit to a doctor or
hospital, (c) requiring modification to play (e.g. tape or brace), or (d) requiring no medical
attention. In addition, injury severity for each individual was also assessed by the amount of time
missed competing or practicing due to the injury.
Procedure
After obtaining approval to conduct the study from the Florida State University Human
Subjects Committee, club coaches and injury rehabilitation centers in Tallahassee, FL were
contacted to recruit the athletes. Subsequently, informed assent (see Appendix A) was obtained
from male and female adolescent athletes from Tallahassee, FL. A parent or guardian completed
the informed consent and if appropriate, the parental permission form as well. Upon completion
of the informed consent procedures, the following forms were completed by the participants:
Sport Demographic and History (Appendix B) and the Sport Attitudes Questionnaire (Appendix
D).
15
One female team was then selected to record data on any injuries that occurred
throughout the following ten weeks of their sport season. The coach and ten athletes from the
selected team recorded any injuries that occurred using a form provided to them by the
researcher and that was collected bi-weekly. Injury data was collected from both the coach and
the athletes in order to secure the reliability of the data obtained. Athletes were given an
anonymous code to maintain confidentiality, and the coach also used a different anonymous code
to record injury data for each athlete in order to reduce chances of cross-contamination.
Although a number of studies on sport injury have failed to obtain repeated measures of
variables, the researcher attempted to do so in this study by administering the measure of over
conformity to the sport ethic again to the participants from the team that was selected at the end
of the ten weeks to confirm that this construct is stable (Petrie & Falkstein, 1998).
Statistical Analyses
An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to analyze the Sport Attitudes
Questionnaire and an ANOVA was conducted to test for a time effect. Participants scoring in the
highest and lowest 20% on the measure were separated into two extreme groups to conduct
analyses. A power analysis was conducted to determine the number of participants for each
group and with a power of .80, ES = .6 and alpha .05 and it was determined that each group
should contain at least 36 participants. MANOVAs were used to analyze the relationship
between the degree of over conformity to the sport ethic and the dependent variables (injury
incidence and injury severity). Univariate ANOVAs were conducted as a follow up to the
MANOVA. Linear regressions were conducted to test for differences between each reason for
over conformity and the dependent variables (injury incidence and injury severity).
16
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
Analysis of the Sport Attitudes Questionnaire
Given the fact that the Sport Attitudes Questionnaire was developed specifically for this
study, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted. Principal axis factor analysis with
varimax rotation revealed three factors with an eigenvalue greater than one. Together the three
factors that emerged accounted for 55.69% of the total variance. The rotated factor matrix is
presented in Table 2. Figures in boldface indicate a pattern matrix loading greater than .45. The
factors were interpreted as representing (a) the meaning of being an athlete (SAQ-MA), (b)
playing at all costs (SAQ-PC), and (c) making sacrifices for sport (SAQ-SS). However, there
were several items that exhibited cross-loading (i.e., exhibited a loading of .35 or higher on two
or more factors; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). In addition, the three initial factors extracted were
found to be moderately correlated with each other (see Table 3). A strong Cronbach’s Alpha of
.89 was found for the first 13 items of the SAQ, measuring overall degree of over conformity to
the sport ethic (SAQ-Total), with item-total correlations ranging from .40 to .70. Factor one, the
meaning of being an athlete, was found to have α = .86 with item-total correlations ranging from
.42 to .64 and factor two, playing at all costs, had α = .89 with item-total correlations ranging
from .61 to .72. Factor three, making sacrifices for sport, had α = .62, and was therefore omitted
from further analyses due to the low internal consistency (i.e. Cronbach’s Alpha below .70).
Table 2: Rotated principal axis factor matrix for the Sport Attitudes Questionnaire
Item
SAQ-MA
SAQ-PC
SAQ-SS
11
.718
.334
.099
8
.698
.322
.093
9
.680
.276
.221
10
.604
.317
.189
12
.556
.240
.377
13
.493
.193
.316
17
Table 2-- Continued
Item
SAQ-MA
SAQ-PC
SAQ-SS
2
.359
.782
.061
4
.417
.747
.069
5
.248
.742
.287
1
.176
.733
.268
7
.104
.135
.652
3
.159
.214
.511
6
.452
-.051
.470
% variance explained
23.25
21.61
10.83
M
4.07
3.47
2.22
SD
0.68
0.85
0.80
Note: Primary factor loadings are presented in bold face type; SAQ-MA = Meaning of being an
athlete; SAQ-PC = Playing at all costs; SAQ-SS = Sacrifices for sport.
Table 3: Correlations among Sport Attitudes Questionnaire (SAQ) factors
SAQ-MA
SAQ-PC
SAQ-Meaning of being an athlete (SAQ-MA)
1.00
SAQ-Playing at all costs (SAQ-PC)
SAQ-SS
.646**
.507**
1.00
.362**
SAQ-Sacrifices for sport (SAQ-SS)
1.00
**p < .01
The ten week test-retest reliability value for the sample of ten athletes on the SAQ-Total
was .97, for SAQ-MA was .96, and for SAQ-PC was also .96. This indicates that the
measurement is stable over time and that the construct also appears to be stable over time. The
intra-class correlation was found to be .91. An ANOVA was conducted but no time effect was
found, F (1, 9) = .76, p = .405.
Descriptive Statistics
Frequencies and percentages regarding the participants’ injuries are displayed in Table 4.
Participants reported having experienced injuries ranging from sprains to breaks, tears and
dislocations.
18
Table 4: Participants’ injuries
Frequency
Percentage
M
SD
1.27
1.40
.26
.56
Practice days missed
43.28
73.81
Competition days missed
39.11
72.70
Overall Total # of Injuries
0
79
38.9
1
41
20.2
2
56
27.6
3
14
6.9
4
10
4.9
6
2
1.0
10
1
.5
Total # of Injuries Past 12 Months
0
161
79.3
1
32
15.8
2
9
4.4
3
1
.5
No injury
79
38.9
No medical attention
4
2.0
Modification to play
14
6.9
Visit to doctor
66
32.5
Surgery
40
19.7
Highest Level of Overall Severity
Explanation for Establishment of Two Extreme Groups
Participant scores on the SAQ-Total were found to have a normal curve (see Figure 2).
Participant scores on factors SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC had slightly negatively skewed distributions
due to the ceiling effect of the scores on these two factors.
19
Figure 2: Participant SAQ-Total Scores Distribution
Two extreme groups were formed for subsequent analyses for SAQ-Total as well as each
of the two SAQ factors (i.e. SAQ-MA, SAQ-PC) featuring adequate internal consistency of
measurement. A power analysis was conducted to determine the number of participants for each
group and with a power of .80, ES = .6 and alpha .05 and it was determined that each group
should contain at least 36 participants, which would be approximately the highest and lowest
18% of scores. Approximately the highest and lowest 20% of scores in each instance was used to
form the two extreme groups.
Frequency, percentages, means and standard deviations are presented in Table 5 on the
high and low groups formed for the SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC variables. Specifically,
participants in the high SAQ-Total group had a mean score of 4.29 (SD = .20) on this index of
over conformity. Participants in the low SAQ-Total group had a mean score of 2.57 (SD = .23)
on this index of over conformity. Participants in the high SAQ-MA group had a mean score of
4.9 (SD = .08), while participants in the low SAQ-MA group had a mean score of 3.14 (SD =
.29). Participants in the high SAQ-PC group had a mean score of 4.6 (SD = .29), while
participants in the low SAQ-PC group had a mean score of 2.34 (SD = .40).
20
Table 5: High and Low Groups on Conformity Variables
Low Groups
High Groups
Frequency
Percentage
M
SD
Frequency Percentage
SAQ-Total
44
21.7
2.57
0.23
43
SAQ-MA
48
23.6
3.14
0.29
SAQ-PC
48
23.6
2.34
0.40
M
SD
21.2
4.29
0.20
47
23.2
4.90
0.08
48
23.6
4.60
0.29
Note: SAQ-Total = Item average of all 13 Sport Attitudes Questionnaire items; SAQ-MA =
Meaning of being an athlete; SAQ-PC = Playing at all costs.
