Biblid: 1821-4487 (2014) 18; 3; p 126-128
UDK: 582.542.11:552.53
Original Scientific Paper
Originalni naučni rad
EFFECTS OF SALT FORMS AND CONCENTRATIONS ON
THE ALVEOGRAPH PARAMETERS OF WINTER WHEAT
UTICAJ OBLIKA SOLI I KONCENTRACIJE NA REOLOŠKE
OSOBINE OZIME PŠENICE
*
Péter SIPOS*, Zsófia SZIGETI*, Mária BORBÉLY**
University of Debrecen, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences and Environmental Management,
Institute of Food Science, Quality Assurance and Microbiology
**
University of Debrecen, Agricultural Laboratory Centre
138 Böszörményi street, H-4032 Debrecen, Hungary
email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The strong connection between sodium intake and high blood pressure draws attention to the salt content of foodstuffs and initiated programs for reduction sodium chloride contents of foods. About 30% of sodium intake consumed by bakery products, therefore
this product group is especially affected. The effects of different salt concentrations and salt forms on the reologic properties of
dough were evaluated to explore whether their effect can be measured by alveograph test. Five concentrations of five inorganic salt
forms were tested on the alveograph P, L, P/L and W values and it was found that both the form and concentration of used salt influence the rheological readings.
Key words: alveograph, sodium chloride, bakery products.
ABSTRACT
Jaka veza između unosa natrijum hlorida i visokog krvnog pritiska skreće pažnju na sadržaj soli u namirnicama i inicira
pokretanje programa za smanjenje sadržaja natrijum hlorida u namirnicama. Oko 30% od ukupnog unosa soli u organizam, unosi se
konzumiranjem pekarskih proizvoda, i to je razlog zbog čega je ova grupa proizvoda posebno uticajna. Dejstva različitih
koncentracija soli i oblika soli na reološka svojstva testa su ocenjivani kako bi se istražilo da li se njihovo dejstvo može meriti
pomoću alveograf testa. Različite koncentracije pet neorganskih soli su testirani na alveograf P, L, P / L i V vrednosti i utvrđeno je
da forma i kontracija soli ima uticaj na reološka merenja.
Ključne reči: alveograf test, natrijum hlorid, pekarski proizvodi.
INTRODUCTION
The bakery products are one of the most common staple
foods and their safety is an important issue of food production.
Their assessments are diversified: their nutritional value is high
because of the energy and protein content, but the products made
from white flour are condemned due their high energy and low
fiber contents and the whole meal products are exposed to the
accusation of presence of contaminants. Their sodium contents
are reasons for negative perceptions of nutrition science and the
reduction of their consumption or the reduction of their salt content is one of the new issues of bakeries.
The sodium is essential element due its role in the osmotic
balance of human body, maintaining the digestion by function in
production of acids of stomach, helping maintaining the pH and
nerve impulse transmission (Reddy et al., 1991; Batmanghelidj,
2008), but the highest emphasis is on its function in blood pressure nowadays. Sodium intake was found as the primary reason
for raised blood pressure (He and MacGregor, 2007; Jones,
2008; Satin, 2008) and the strong connection between blood
pressure and sodium intake is valid both for normal and hypertonic people and decrease in sodium intake results immediately
and linear decrease in blood pressure (Kurtzman, 2001). Six
grams decrease in salt intake should decrease the risk of stroke
by 24% and the risk of coronary diseases by 18% (Strazzullo et
al., 2004).
The most sodium is consumed as sodium chloride (salt). The
nutritionally optimal daily intake is 5 g for adults and 3 g for infants, but an international comparison found that almost all the
countries consumes much more than the recommended: in the
member countries of the European Union the average is 8 to 12
g/day (EU, 2012), but the highest values are found in Hungary;
the national intake is about threefoldfourfold of the recom-
126
mended value for men (about 17 g), twofold-threefold for
women (12 g) and unfortunately it is about 6.9 g/day for kindergarteners (Martos, 2010).