Examination of the composition of the high and low groups formed on the three SAQ
variables revealed that SAQ-Total high and low groups shared 73 (67%) of the same participants
with the SAQ-MA high and low groups. The SAQ-PC high and low groups shared 61 (50%)
participants with the SAQ-Total high and low groups. The SAQ-MA and the SAQ-PC shared 54
(39%) of the same participants between each other. Due to the noticeable differences in group
membership for the SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC, analyses to compare high and low
groups on each of these variables are presented.
Testing Hypotheses 1 and 2
Three MANOVAs were performed to test the first two hypotheses on SAQ-Total, SAQMA and SAQ-PC respectively. The first hypothesis was that athletes who reported engaging in
more behaviors associated with over conformity to the sport ethic would report incurring a larger
number of injuries in sports than athletes who reported engaging in fewer behaviors associated
with over conformity to the sport ethic. The second hypothesis was that athletes who reported
engaging in more behaviors associated with over conformity to the sport ethic would report experiencing a greater severity of injuries in sports than athletes who reported engaging in fewer
behaviors associated with over conformity to the sport ethic.
The first MANOVA examined SAQ-Total (high and low groups) as the independent
variable, and the total number of injuries incurred, number of competition days missed, number
of practice days missed, and the highest level of severity as dependent variables. The second
MANOVA examined SAQ-MA (high and low groups) as the independent variable and the total
number of injuries incurred, number of competition days missed, number of practice days
missed, and the highest level of severity as dependent variables. The third MANOVA examined
SAQ-PC as the independent variable, and the total number of injuries incurred, number of
21
competition days missed, number of practice days missed, and the highest level of severity as
dependent variables. Group means and standard deviations for the above dependent variables on
the SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC are presented in Table 6.
Table 6: Group means and SDs for hypotheses 1 and 2
Low
n
SAQ-Total
M
High
SD
44
n
M
SD
43
Total number of injuries
.80
1.00
2.02
1.90
Highest level of severity
1.34
1.55
2.67
1.34
Competition days missed
19.98
40.42
59.02
93.12
Practice days missed
21.09
40.64
68.58
93.37
.85
.99
1.74
1.44
Highest level of severity
1.42
1.57
2.47
1.43
Competition days missed
19.98
39.59
55.13
93.11
Practice days missed
21.06
39.73
60.60
93.36
SAQ-MA
Total number of injuries
SAQ-PC
48
48
47
48
Total number of injuries
.77
.93
2.06
1.92
Highest level of severity
1.46
1.62
2.60
1.47
Competition days missed
14.15
35.69
62.42
96.57
Practice days missed
16.19
35.83
70.56
96.43
Note: SAQ-Total = Item average of all 13 Sport Attitudes Questionnaire items; SAQ-MA =
Meaning of being an athlete; SAQ-PC = Playing at all costs.
Descriptively, participants in the high SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC groups
reported incurring a higher number of injuries, a higher level of severity for their injuries, and
missed more practice and competition days than those participants in the low SAQ-Total, SAQMA and SAQ-PC groups. MANOVA analyses were conducted to inferentially evaluate the
observed descriptive differences.
22
The first MANOVA on the SAQ-Total revealed a significant main effect on all four
dependent variables, Wilks’λ = .79, F (4, 82) = 5.46, p < .001, ηp 2 = .21. Follow up univariate
ANOVAs revealed significant differences between high and low SAQ-Total groups in number of
injuries incurred. Specifically, participants in the high SAQ-Total group reported incurring a
higher number of injuries (M = 2.02, SD = 1.90) than those participants in the low SAQ-Total
group (M = .80, SD = 1.0, ES = .75). Significant differences were also found between high and
low SAQ-Total groups in highest level of severity, number of competition days missed due to
injury, and also number of practice days missed due to injury. Participants in the high SAQ-Total
group reported incurring a higher level of severity for their injuries (M = 2.67, SD = 1.34) than
the low SAQ-Total group (M = 1.34, SD = 1.55, ES = .84). Participants in the high SAQ-Total
group also reported missing a greater number of days of competition days (M = 59.02, SD =
93.12) than participants in the low SAQ-Total group (M = 19.98, SD = 40.42, ES = .53). Lastly,
participants in the high SAQ-Total group reported missing a greater number of days of practice
(M = 68.58, SD = 93.37) than participants in the low SAQ-Total group (M = 21.09, SD = 40.64,
ES = .63). Results of the ANOVAs are displayed in Table 7.
Table 7: ANOVA results for item average of all 13 Sport Attitudes Questionnaire items (SAQTotal) (High vs. Low) groups
Variable
F(1,85)
p
ηp 2
Total number of injuries
14.35
<.001
.14
Highest level of severity
18.33
<.001
.18
Practice days missed
9.54
.003
.10
Competition days missed
6.49
.013
.07
The second MANOVA on the SAQ-MA revealed a significant main effect on all four
dependent variables, Wilks’λ = .85, F (4, 90) = 4.02, p = .005, ηp 2 = .152. Follow up univariate
ANOVAs revealed significant differences between high and low SAQ-MA groups in number of
injuries incurred. Specifically, participants in the high SAQ-MA group reported incurring a
higher number of injuries (M = 1.74, SD = 1.44) than those participants in the low SAQ-MA
group (M = .85, SD = .99, ES = .68). Significant differences were also found between high and
low SAQ-MA groups in highest level of severity, number of competition days missed due to
23
injury, and also number of practice days missed due to injury. Participants in the high SAQ-MA
group reported incurring a higher level of severity for their injuries (M = 2.43, SD = 1.43) than
the low SAQ-MA group (M = 1.42, SD = 1.57, ES = .66). Participants in the high SAQ-MA
group also reported missing a greater number of days of competition days (M = 55.13, SD =
93.11) than participants in the low SAQ-MA group (M = 19.98, SD = 39.59, ES = .48). Lastly,
participants in the high SAQ-MA group reported missing a greater number of days of practice
(M = 60.60, SD = 93.36) than participants in the low SAQ-MA group (M = 21.06, SD = 39.73,
ES = .54). Results of the ANOVAs are displayed in Table 8.
Table 8: ANOVA results for SAQ- Meaning of being an athlete (SAQ-MA) (High vs. Low) groups
Variable
F(1,93)
p
ηp 2
Total number of injuries
12.43
.001
.12
Highest level of severity
11.66
.001
.11
Practice days missed
7.27
.008
.07
Competition days missed
5.78
.018
.06
The MANOVA on the SAQ-PC revealed a significant main effect on all four dependent
variables, Wilks’λ = .81, F (4, 91) = 5.31, p = .001, ηp 2 = .189. Follow up univariate ANOVAs
revealed significant differences between high and low SAQ-PC groups in number of injuries
incurred. Specifically, participants in the high SAQ-PC group reported incurring a higher number
of injuries (M = 2.06, SD = 1.92) than those participants in the low SAQ-PC group (M = .77, SD
= .93, ES = .79). Significant differences were also found between high and low SAQ-PC groups
in highest level of severity, number of competition days missed, and also number of practice
days missed. Participants in the high SAQ-PC group reported incurring a higher level of severity
for their injuries (M = 2.60, SD = 1.47) than the low SAQ-PC group (M = 1.46, SD = 1.62, ES =
.69). Participants in the high SAQ-PC group also reported missing a greater number of days of
competition days (M = 62.42, SD = 96.57) than participants in the low SAQ-PC group (M =
14.15, SD = 35.69, ES = .63). Lastly, participants in the high SAQ-PC group reported missing a
greater number of days of practice (M = 70.56, SD = 96.43) than participants in the low SAQ-PC
group (M = 16.19, SD = 35.83, ES = .70). Results of the ANOVAs are displayed in Table 9.