Several projects started to decrease the salt content of foodstuffs worldwide. In New Zealand it was recommended to decrease the sodium intake by 25%, as about only 75% of total sodium content is required for food processing in average (Mhurchu et al., 2003). The Food Standards Agency (FSA) and the UK
Committee on Medical Aspects of Food and Nutrition Policy
(COMA) started an anti-salt campaign in the food industry to
encourage the consumers having no more than 2,3 g sodium a
day, but only a slight decrease was found; the average consumption reduced only from 3.8 to 3.6 g (FSA, 2007). Similarly,
Hungary announced the National Salt-Decreasing Program
(Nemzeti sócsökkentő program), undertaking 16% decrease in
four years (Martos, 2010). In Hungary the allowed sodium chloride content of bread products is 2.8% but it will be decreased to
2.35% to 2018 in this program.
The main source of salt in human diet is food; about 70-75%
of the total intake comes from our foodstuffs. Its taste is required
by customers, have an effect on the technological properties of
food raw materials and it is maybe the first chemical preservative (Hutton, 2002). The bakery and meat products cover about
60% of total intake while the other ones have their contributions
below 10% (Angus, 2007; Lynch et al., 2009). The risk of this
foodstuff is especially significant in Hungary as the cereal mostly bread - consumption is relatively high in our country.
The traditional bread, as basic bakery product contains 2 per
cent salt by the weight of flour (Cauvain and Young, 1998). Its
main role is giving taste for the bread and its lack results tasteless flavour. However, consumer studies prove that the reduction
is possible: 50 to 75% decrease in the case of bakery products do
not noticed by average consumers (Wyatt, 1983; Rogers and
Journal on Processing and Energy in Agriculture 18 (2014) 3
Sipos, Péter et al. / Effects of Salt Forms and Concentrations on the Alveograph Parameters of Winter Wheat
Neal, 1999; Unbehend and Namiljav, 2009) and same experiences were found for other product groups too (Hutton, 2002;
Mitchell et al., 2009).
Salt stabilizes the fermentation processes also during rising
and baking. Dough made without salt is gassy, sour dough and
its bread has poor texture (Matz, 1992). It also have significant
effect on the gluten structure and it is basically caused by the
change in the solubility of proteins, the ionic concentrations and
pH. The gluten network has a strong net positive charge which
results that side-chains repulse each other, and keep the protein
chains from interacting with each other, resulting weaker dough
structure (Preston, 1981). The different salts alter the hydrophobic interactions in the forming dough (Danno and Hoseney,
1982). On the other hands, the chloride and sodium ions also
have effect on the stability of proteins: both the sodium and
chloride ions are nonchaotropic ones, thus have ability for protein stabilization. (Cacace et al., 1997; Miller and Hoseney,
2008).
References say that increasing salt addition decreases the water absorption capacity and increasing mixing time and dough
development time (Hlynka, 1962; Preston, 1989; Tanaka et al.,
1967). It also increases the strength of dough, what is proved by
baking tests as well. Lynch et al. (2009) found that the bread volume is not affected by its salt concentration, however, decreased
gas holding capacity of low salt dough was found and uneven
crumb structure of baked bread is also observed. Singh et al
(2002) also reported only a small decrease as the effect of salt
content reduction of dough; half amount of sodium chloride resulted only 8-10% volume loss, but its effect on the bread firmness was much more significant.
The aim of this study is to extend our knowledge on the
rheologic effects of salt. Alveograph test is a rheologic analysis
of dough and it uses 2.5% NaCl solution. To evaluate the effect
of sodium we used different salt forms and concentrations to reveal what are their effects on the alveograph parameters and
whether the use of other salts results the same or similar effects
on dough properties.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The evaluated flour samples were BL55 ones and bought
from a local supermarket. The evaluated salt forms were sodium
chloride, potassium chloride, sodium acetate, potassium acetate
and calcium acetate (VWR, Belgium). The ion exchanged water
used for tests was performed by Millipore water purifier (Millipore, France).
Alveograph tests were performed by Alveograph NG (Chopin, France). All the analyses were done in the laboratory of
University of Debrecen, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences and Environmental Management, Institute of Food Science
and the Agricultural Laboratory Centre.