24
Table 9: ANOVA results for SAQ- Playing at all costs (SAQ-PC) (High vs. Low) groups
Variable
F(1,94)
p
ηp 2
Total number of injuries
17.65
< .001
.16
Highest level of severity
13.14
< .001
.12
Practice days missed
10.55
.002
.13
Competition days missed
13.41
< .001
.10
Due to the differences in group membership between the SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and
SAQ-PC, statistical tests were unable to be conducted for differences among the dependent
variables between these groups. However, the descriptive statistics were examined across all
three groups. Although the means and standard deviations across the SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and
SAQ-PC exhibit slight differences, the differences between high and low groups on all
dependent variables were consistent across all three variables.
Additional Analyses for Hypotheses 1 and 2
Significant differences were also found for level of competition in the SAQ-Total F (1,
85) = 4.15, p = .045 and age in the SAQ-Total F (1, 85) = 13.62, p < .001. Specifically,
participants in the high SAQ-Total group were found to be at a higher level of competition (M =
3.56, SD = .77) than those participants in the low SAQ-Total group (M = 3.2, SD = .85, ES =
.44). Participants in the high SAQ-Total group were also older (M = 16.51, SD = 1.42) than
participants in the low SAQ-Total group (M = 15.45, SD = 1.25, ES = .74). Significant
differences were not found for level of competition in the SAQ-MA F (1, 93) = 2.56, p = .113 or
level of competition in the SAQ-PC F (1, 94) = 2.79, p = .098. However, significant differences
were found for age in the SAQ-MA F (1, 93) = 21.76, p <.001 and age in the SAQ-PC F (1, 94)
= 21.42, p <.001. Specifically, participants in the high SAQ-MA group were found to be at older
(M = 16.57, SD = 1.26) than those participants in the low SAQ-MA group (M = 15.40, SD =
1.20, ES = .86). Participants in the high SAQ-PC group were also older (M = 16.58, SD = 1.25)
than participants in the low SAQ-PC group (M = 15.42, SD = 1.22, ES = .85). Due to these
significant differences, MANCOVAs were run for the SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA, and SAQ-PC on
all the dependent variables with age as a covariate. The new means and standard deviations for
SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC are displayed in Table 10.
25
Table 10: Group means and SDs for hypotheses 1 and 2 with age as covariate
Low
n
M
SD
n
High
M
SD
Item average of all 13 Sport Attitudes
44
Questionnaire items (SAQ-Total)
43
Total number of injuries
0.96
1.52
1.86
1.52
Highest level of severity
1.45
1.49
2.57
1.50
Competition days missed
26.25
72.81
52.60
72.87
Practice days missed
27.72
72.82
61.80
72.89
48
SAQ-Meaning of being an athlete (SAQ-MA)
47
Total number of injuries
1.00
1.27
1.60
1.27
Highest level of severity
1.53
1.57
2.36
1.58
Competition days missed
27.60
73.74
47.34
73.82
Practice days missed
29.35
73.61
52.14
73.69
48
SAQ-Playing at all costs (SAQ-PC)
48
Total number of injuries
0.89
1.58
1.95
1.58
Highest level of severity
1.59
1.61
2.47
1.61
Competition days missed
20.40
75.96
56.16
75.96
Practice days missed
22.61
75.83
64.14
75.83
The MANCOVA on the SAQ-Total revealed a significant main effect on all four
dependent variables even after controlling for age, Wilks’λ = .86, F (4, 81) = 3.40, p = .013, ηp 2
= .14. Follow up univariate ANCOVAs revealed significant differences between high and low
SAQ-Total groups in number of injuries incurred. Specifically, participants in the high SAQTotal group reported incurring a higher number of injuries (M = 1.86, SD = 1.52) than those
participants in the low SAQ-Total group (M = .96, SD = 1.52, ES = .594). Significant differences
were also found between high and low SAQ-Total groups in highest level of severity, and
number of competition days missed due to injury. No significant differences were found between
high and low SAQ-Total groups for number of practice days missed due to injury. Participants in
the high SAQ-Total group reported incurring a higher level of severity for their injuries (M =
2.57, SD = 1.50) than the low SAQ-Total group (M = 1.45, SD = 1.49, ES = .751). Participants in
26
the high SAQ-Total group also reported missing a greater number of days of competition days
(M = 52.60, SD = 72.87) than participants in the low SAQ-Total group (M = 26.25, SD = 72.81,
ES = .362). Results of the ANCOVAs are displayed in Table 11.
Table 11: ANCOVA results for item average of all 13 Sport Attitudes Questionnaire items
(SAQ-Total) (High vs. Low) groups with age as covariate
ηp 2
Variable
F(1,84)
p
Total number of injuries
7.141
.009
.078
Highest level of severity
11.44
.001
.120
Practice days missed
2.649
.107
.031
Competition days missed
4.430
.038
.050
The MANCOVA on the SAQ-MA did not reveal a significant main effect on all four
dependent variables even after controlling for age, Wilks’λ = .93, F (4, 89) = 1.73, p = .055, ηp 2
= .10. However, follow up univariate ANCOVAs revealed significant differences between high
and low SAQ-MA groups in number of injuries incurred. Specifically, participants in the high
SAQ-MA group reported incurring a higher number of injuries (M = 1.60, SD = 1.27) than those
participants in the low SAQ-MA group (M = 1.00, SD = 1.27, ES = .473). Significant differences
were also found between high and low SAQ-MA groups in the highest level of severity. No
significant differences were found between high and low SAQ-MA groups in number of
competition days missed due to injury or number of practice days missed due to injury.
Participants in the high SAQ-MA group reported incurring a higher level of severity for their
injuries (M = 2.36, SD = 1.58) than the low SAQ-MA group (M = 1.53, SD = 1.57, ES = .527).
Results of the ANCOVAs are displayed in Table 12.
27
Table 12: ANCOVA results for SAQ-Meaning of being an athlete (SAQ-MA) (High vs. Low)
groups with age as covariate
ηp 2
Variable
F(1,92)
p
Total number of injuries
4.825
.031
.050
Highest level of severity
5.971
.016
.061
Practice days missed
1.539
.218
.016
Competition days missed
2.058
.155
.022
The MANCOVA on the SAQ-PC revealed a significant main effect on all four dependent
variables even after controlling for age, Wilks’λ = .89, F (4, 90) = 2.81, p = .030, ηp 2 = .11.
Follow up univariate ANCOVAs revealed significant differences between high and low SAQ-PC
groups in number of injuries incurred. Specifically, participants in the high SAQ-PC group
reported incurring a higher number of injuries (M = 1.95, SD = 1.58) than those participants in
the low SAQ-PC group (M = .89, SD = 1.58, ES = .669). Significant differences were also found
between high and low SAQ-PC groups in highest level of severity, number of competition days
missed due to injury, and also number of practice days missed due to injury. Participants in the
high SAQ-PC group reported incurring a higher level of severity for their injuries (M = 2.47, SD
= 1.61) than the low SAQ-PC group (M = 1.59, SD = 1.61, ES = .549). Participants in the high
SAQ-PC group also reported missing a greater number of days of competition days (M = 56.16,
SD = 75.96) than participants in the low SAQ-PC group (M = 20.40, SD = 75.96, ES = .471).
Lastly, participants in the high SAQ-PC group reported missing a greater number of days of
practice (M = 64.14, SD = 75.83) than participants in the low SAQ-PC group (M = 22.61, SD =
75.83, ES = .548). Results of the ANCOVAs are displayed in Table 13.
Table 13: ANCOVA results for SAQ-Playing at all costs (SAQ-PC) (High vs. Low) groups
with age as covariate
ηp 2
Variable
F(1,93)
p
Total number of injuries
9.787
.002
.095
Highest level of severity
6.537
.012
.066
Practice days missed
4.827
.031
.049
Competition days missed
6.530
.012
.066
28
Additionally, due to the significant differences found for level of competition in the
SAQ-Total, a MANCOVA was also run for the SAQ-Total on all the dependent variables with
level of competition as a covariate. The new means and standard deviations for SAQ-Total are
displayed in Table 14.