Alveograph tests were performed by the MSZ EN ISO
27971:2008 standard. Salt solutions were prepared in 0.5; 1.0;
1.5; 2.0 and 25% w/v%. All the measurements were performed
in two repeats. The results were analyzed by one-way analysis of
variance using SPSS 15.0 for Windows statistical program package (SPSS Inc.) and Tukey’s post-hoc test was used to reveal
significant differences. The tables present means and standard
deviations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The alveograph parameters are generally influenced by the
added salt forms and concentrations (Table 1). The increasing
concentrations of sodium chloride significantly influenced the P,
L and P/L values and it can be seen that higher doses of salt
(more than 2%) resulted remarkable increase in the strength of
dough represented by the P value (maximum pressure). Simultaneously, increase in salt content resulted less extensible dough as
it can be seen in the decrease of L value (extensibility). These
Journal on Processing and Energy in Agriculture 18 (2014) 3
changes resulted a significant increase in the P/L ratio and the
values higher than 1 report good baking values. The changes
were not proved statistically in the case of the W value (deformation work), but a tendentious increase was experienced in the
case of 1.5 and 2% concentrations.
The effect of potassium chloride addition was also significant on the P, L and P/L values. The change was favourable considering recommended values for bread making to 1.5% with
regards to the maximum pressure and extensibility, but further
increase in salt concentration resulted decrease in P and P/L values. The W value did not changed significantly and in remarkable extent with the increase of added KCl.
In the case of sodium acetate the increasing concentrations
resulted significant changes in P and W values. This salt form
caused continuous increase in W value and in the P value up to
the 2% concentration, but while the effect on W value was favourable, the strength of dough was the lowest comparing to the
other salt forms. Besides, it significantly increased the extensibility of dough and as a result, very low P/L values were experienced.
The potassium acetate addition resulted relatively high P
values to the 4th treatment, but the 2.5% concentration caused
decrease. In the L values continuous and significant increase was
experienced and it resulted also continuous decrease in the P/L
value. The increasing potassium acetate concentration increased
the W value and resulted the highest readings in the experiment
at high concentrations.
The lowest L values were experienced with the use of calcium acetate but slight decrease was observed by the increasing
concentrations. In contrast, the low concentrations (0.5 and 1%)
resulted high P values therefore the P/L values of the first two
treatments were outstanding ones. Due to the low L values and
the decrease of P values the W values were the lowest ones in
comparison to the other salt forms.
Table 1. Alveograph properties of dough made from BL55
flour and different salt solutions
Conc.
w/v
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
P, mm
L, mm
P/L
sodium chloride
60.8 ± 1.0 a 77.8 ± 17.4 a 0.83 ± 0.25 a
63.0 ± 2.7 a 73.5 ± 5.2 ab 0.86 ± 0.09 a
66.5 ± 1.7 a 71.8 ± 12.8 ab 0.95 ± 0.18 a
73.0 ± 3.4 b 67.8 ± 10.8 ab 1.10 ± 0.21 a
78.0 ± 4.1 b 49.8 ± 7.9 b
1.62 ± 0.36 b
potassium chloride
78.3 ± 3.6 a 53.8 ± 8.8 ab 1.50 ± 0.36 ab
79.0 ± 1.4 a 53.5 ± 7.0 ab 1.50 ± 0.23 ab
86.8 ± 3.0 b 41.3 ± 6.6 a
2.17 ± 0.44 b
60.8 ± 4.3 c 74.5 ± 17.9 b 0.88 ± 0.35 ab
67.3 ± 1.0 d 52.8 ± 4.2 ab 1.29 ± 0.12 a
sodium acetate
41.5 ± 1.7 a 84.0 ± 17.1 a 0.51 ± 0.10 a
46.0 ± 1.2 ab 97.3 ± 16.0 a 0.49 ± 0.08 a
50.8 ± 2.5 bc 83.8 ± 7.1 a
0.61 ± 0.07 a
58.0 ± 3.6 d 87.8 ± 20.7 a 0.71 ± 0.26 a
53.8 ± 1.3 cd 103.5 ± 6.4 a 0.52 ± 0.04 a
potassium acetate
69.3 ± 1.9 a
55.5 ± 3.3 a
1.26 ± 0.08 a
62.0 ± 1.8 b 64.8 ± 5.7 ab 0.96 ± 0.09 b
64.0 ± 2.4 b 76.5 ± 12.1 bc 0.85 ± 0.18 b
70.0 ± 1.0 c
84.7 ± 4.2 c
0.83 ± 0.05 b
54.0 ± 0.8 d 119.8 ± 9.2 d 0.45 ± 0.04 c
calcium acetate
96.3 ± 5.2 a
26.3 ± 6.4 a
3.87 ± 0.99 a
69.2 ± 6.1 ab 39.0 ± 12.6 ab 1.99 ± 0.78 b
55.3 ± 4.6 abc 47.8 ± 10.2 abc 1.20 ± 0.28 b
58.3 ± 3.9 c 64.8 ± 14.4 c 0.94 ± 0.27 b
63.0 ± 3.2 bc 52.8 ± 10.6 bc 1.24 ± 0.24 b
W, 10-4J
130.5 ± 17.2 a
138.5 ± 5.2 a
147.0 ± 19.0 a
159.3 ± 10.1 a
139.5 ± 11.5 a
138.5 ± 11.1 a
141.5 ± 9.8 a
133.0 ± 12.2 a
135.0 ± 16.8 a
123.5 ± 7.7 a
98.3 ± 9.5 a
114.8 ± 9.0 a
118.3 ± 6.1 ab
139.5 ± 16.8 bc
143.3 ± 5.5 c
122.3 ± 4.9 a
122.3 ± 6.7 a
138.0 ± 9.5 b
164.0 ± 2.6 c
162.8 ± 4.9 c
105.5 ± 15.3 a
95.4 ± 13.9 a
91.0 ± 7.8 a
112.5 ± 9.6 a
110.5 ± 16.3 a
127
Sipos, Péter et al. / Effects of Salt Forms and Concentrations on the Alveograph Parameters of Winter Wheat
Means marked with the same letter in the same column were
not significantly different at the 5% confidence level on the basis
of Tukey’s test.
CONCLUSION
Based on our results it can be concluded that both the salt
forms and concentrations influenced the alveograph values. In
the case of P values both sodium chloride and acetate resulted
slight but continuous increase while the use of potassium salts in
lower concentrations resulted similar values and the higher doses
resulted breakdown. Similar trend was found in the case of calcium acetate but in that case the rapid decrease was resulted by
the second concentration. Comparing these values to the one obtained by the standard alveograph test (2.5% NaCl concentration) it can be established that only the 0.5 and 1.0 % KCl resulted similar values; the maximum pressure values were lower
for most of the cases, but the 0.5% calcium acetate and 1.5% potassium acetate resulted higher reading, therefore more resistant
dough. The effects of applied salts were much moderate for the
L value, only the potassium acetate resulted visible and significant increase. The lower concentrations of sodium chloride resulted higher L values, therefore more extensible dough than the
standard concentration. Even lower values were caused by the
KCl (except the 2.0%) and the lower concentrations (0.5 and
1.0%) of calcium acetate and the smallest potassium acetate concentration, while the in the other cases the L readings were higher than the one obtained under standard conditions. The sodium
acetate addition resulted almost 2 times higher extensibility. The
W value was increased by sodium acetate and potassium acetate
in the highest degree. Comparing the salt forms and concentrations to the 2.5% NaCl it was found that only the high levels of
potassium acetate (2.0 and 2.5%) and the 2.0% sodium acetate
results significantly higher values, the potassium acetate in 2.5%
concentration similar, but the other set ups lower and significantly lower values for deformation energy. As all the evaluated salts
are allowed to use in bread making (the acetates as acidifying
agent and potassium chloride as salt substituent) the optimal
combination of these additives can result significant improvement in dough and therefore bread structure, but the evaluation
of the effects of these combinations both on the rheologic readings and bread properties require further tests.
Comparing the alveograph curves obtained by the different
salt form and concentrations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:This research was supported by the
European Union and the State of Hungary, co-financed by the
European Social Fund in the framework of TÁMOP-4.2.4.A/ 211/1-2012-0001 ‘National Excellence Program’.
REFERENCES
Angus, F. (2007). Dietary salt intake: sources and targets for
reduction. In: Reducing salt in foods. Practical strategies (Eds.:
Kilcast, D., Angus, F.). Woodhead Publishing Limited,
Abington Hall, Abington, England, 3-17.
Batmanghelidj, F. (2008). Your Body’s Many Cries for Water.
Global Health Solutions, Inc., USA
Cacace, M. G., Landau, E. M., Ramsden, J.J. (1997). The
Hofmeister series: salt and solvent effects on interfacial
phenomena. Quarterly Reviewsof Biophysics, 30, 241-77.
Cauvain, S.P., Linda, S. Y. (1998). Technology of breadmaking.