Table 14: Group means and SDs for item average of all 13 Sport Attitudes Questionnaire
items (SAQ-Total) with level of competition as covariate
Low ( n = 44)
High (n = 43)
M
SD
M
SD
Total number of injuries
0.83
1.53
1.99
1.53
Highest level of severity
1.37
1.47
2.65
1.48
Competition days missed
21.92
72.20
57.03
72.22
Practice days missed
22.96
72.47
66.67
72.49
The MANCOVA on the SAQ-Total revealed a significant main effect on all four
dependent variables even after controlling for level of competition, Wilks’λ = .81, F (4, 81) =
4.81, p = .002, ηp 2 = .19. Follow up univariate ANCOVAs revealed significant differences
between high and low SAQ-Total groups in number of injuries incurred. Specifically,
participants in the high SAQ-Total group reported incurring a higher number of injuries (M =
1.99, SD = 1.53) than those participants in the low SAQ-Total group (M = .83, SD = 1.53, ES =
.759). Significant differences were also found between high and low SAQ-Total groups in
highest level of severity, number of competition days missed due to injury and number of
practice days missed due to injury. Participants in the high SAQ-Total group reported incurring a
higher level of severity for their injuries (M = 2.65, SD = 1.48) than the low SAQ-Total group (M
= 1.37, SD = 1.47, ES = .868). Participants in the high SAQ-Total group also reported missing a
greater number of days of competition days (M = 57.03, SD = 72.22) than participants in the low
SAQ-Total group (M = 21.92, SD = 72.20, ES = .486). Lastly, participants in the high SAQ-Total
group also reported missing a greater number of practice days (M = 66.67, SD = 72.49) than
participants in the low SAQ-Total group (M = 22.96, SD = 72.47, ES = .603). Results of the
ANCOVAs are displayed in Table 15.
29
Table 15: ANCOVA results for item average of all 13 Sport Attitudes Questionnaire items
(SAQ-Total) (High vs. Low) groups with level of competition as covariate
ηp 2
Variable
F(1,84)
p
Total number of injuries
12.25
.001
.127
Highest level of severity
16.12
< .001
.161
Practice days missed
5.02
.028
.056
Competition days missed
7.73
.007
.084
Testing Hypothesis 3
Three MANOVAs and several linear regressions were conducted to test the third
hypothesis, that athletes who reported engaging in behaviors associated with over conformity to
the sport ethic due to love of the sport, their competitive spirit, or the belief that they are
invincible would report incurring a larger number of injuries or a greater severity of injuries. The
MANOVAs examined SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC as independent variables and all eight
reasons for engaging in over conformity behaviors as dependent variables. Regressions were
conducted to test each reason for overall over conformity with the four dependent variables
above. Group means and standard deviations for the SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC are
presented in Table 16.
30
Table 16: Means and SDs for reasons for over conformity
SAQ-Total
SAQ-MA
SAQ-PC
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
(n = 44)
(n = 43)
(n = 48)
(n = 47)
(n = 48)
(n = 48)
M
M
M
M
M
M
SD
SD
SD
SD
SD
SD
I want to impress a scout
2.10 0.56 3.81
0.63
2.27 0.66 3.66
0.77
2.21 0.87 3.67
0.71
The coach told me to play
1.95 0.48 3.59
0.72
2.18 0.65 3.49
0.75
2.13 0.73 3.54
0.62
I don't want to lose my starting position
2.16 0.55 3.92
0.56
2.25 0.61 3.73
0.64
2.32 0.77 3.82
0.52
I love to play my sport
2.25 0.57 3.95
0.57
2.35 0.62 3.77
0.68
2.49 0.90 3.79
0.51
I don't want to let my teammates down
2.01 0.51 3.65
0.78
2.11 0.61 3.61
0.74
2.28 0.84 3.41
0.74
I'm not worried about getting hurt
1.83 0.52 3.97
0.68
1.94 0.61 3.87
0.76
2.12 0.97 3.78
0.75
I don't want to let my fans down
1.51 0.48 2.83
0.83
1.60 0.60 2.75
0.81
1.63 0.79 2.52
0.78
An athlete should be tough
1.89 0.59 4.12
0.63
1.96 0.65 4.06
0.79 2.25 1.08 3.91
0.66
Note: SAQ-Total = Item average of all 13 Sport Attitudes Questionnaire items; SAQ-MA = Meaning of being an athlete; SAQ-PC =
Playing at all costs.
31
Athletes high in SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC reported engaging in sport ethic
conformity behaviors more frequently than other reasons because they believed athletes should
be tough. Athletes low in SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC reported engaging in sport ethic
conformity behaviors more frequently than other reasons because they loved their sport. Overall,
participants in the high SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC groups reported engaging in over
conformity behaviors for all eight reasons at a higher level than those participants in the low
SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC groups.
The first MANOVA on the SAQ-Total revealed a significant main effect on all eight
dependent variables, Wilks’λ = .15, F (8, 78) = 55.89, p < .001, ηp 2 = .851. Follow up univariate
ANOVAs revealed significant differences between high and low SAQ-Total groups for wanting
to impress a scout, playing because their coach told them to, not wanting to lose their starting
position or role, playing because they love their sport, not wanting to let their teammates down,
not being worried about getting hurt, not wanting to let their fans down, and because they felt an
athlete should be tough. Results of the ANOVAs are displayed in Table 17.
Table 17: ANOVA results for item average of all 13 Sport Attitudes Questionnaire items (SAQTotal) reasons
Variable
p<
F(1,85)
ηp 2
I want to impress a scout
178.90
.001
.68
The coach told me to play
155.09
.001
.65
I don't want to lose my starting position
217.83
.001
.72
I love to play my sport
192.67
.001
.69
I don't want to let my teammates down
136.08
.001
.62
I'm not worried about getting hurt
271.01
.001
.76
I don't want to let my fans down
82.98
.001
.49
An athlete should be tough
291.15
.001
.77
The correlations between all eight reasons for over conformity and the various injury
variables were all small in magnitude. Specifically, the correlations for the reasons for over
conformity with: (a) the total number of injuries ranged between .041 and .284, (b) the injury
severity ranged between .070 and .204, (c) the total number of competition days missed ranged
32
between .054 and .117, and (d) the total number of practice days missed ranged between .057
and .150. In contrast, the inter-item correlations for all eight reasons for over conformity were
reasonably large (i.e., ranged from .559 to .808) and significant (ps < .01). These high inter-item
correlations are indicative of considerable shared variance across the item set. Nonetheless, the
eight items were evaluated simultaneously in a regression models to identify unique
contributor(s) in the prediction of the dependent variables.
The eight-item model was a significant predictor of total number of injuries F (8, 194) =
3.722, p < .001. These eight reasons accounted for 13.3% (9.7% adjusted) of the variance in total
number of injuries. Two predictor items contributed significant unique variance in the prediction
equation including: not wanting to lose a starting position or role β = .28, p = .026, and not
wanting to let fans down β = -.27, p = .008. The eight-item model was not a significant predictor
of injury severity F (8, 194) = 1.597, p = .128, number of competition days missed F (8, 194) =
.494, p = .905, or number of practice days missed F (8, 194) = .717, p = .676. Given that all of
the correlations between the over conformity variables and total number of injuries variable were
positive, the negative regression coefficient for the not wanting to let fans down item indicates
that the item not wanting to let fans down was acting as a suppressor variable in the regression
model.
The second MANOVA on the SAQ-MA revealed a significant main effect on all eight
dependent variables, Wilks’λ = .28, F (8, 87) = 28.01, p < .001, ηp 2 = .661. Follow up univariate
ANOVAs revealed significant differences between high and low SAQ-MA groups for wanting to
impress a scout, playing because their coach told them to, not wanting to lose their starting
position or role, playing because they love their sport, not wanting to let their teammates down,
not being worried about getting hurt, not wanting to let their fans down, and because they felt an
athlete should be tough. Results of the ANOVAs are displayed in Table 18.
Table 18: ANOVA results for SAQ-Meaning of being an athlete (SAQ-MA) reasons
Variable
p<
F(1,93)
ηp 2
I want to impress a scout
89.62
.001
.49
The coach told me to play
77.08
.001
.45
I don't want to lose my starting position
131.88
.001
.59
33
Table 18-- Continued
Variable
F(1,93)
p<
ηp 2
I love to play my sport
113.5
.001
.55
I don't want to let my teammates down
116.64
.001
.56
I'm not worried about getting hurt
186.35
.001
.67
I don't want to let my fans down
61.52
.001
.40
An athlete should be tough
199.26
.001
.68
The third MANOVA on the SAQ-PC revealed a significant main effect on all eight
dependent variables, Wilks’λ = .34, F (8, 86) = 21.18, p < .001, ηp 2 = .723. Follow up univariate
ANOVAs revealed significant differences between high and low SAQ-PC groups for wanting to
impress a scout, playing because their coach told them to, not wanting to lose their starting
position or role, playing because they love their sport, not wanting to let their teammates down,
not being worried about getting hurt, not wanting to let their fans down, and because they felt an
athlete should be tough. Results of the ANOVAs are displayed in Table 19.
Table 19: ANOVA results for SAQ-Playing at all costs (SAQ-PC) reasons
Variable
p<
F(1,94)
ηp 2
I want to impress a scout
81.34
.001
.46
The coach told me to play
106.16
.001
.53
I don't want to lose my starting position
123.87
.001
.57
I love to play my sport
75.45
.001
.45
I don't want to let my teammates down
49.25
.001
.34
I'm not worried about getting hurt
87.72
.001
.48
I don't want to let my fans down
30.83
.001
.25
An athlete should be tough
82.81
.001
.47
Due to the differences in group membership between the SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and
SAQ-PC, statistical tests are unable to be conducted for differences among the reasons for over
conformity between these groups. However, the descriptive statistics can be examined across all
34
three groups. Although the means and standard deviations across the SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and
SAQ-PC exhibit slight differences, the differences between high and low groups on all the
reasons for over conformity were consistent across all three variables.
35
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between over conformity to the
sport ethic and injury in adolescent athletes. Athletes who over conform to the sport ethic may be
putting themselves at an increased risk of injury in sports. Being able to better identify those
athletes at risk of injury would allow researchers and practitioners to target interventions to those
individuals, and to better detect signs of a potential problem. Injuries are not just costly to
professional sports athletes, they are costly in young athletes as well; in addition to the financial
costs associated with doctor’s visits and visits to rehabilitation, when children have to miss
school their parents are often forced to take time off of work, which can lead to lost productivity
(Goldberg, Moroz, Smith & Ganley, 2007). With so many athletes engaging in behaviors that
place them at serious risk of suffering an injury, and the amount of sports-related injuries that
have increased over the past 15 - 20 years, the need for additional research on sport injury
prevention and prediction is crucial (Pargman, 2007).
The sport ethic involves beliefs about what it means to be an athlete and the importance
of striving for distinction and athletic excellence. Examples of the sport ethic include: refusing to
accept limits in the pursuit of possibilities, making sacrifices for the game, accepting personal
risk in the pursuit of victory and being able to manage pain to play “the game” (Coakley, 2007;
Hughes & Coakley, 1991). Over conformity to the sport ethic can include behaviors such as:
declining to wear optional protective gear, inclination to minimize warm-up or stretching, risking
injury to compete, risking prolonged illness to compete, playing through pain, inclination to
avoid medical attention, winning regardless of the physical costs, or failure to tape injuries
(Hughes & Coakley, 1991; Miller, 2008).
Although injury prevention is a popular topic right now in the field of sport psychology,
most of the research has been conducted on university level or elite athletes. There have not been
many studies focused on injury prevention in adolescent or youth athletes of any sort. In
addition, many studies on injury prevention have had very small sample sizes, or high participant
drop-out rates (Brewer & Tripp, 2005). With athletes as young as fourth grade accepting pain
and injury as inevitable outcomes of playing sports, and continuing to play through the pain and
36
injury, research aimed at identifying those young athletes at risk of injury is paramount (Singer,
2004).
A number of studies on sport injury have failed to obtain repeated measures of variables
(Petrie & Falkstein, 1998); however this study attempted to do so by administering the index of
over conformity to the sport ethic again to the ten athletes selected to track injury data
throughout their season to confirm that this construct is stable. The high test-retest reliability
values found and the presence of no time effect all indicate that the index is stable over time and
that the construct also appears to be stable over time.
In this study, it was hypothesized that athletes who reported engaging in more behaviors
associated with over conformity to the sport ethic would report incurring a larger number of
injuries in sports than athletes who reported engaging in fewer behaviors associated with over
conformity to the sport ethic. Results confirmed that athletes who were found to be higher in
overall over conformity to the sport ethic, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC reported incurring a
significantly greater number of sport injuries than those athletes who were found to be lower in
overall over conformity to the sport ethic, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC respectively. Additionally, it
was found that participants in the high SAQ-Total group were older and at a higher level of
competition than participants in the low SAQ-Total group. Participants in the high SAQ-MA and
SAQ-PC groups were also found to be older than participants in the low SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC
groups. This is consistent with Malcom’s (2003) findings that older and more highly skilled girls
were more likely to over conform to the sport ethic than girls that were younger and lower
skilled.
The second hypothesis was that athletes who reported engaging in more behaviors
associated with over conformity to the sport ethic would report experiencing a greater severity of
injuries in sports than athletes who reported engaging in fewer behaviors associated with over
conformity to the sport ethic. Results confirmed that athletes who were found to be higher in
SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC reported experiencing a significantly higher severity of
injuries than those athletes who were found to be lower in SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA or SAQ-PC
respectively. In addition, athletes higher in SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC also reported
missing a significantly higher number of days of practice and also playing time due to injury than
athletes who were found to be lower in SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA or SAQ-PC. These findings from
both the first and second hypotheses provide quantitative data to support the current literature
37
that despite the accolades many athletes receive from engaging in over conformity to the sport
ethic behaviors, they are at risk of suffering debilitating injuries (Nixon, 1993).
Lastly, it was hypothesized that athletes who reported engaging in behaviors associated
with over conformity to the sport ethic due to love of the sport, their competitive spirit, or the
belief that they are invincible would report incurring a larger number of injuries or a greater
severity of injuries. This hypothesis was rejected, as there was no significant difference in total
number of injuries experienced, number of practice or competition days missed, or highest level
of severity for athletes reporting to engage in SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA or SAQ-PC behaviors due to
their love of the sport. On reflection, given that studies have shown most young athletes would
say they play their sport to have fun (Ewing & Seefeldt, 1996), this result is not terribly
surprising. However, athletes in the high SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA, and SAQ-PC groups did report
engaging in over conformity behaviors for all eight reasons significantly higher than those
athletes in the low SAQ-Total, SAQ-MA and SAQ-PC groups. A possible explanation is that
perhaps athletes who are more likely to over conform to the sport ethic are more likely to over
conform for multiple reasons. Hughes and Coakley (1991) identified athletes who are more
likely to over conform as those who have such a strong desire to succeed that they will do
whatever is necessary to advance. Perhaps these athletes identify all eight reasons as aiding in
their advancement in sport. Another explanation could be the phrasing of the reasons in the Sport
Attitudes Questionnaire. The SAQ was piloted with graduate-level students, who competed at
very high levels (i.e. college or internationally), and who are not current athletes. It is possible
that the adolescent participants in the study interpreted the reasons for over conformity
differently than the graduate students from the pilot study. Additionally, the reasons for over
conforming should be examined more closely and perhaps edited to fit more closely with the
different motivational states of the Self-Determination Theory.
It was found that not wanting to lose a starting position or role had a unique contribution
to the total number of injuries. This is consistent with research identifying that athletes would
much rather be a starting player than have to sit on the bench as a substitute (Ryall, 2008). Not
wanting to let fans down also had a unique contribution to the total number of injuries, but the
correlation between the two was negative. The fans at adolescent sporting events are different
than the fans at collegiate or professional sporting events; often the fans at adolescent sporting
events consist of the athletes’ parents (Meân & Kassing, 2007). Perhaps this fan composition
38
somehow influences adolescents’ decisions about engaging in over conformity to the sport ethic
behaviors. Future research should investigate the effect of fan composition on over conformity to
the sport ethic.