Springer, New York, USA
Danno, G., Hoseney, R. C. (1982). Effect of sodium chloride and
sodium dodecyl sulfate on mixograph properties. Cereal
Chemistry, 59, 202-204.
European Union (2012). Implementation of the EU Salt
Reduction Framework. Results of Member States survey.
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union
128
Food Standards Agency (FSA), (2007). Agency research reveals
a
drop
in
British
salt
consumption.
http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2007/mar/saltresear
chmar07. Food Standards Agency, London
He, F.J., MacGregor, G. A.(2007). Reducing salt in foods. (Eds.
Kilcast, D., Angus, F.), Woodhead Publishing, 18–46.
Hlynka, I. (1962). Influence of temperature, speed of mixing,
and salt on some rheological properties of dough in the
farinograph. Cereal Chemistry, 39. 286-303.
Hutton, T. (2002). Sodium. Technological functions of salt in the
manufacturing of food and drink products. British Food
Journal, 104 (2), 126-152.
Jones, J. M. (2008). Salt and blood pressure – A need to reduce
levels at any age. Cereal Foods World, 53, 43-45.
Kurtzman, N. A. (2001). Should man live by low-salt bread
alone? American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 37 (3), 636-637.
Lynch, E.J., Dal Bello, F., Sheehan, E.M, Cashman, K.D.,
Arendt, E.K. (2009). Fundamental studies on the reduction of
salt on dough and bread characteristics. Food Research
International, 42, 885–891.
Martos É. (2010). Európai összefogás a lakosság sóbevitelének
csökkentése érdekében – nemzeti sócsökkentő program.
Metabolizmus, 8. Suppl. A, 23-24.
Matz, S. A. (1992). Bakery technology and engineering. Third
edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold/AVI, NY.
Mhurchu, C. N., Young, L., Lawes, C., Brooks, J., Pound, C.,
Duizer, L., Rodgers, A. (2003). Less salt in bread: a costeffective way to reduce New Zealand population blood
pressure levels. Journal of the New Zealand Medical
Association 116. 1176. U487.
Miller, R. A., Hoseney, R. C. (2008). Role of salt in baking.
Cereal Foods World, 53 (1), 4-6.
Mitchell, M., Brunton, N., Wilkinson, M. (2009). Optimization
of the sensory acceptability of a reduced salt model ready meal.
Journal of Sensory Studies, 24, 133-147.
Preston, K. R. (1981). Effect of neutral salts upon wheat gluten
protein properties. I. Relationship between the hydrophobic
properties of gluten proteins and their extractability and
turbidity in neutral salts. Cereal Chemistry, 58, 317-324.
Preston, K. R. (1989). Effect of neutral salts of the lyotropic
series on the physical dough properties of Canadian red spring
wheat flour. Cereal Chemistry, 66, 144-148.
Reddy, K. A., Marth, E. H. (1991) Reducing the sodium content
of foods - a review. Journal of Food Protection, 54 (2), 138150.
Rogers, A., Neal, B. (1999). Less salt does not necessarily mean
less taste. The Lancet, 353. 9161. 1332.
Satin, M. (2008). The great salt debate. Cereal Foods World, 53,
9-16.
Singh, N., Bajaj, I. K., Singh, R. P., Singh Gujral, H. (2002).
Effect of different additives on mixograph and bread making
properties of Indian wheat flour. Journal of Food Engineering,
6, 89-95.
Strazzullo, P., D’Elia, L., Kandala, N., Francesco P Cappuccio
(2009). Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: metaanalysis of prospective studies. BMJ 2009;339:b4567.
Tanaka, K., Furukawa, K., Matrumoto, H. (1967). The effect of
acid and salt on the farinogram and extensogram of dough.
Cereal Chemistry, 44, 675-680.
Unbehend, G., Namiljav, E. (2009). Salt in bakery goods – The
influence and the possibilities for reducing. Abstract book of
5th International Congress Flour-Bread, Opatija, Croatia, 36.
Wyatt, J. C. (1983). Acceptability of reduced sodium in breads,
cottage cheese and pickles. Journal of Food Science, 48, 13001302.
Received: 26. 02. 2014.
Accepted: 26. 03. 2014.
Journal on Processing and Energy in Agriculture 18 (2014) 3