Limitations and Future Directions
Despite the strong Cronbach’s Alphas of the SAQ index and the factors SAQ-MA and
SAQ-PC, the dimensionality of this construct were not entirely clear. The results of the factor
analysis revealed that the construct of over conformity to the sport ethic could be
multidimensional. The index should be refined because some aspects of the construct, if it is in
fact multidimensional, could differ in regard to the total number of injuries of injury severity.
Additionally, because the index was piloted with graduate students who were not current athletes
and who had competed at high levels within their respective sports, the SAQ items could benefit
from being rephrased for use with adolescent athletes. Interestingly, the one athlete in the study
who reported incurring ten total injuries was split into the high over conformity group for SAQTotal, but was not in the high groups for either the SAQ-MA or the SAQ-PC. Perhaps the third
factor that was omitted due to the low internal consistency should also be more closely
examined. Despite the issues regarding dimensionality with the construct of over conformity to
the sport ethic, results from this study indicate that this construct does seem to have some impact
on number of injuries incurred and severity of injuries.
This study collected injury data retrospectively and via self-report. However, additional
injury data was collected at two week intervals for ten weeks during the sport season from ten
athletes and their coach in order to increase the reliability of the data obtained. Although only a
small sample of the athletes utilized in this study were followed throughout their season, the data
obtained from these athletes and their coach was consistent with injury data reported in the Sport
Demographic and History forms. It is recommended that future studies involve athletic trainers
or coaches providing injury data on a daily or weekly basis.
Although the results pertaining to the first two hypotheses of the study were significant,
they should still be interpreted with caution. Participants were asked to report the number of
hours they spent participating both in and out of season for their primary sport, but not for all the
sports they were participating in. Some participants noted they participated in their primary sport
year-round, while others participated in their primary sport only a few months out of the year and
participated in other sports the remainder of the time. For this reason, time spent participating in
39
sport was not analyzed as a covariate. However, time spent participating in sport could affect the
number of injuries an athlete incurs, or the degree of severity experienced as well.
Although athletes engaging in over conformity to the sport ethic are frequently reinforced
for doing so (Coakley, 2007; Martin Ginis & Leary, 2004), the results of this study suggest that
there are potential negative consequences associated with these behaviors. Perhaps coaches and
other sport administrators should be cautious about reinforcing these types of behaviors, because
athletes with a higher degree of over conformity to the sport ethic appear to incur a greater
number of injuries, experience a higher severity of injuries, and miss more days of practice and
competition due to injury. Although athletes who over conform to the sport ethic are more likely
to be chosen for continued participation in the sport (Hughes & Coakley, 1991), perhaps coaches
should approach the recruiting process of their athletes a bit more cautiously. If athletes who are
more likely to over conform to the sport ethic are missing more practice days and competition
days then those athletes who are less likely to over conform to the sport ethic than perhaps
coaches should try to ensure that not all the athletes they are selecting are high on over
conformity.
Future research in this area should examine the role that coaches, parents and teammates
play in reinforcing over conformity to the sport ethic behaviors. Additionally, this relationship
between over conformity to the sport ethic and injury in collegiate or even professional athletes
should be explored, as well as in a wider variety of sports. This index of over conformity to the
sport ethic could also be adjusted to be used to examine the relationship between over
conformity and other types of deviant behavior, such as: cheating, gambling or drug use in
athletes.
Future research should also utilize the SAQ alongside other measures in order to perhaps
better identify those athletes at risk of injury. For example, Malcom (2003) found that athletes
with a stronger athletic identity tend to display a stronger belief in the sport ethic. Perhaps the
SAQ could be employed alongside measures such as the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale
(Brewer, Van Raalte & Linder, 2003). Finally, future research should develop and target
interventions to individuals identified as being at risk of injury.
40
APPENDIX A
SPORT DEMOGRAPHIC DATA AND HISTORY
Please read each question carefully and answer all thirteen questions to the best of your ability.
Thank you.
1) Gender:
Male________
Female________
2) Age: _______________
3) Ethnicity: ______________________________________
4) Primary sport: __________________________________________
5) Current level of competition (circle one):
HS Junior Varsity
Competitive Club
HS Varsity
Other __________________
6) Total years of experience in the sport: ____________________
7) Years of experience at each level of competition:
Recreational ____
Competitive Club ____
HS Junior Varsity ____
HS Varsity ____
8) Time spent participating in your primary sport in season (including training, competition and
on your own) ________________ hours a week
9) Time spent participating in your primary sport out of season ________________ hours a week
10) Number of and types of sports you are currently participating in (please list):
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
11) Number of and types of sports you have participated in (please list):
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
41
12) Injuries since you first began participating in your primary sport (please list each
separately):
Type of injury (please describe)
Severity (please check all that apply for each injury)
1) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
2) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
3) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
4) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
42
5) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
6) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
7) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
8) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
43
9) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
10) ____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
13) Injuries in your primary sport during the past twelve months (please list each separately):
Type of injury (please describe)
Severity (please check all that apply for each injury)
1) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
2) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
44
3) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
4) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
5) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
6) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
45
7) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
8) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
46
APPENDIX B
COACH INJURY TRACKING FORM
Period of Month Day – Month Day
Directions: Please record any NEW injuries your players have had during the dates listed above
to the best of your ability.
Player ID
Injury (Briefly describe)
Severity (check all that apply)
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
___Required modification to play (tape, brace, etc.)
___Required no medical attention
Player ID
Injury (Briefly describe)
Severity (check all that apply)
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
___Required modification to play (tape, brace, etc.)
___Required no medical attention
Player ID
Injury (Briefly describe)
Severity (check all that apply)
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
___Required modification to play (tape, brace, etc.)
___Required no medical attention
Player ID
Injury (Briefly describe)
Severity (check all that apply)
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
___Required modification to play (tape, brace, etc.)
___Required no medical attention
Player ID
Injury (Briefly describe)
Severity (check all that apply)
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
___Required modification to play (tape, brace, etc.)
___Required no medical attention
Player ID
Injury (Briefly describe)
Severity (check all that apply)
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
___Required modification to play (tape, brace, etc.)
___Required no medical attention
47
ATHLETE INJURY TRACKING FORM
Period of Month Day – Month Day
Part 1: Directions: Please record any NEW injuries you’ve had during the dates listed above.
Type of injury (please describe)
Severity (please check all that apply for each injury)
1) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
2) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
3) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
48
Part 2: Directions: Please note any PREVIOUS injuries you’re still suffering from
Type of injury (please describe)
Severity (please check all that apply for each injury)
1) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Approximate date of original injury: __________
2) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Approximate date of original injury: __________
3) _____________________________
___Required surgery
___Required visit to doctor or hospital
_______________________________ ___Required modification to play (i.e., tape or brace)
___Required no medical attention
_______________________________
Amount of playing time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Amount of practice time missed due to injury: _______ hours
OR
_______ days
Approximate date of original injury: __________
49
APPENDIX C
THE SPORT ATTITUDES QUESTIONNAIRE
Part 1
Directions: Please read each statement carefully and circle the number that best corresponds with each
statement. Please answer each question regarding your athletic involvement during the past 12 months.
1) How frequently do you avoid seeking medical attention for an injury or illness that would prohibit you
from participating in your sport?
1
2
Never
Rarely
3
4
Sometimes
Almost always
5
Always
2) How frequently do you participate in your sport when you are injured or ill?
1
2
Never
Rarely
3
4
Sometimes
Almost always
5
Always
3) How frequently do you neglect your grades or academics because of time spent participating in your
sport?
1
2
Never
Rarely
3
4
Sometimes
Almost always
5
Always
4) How frequently do you play through pain caused by an injury or illness?
1
2
Never
Rarely
3
4
Sometimes
Almost always
5
Always
5) How frequently do you ignore medical advice for an injury or illness that would prohibit you from
participating in your sport?
1
2
Never
Rarely
3
4
Sometimes
Almost always
5
Always
6) How frequently do you spend over 10 hours a week practicing your sport outside of team or scheduled
practice?
1
2
Never
Rarely
3
4
Sometimes
50
Almost always
5
Always
7) How frequently do you neglect your relationships with friends or family due to time spent participating
in your sport?
1
2
Never
Rarely
3
4
Sometimes
Almost always
5
Always
Part 2
Directions: Please read each statement carefully and indicate to what extent you agree or disagree with
each statement by circling the number that best corresponds with each statement.
8) “Pain is temporary, victory is forever.”
1
Strongly Disagree
2
Disagree
3
4
Undecided
Agree
5
Strongly Agree
9) “No pain, no gain.”
1
Strongly Disagree
2
Disagree
3
4
Undecided
Agree
5
Strongly Agree
10) “There has never been a great athlete who died not knowing what pain is.”
1
Strongly Disagree
2
Disagree
3
4
Undecided
Agree
5
Strongly Agree
11) “Rub some dirt on it and get back in the game.”
1
Strongly Disagree
2
Disagree
3
4
Undecided
Agree
5
Strongly Agree
12) Being an athlete is the most important part of who I am.
1
Strongly Disagree
2
Disagree
3
4
Undecided
Agree
5
Strongly Agree
13) I would be very upset if I were injured and could not play my sport.
1
Strongly Disagree
2
Disagree
3
4
Undecided
51
Agree
5
Strongly Agree
Part 3
Directions: Please read each stem statement carefully and circle the number that best corresponds with
each statement. Please answer each question regarding your athletic involvement during the past 12
months. Note that a response of “1” indicates “never” and a response of “5” indicates “always.”
14) How frequently do you avoid seeking medical attention for an injury or illness that would
prohibit you from participating in your sport because…
Never Rarely Sometimes Almost always Always
a) I want to impress a scout / a scout is watching
1
2
3
4
5
b) The coach told me to play
1
2
3
4
5
c) I don’t want to lose my starting position or role on the team
1
2
3
4
5
d) I love to play my sport
1
2
3
4
5
e) I don’t want to let my teammates down
1
2
3
4
5
f) I’m not worried about getting hurt
1
2
3
4
5
g) I don’t want to let my fans down
1
2
3
4
5
h) An athlete should be tough
1
2
3
4
5
15) How frequently do you participate in your sport when you are injured or ill because…
Never Rarely Sometimes Almost always Always
a) I want to impress a scout / a scout is watching
1
2
3
4
5
b) The coach told me to play
1
2
3
4
5
c) I don’t want to lose my starting position or role on the team
1
2
3
4
5
d) I love to play my sport
1
2
3
4
5
e) I don’t want to let my teammates down
1
2
3
4
5
f) I’m not worried about getting hurt
1
2
3
4
5
g) I don’t want to let my fans down
1
2
3
4
5
h) An athlete should be tough
1
2
3
4
5
52
16) How frequently do you neglect your grades or academics due to time spent participating in your
sport because…
Never Rarely Sometimes Almost always Always
a) I want to impress a scout / a scout is watching
1
2
3
4
5
b) The coach told me to
1
2
3
4
5
c) I don’t want to lose my starting position or role on the team
1
2
3
4
5
d) I love to play my sport
1
2
3
4
5
e) I don’t want to let my teammates down
1
2
3
4
5
f) I don’t want to let my fans down
1
2
3
4
5
17) How frequently do you play through pain caused by an injury or illness because…
Never Rarely Sometimes Almost always Always
a) I want to impress a scout / a scout is watching
1
2
3
4
5
b) The coach told me to play
1
2
3
4
5
c) I don’t want to lose my starting position or role on the team
1
2
3
4
5
d) I love to play my sport
1
2
3
4
5
e) I don’t want to let my teammates down
1
2
3
4
5
f) I’m not worried about getting hurt
1
2
3
4
5
g) I don’t want to let my fans down
1
2
3
4
5
h) An athlete should be tough
1
2
3
4
5
53
18) How frequently do you ignore medical advice for an injury or illness that would prohibit you
from participating in your sport because…
Never Rarely Sometimes Almost always Always
a) I want to impress a scout / a scout is watching
1
2
3
4
5
b) The coach told me to play
1
2
3
4
5
c) I don’t want to lose my starting position or role on the team
1
2
3
4
5
d) I love to play my sport
1
2
3
4
5
e) I don’t want to let my teammates down
1
2
3
4
5
f) I’m not worried about getting hurt
1
2
3
4
5
g) I don’t want to let my fans down
1
2
3
4
5
h) An athlete should be tough
1
2
3
4
5
19) How frequently do you spend over 10 hours a week practicing your sport outside of team or
scheduled practice because…
Never Rarely Sometimes Almost always Always
a) I want to impress a scout / a scout is watching
1
2
3
4
5
b) The coach told me to play
1
2
3
4
5
c) I don’t want to lose my starting position or role on the team
1
2
3
4
5
d) I love to play my sport
1
2
3
4
5
e) I don’t want to let my teammates down
1
2
3
4
5
f) I’m not worried about getting hurt
1
2
3
4
5
g) I don’t want to let my fans down
1
2
3
4
5
h) An athlete should be tough
1
2
3
4
5
54
20) How frequently do you neglect your relationships with friends or family due to time spent
participating in your sport because…
Never Rarely Sometimes Almost always Always
a) I want to impress a scout / a scout is watching
1
2
3
4
5
b) The coach told me to play
1
2
3
4
5
c) I don’t want to lose my starting position or role on the team
1
2
3
4
5
d) I love to play my sport
1
2
3
4
5
e) I don’t want to let my teammates down
1
2
3
4
5
f) I don’t want to let my fans down
1
2
3
4
5
55
APPENDIX D
APPROVAL MEMORANDUM
Office of the Vice President For Research
Human Subjects Committee
Tallahassee, Florida 32306-2742
(850) 644-8673 · FAX (850) 644-4392
APPROVAL MEMORANDUM
Date: 4/15/2009
To: Amber Shipherd
Address: 1325 W. Tharpe St. Apt. 437 Tallahassee, FL 32303
Dept.: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING SYSTEMS
From: Thomas L. Jacobson, Chair
Re: Use of Human Subjects in Research
Over conformity to the sport ethic among high school athletes and injury
The application that you submitted to this office in regard to the use of human subjects in the
research proposal referenced above has been reviewed by the Human Subjects Committee at its
meeting on 04/08/2009. Your project was approved by the Committee.
The Human Subjects Committee has not evaluated your proposal for scientific merit, except to
weigh the risk to the human participants and the aspects of the proposal related to potential risk
and benefit. This approval does not replace any departmental or other approvals, which may be
required.
If you submitted a proposed consent form with your application, the approved stamped consent
form is attached to this approval notice. Only the stamped version of the consent form may be
used in recruiting research subjects.
If the project has not been completed by 4/7/2010 you must request a renewal of approval for
continuation of the project. As a courtesy, a renewal notice will be sent to you prior to your
expiration date; however, it is your responsibility as the Principal Investigator to timely request
renewal of your approval from the Committee.
You are advised that any change in protocol for this project must be reviewed and approved by
the Committee prior to implementation of the proposed change in the protocol. A protocol
change/amendment form is required to be submitted for approval by the Committee. In addition,
federal regulations require that the Principal Investigator promptly report, in writing any
unanticipated problems or adverse events involving risks to research subjects or others.
56
By copy of this memorandum, the Chair of your department and/or your major professor is
reminded that he/she is responsible for being informed concerning research projects involving
human subjects in the department, and should review protocols as often as needed to insure that
the project is being conducted in compliance with our institution and with DHHS regulations.
This institution has an Assurance on file with the Office for Human Research Protection. The
Assurance Number is IRB00000446.
Cc: Robert Eklund, Advisor
HSC No. 2009.2546
57
APPENDIX E
CHANGE IN PROTOCOL APPROVAL MEMORANDUM
Office of the Vice President For Research
Human Subjects Committee
Tallahassee, Florida 32306-2742
(850) 644-8673 · FAX (850) 644-4392
APPROVAL MEMORANDUM (for change in research protocol)
Date: 10/12/2009
To: Amber Shipherd
Address: 1325 W. Tharpe St. Apt. 437 Tallahassee, FL 32303
Dept.: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING SYSTEMS
From: Thomas L. Jacobson, Chair
Re: Use of Human Subjects in Research (Approval for Change in Protocol)
Project entitled: Over conformity to the sport ethic among adolescent athletes and injury
The form that you submitted to this office in regard to the requested change/amendment to your
research protocol for the above-referenced project has been reviewed and approved.
Please be reminded that if the project has not been completed by 4/7/2010, you must request
renewed approval for continuation of the project.
By copy of this memorandum, the chairman of your department and/or your major professor is
reminded that he/she is responsible for being informed concerning research projects involving
human subjects in the department, and should review protocols as often as needed to insure that
the project is being conducted in compliance with our institution and with DHHS regulations.
This institution has an Assurance on file with the Office for Human Research Protection. The
Assurance Number is IRB00000446.
Cc: Robert Eklund, Advisor
HSC No. 2009.3425
58
APPENDIX F
FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY-- INFORMED ASSENT FORM
I freely, voluntarily and without element of force or coercion, consent to be a participant in the
research project examining sport attitudes and athletic injury in adolescent athletes. This research
is being conducted by Amber M. Shipherd, a Sport Psychology Masters student in the
Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems under the supervision of Dr.
Robert Eklund at Florida State University.
I understand I will be asked to fill out two questionnaires: one on sport attitudes and a second on
my history of injury. The questionnaires are anticipated to take 30- 45 minutes to complete. In
addition, if my team is selected for the second phase of research, I will be asked to record data
biweekly on any injuries that I incur during my sport season and fill out the questionnaires again
at the end of the season Participation in the second phase of the research is anticipated to take
approximately 90 additional minutes (10 minutes biweekly and 30- 45 minutes to complete
second administration of the questionnaires).
Everything I say will be kept strictly confidential to the extent allowed by law, and any data
collected from my participation will be made anonymous. I understand that my name will not
appear in any reporting of the results of this investigation. I understand that if I request a copy of
the results, the researcher will provide them upon completion of the investigation. I understand
that my consent may be withdrawn at any time without prejudice, penalty, or loss of benefits to
which I am otherwise entitled.
I understand there are no direct benefits for participating in this research project. Valuable
information may be obtained, however, that could lead to better injury prevention and
intervention strategies in adolescent athletics.
I have had the chance to ask any questions about this study, and they have been answered to my
satisfaction. If I have any further questions about my participation in the study, I can obtain
answers by contacting Amber M. Shipherd at (925) 586-3404 or at [email protected], or Dr.
Robert Eklund at [email protected]. I understand that if I have questions about my rights as a
participant in this research, or if I feel I have been placed at risk, I may contact the Chair of the
Human Subjects Committee, Institutional Review Board, through the Office of the Vice
President for Research, at (850) 644-8633.
I have read and understand the information in this consent form, and agree to participate in this
study.
________________________________________________
Participant Name- please print
________________________________________________
(Participant Signature)
59
_____________________
(Date)
FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY-- PARENTAL INFORMED CONSENT FORM
I freely, voluntarily and without element of force or coercion, allow my son or daughter to be a
participant in the research project examining sport attitudes and athletic injury in adolescent
athletes. This research is being conducted by Amber M. Shipherd, a Sport Psychology Masters
student in the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems under the
supervision of Dr. Robert Eklund at Florida State University.
I understand my son or daughter will be asked to fill out two questionnaires: one on sport
attitudes and a second on his or her history of injury. The questionnaires are anticipated to take
30- 45 minutes to complete. In addition, if my son or daughter’s team is selected for the second
phase of research, my son or daughter will be asked to record data biweekly on any injuries that
he or she incurs during his or her sport season and fill out the questionnaires again at the end of
the season. Participation in the second phase of the research is anticipated to take approximately
90 additional minutes (10 minutes biweekly and 30- 45 minutes to complete second
administration of the questionnaires).
Everything my son or daughter says will be kept strictly confidential to the extent allowed by
law, and any data collected from my son or daughter’s participation will be made anonymous. I
understand that my son or daughter’s name will not appear in any reporting of the results of this
investigation. I understand that if I request a copy of the results, the researcher will provide them
upon completion of the investigation. I understand that my son or daughter’s consent may be
withdrawn at any time without prejudice, penalty, or loss of benefits to which he or she is
otherwise entitled.
I understand there are no direct benefits for participating in this research project. Valuable
information may be obtained, however, that could lead to better injury prevention and
intervention strategies in adolescent athletics.
I have had the chance to ask any questions about this study, and they have been answered to my
satisfaction. If I have any further questions about my son or daughter’s participation in the study,
I can obtain answers by contacting Amber M. Shipherd at (925) 586-3404 or at [email protected]
or Dr. Robert Eklund at [email protected]. I understand that if I have questions about my son
or daughter’s rights as a participant in this research, or if I feel my son or daughter has been
placed at risk, I may contact the Chair of the Human Subjects Committee, Institutional Review
Board, through the Office of the Vice President for Research, at (850) 644-8633.
I have read and understand the information in this consent form, and agree to my son or
daughter’s participation in this study.
_______________________________________________
Participant’s (Athlete’s) Name- please print
________________________________________________
(Parent/Guardian Signature)
60
_____________________
(Date)
FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY-- PARENTAL PERMISSION FOR RELEASE OF INJURY
DATA
I understand my son or daughter’s team has been selected for the second phase of the research
project examining sport attitudes and athletic injury in adolescent athletes.
My son or daughter will be asked to record data biweekly on any injuries that incur during his or
her sport season and fill out the questionnaires again at the end of the season. My son or
daughter’s coach will also be asked to record any injuries that their athletes incur during the sport
season.
I freely, voluntarily and without element of force of coercion, authorize my son or daughter’s
coach to record any injuries my son or daughter incurs during his or her sport season, and release
such data to the researcher. I understand that any injury information pertaining to my son or
daughter that is received from their coach will be coded with an ID number to maintain
confidentiality.
I understand that my son or daughter’s consent may be withdrawn at any time without prejudice,
penalty, or loss of benefits to which he or she is otherwise entitled.
If I have any further questions about my son or daughter’s participation in the study, I can obtain
answers by contacting Amber M. Shipherd at (925) 586-3404 or at [email protected] or Dr.
Robert Eklund at [email protected]. I understand that if I have questions about my son or
daughter’s rights as a participant in this research, or if I feel my son or daughter has been placed
at risk, I may contact the Chair of the Human Subjects Committee, Institutional Review Board,
through the Office of the Vice President for Research, at (850) 644-8633.
I have read and understand the information in this permission form and authorize my son or
daughter’s coach to record any injuries my son or daughter incurs during his or her sport season,
and release such data to the researcher.
_______________________________________________
Participant’s (Athlete’s) Name- please print
________________________________________________
(Parent/Guardian Signature)
61
_____________________
(Date)
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Amber M. Shipherd was born in Walnut Creek, California. She grew up playing soccer,
basketball, tennis and a multitude of other sports, but chose to concentrate on soccer throughout
high school and in college. She received her Bachelor of Science from the University of
California, Davis in Human Development with a minor in Psychology. She has coached
recreational and competitive soccer from youth through high school level. Her first hand
experience with sport injuries and love of coaching led her to the field of Sport Psychology and
to Florida State University. Her research interests include: injury prevention, the psychological
aspects of sport injury, the return to sport following injury and leadership development. Amber
has experience working as a Performance Enhancement Consultant with youth, high school and
collegiate teams and individual athletes from a variety of sports, including: gymnastics, soccer,
car racing and rugby. Amber has also presented numerous workshops to athletes and coaches on
topics such as: leadership training, team-building, communication and effective goal-setting.
66