European Nations and their Empires from about 1500 A.D. to about 1800 A. D.
Between about 1500 A.D. (C.E.) and about 1800 A.D., European nations developed empires
that extended throughout Europe and the world.
Major geographic features of Europe helped to shape these empires and included land and
water features.
The Hapsburg Empire
The efforts of the Hapsburg rulers failed of restore Catholic
unity across Europe.
Social and Cultural Patterns in the Hapsburg Empire:
- Very diverse empire that included many ethnic and cultural
groups, which often resulted in conflict.
- Focus of protection of Catholicism from Islamic influence and Protestant influence.
- Development of nationalism within the diverse groups in the empire.
The German States:
The Protestant Reformation and the Thirty Years’ War had a major impact of the
development of the social and cultural patterns of the German states.
Social and Cultural Patterns in the German States:
- Devastation of the Thirty Years War – Germany was divided up
into many territories and the influence of the Holy Roman Empire
was limited.
- Shared a common language.
- Spread of Protestant faith.
- No common currency or uniform law.
- Rivalry between Holy Roman Empire and Prussia for political
dominance.
Italian States
Classical civilizations and foreign influence contributed to the development of cultural and
social patterns in the Italian states.
Social and Cultural Patterns in the Italian States.
- Periods of foreign control by Spain and Austria.
- Culture was influenced by foreign control.
- Rome remained the center of the Catholic Church.
- Influence from classical civilizations maintained Italy’s position as the
cultural center of Europe.
Empire of Charles V:
- Ruled the largest collection of European lands since
Charlemagne.
- Failed efforts to unite Europe under a Catholic empire.
- Abdication of throne, division of empire – Charles V resigned
and split his empire up. This led to instability in the empire.
Russia:
From about 1500 A.D. to about 1800 A.D., Russia was shaped by distinctive social and
cultural patterns.
- Ethnic diversity.
- Religion of the Orthodox Church.
- Increasing autocracy – Power/control concentrated into one person (czar).
- Ivan the Terrible – Grandson of Ivan the Great, first czar of all of Russia.
- Peasants and serfdom – System where peasants are legally bound to their land.
Characteristics of the Absolute Monarchies:
The Age of Absolutism takes its name from a series of European monarchs who increased the
power of their central governments.
- Centralization of power (Strong central governments).
- Concept of rule by divine right; rule by the will of God.
- Two of the most famous Absolute Monarchs included Louis XIV of France and Peter the
Great of Russia.
Louis XIV of France (1638-1715):
- Louis XIV of France became king of France in 1643. He was known as the Sun King and
said, “I am the state.” He believed in his divine right to rule and that he, like the sun, was the
center of the nation. He repealed the Edict of Nantes in 1685. He built the Palace
of Versailles which stood as a symbol of royal power.
Peter the Great of Russia (1672-1725):
- Peter the Great of Russia was responsible for the westernization of Russia; he
made Russia adopt western ideas, technology and culture. Examples of
“westernization” included western dress/appearance, moving the capital to St.
Petersburg, and modernization of the military and industry. Peter the Great worked to
expand Russia and to gain a warm-water port on the Black sea and Baltic Sea. He brought
the Eastern Orthodox Church and local governments under his centralized control. He also
created a new class of nobles who controlled serfs.
- Catherine the Great continued the process of “westernization” by importing Western
architects, scholars, and even sculptors and musicians to make Russia more Western.
Scientific Revolution and the Age of Reason
With its emphasis on reasoned observation and systematic measurement, the Scientific
Revolution changed the way people viewed the world and their place in it. During this time
period, information was expanded when discoveries were made.
Pioneers of the Scientific Revolution:
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543): He developed the heliocentric
theory. This is the theory that the earth (and other planets) revolves
around the sun.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630): He discovered planetary motion.
He was able to calculate the orbits/movements of the planets’
revolutions.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642): Used telescopes to support the
heliocentric theory and to study the sun, moon, and the planets.
Isaac Newton (1643-1727): He discovered laws of gravity and how it keeps the planets in
their orbits.
William Harvey (1578-1657): He discovered circulation of blood and completely described
how blood was pumped through the body and to the brain by the heart.
Importance of the Scientific Revolution:
- Emphasis on reason and systematic observation of nature.
- Formulation of the scientific method.
- Expansion of scientific knowledge.
“Copernicus’s Heliocentric Theory has a little more Cowbell!”
The Age of Reason
The sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries brought
many changes in the arts, literature, and political
philosophy. The Age of Reason witnessed inventions and
innovations in technology that stimulated trade and
transportation.
Artists, Philosophers, and Writers that Represent the Age of
Reason:
Johann Sebastian Bach: Baroque composer.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Classical composer.
Eugene Delacroix: Romantic School Painter (Liberty Leading the
People Pictured Right).
Voltaire: Philosopher who wrote about corruption and hypocrisy in
European society.
Miguel de Cervantes: Novelist who wrote Don Quixote which is
considered Europe’s first modern novel (long work of prose fiction).
New Schools of Art and Forms of Literature:
- Paintings depicted classical subjects, public events,
natural scenes, and living people (portraits).
- New forms of literature evolved: The novel (e.g.
Cervantes’ Don Quixote)
Technologies:
- All-weather roads improved transportation and trade.
Drainage systems were included. Better roads
mean better economy!
- New designs in farm tools increased productivity
(agricultural revolution). Dikes were built to protect
farmland from the sea. Fertilizer was used to improve soil.
New techniques for crop yield such as crop rotation began.
Farm tools such as the seed drill were used.
- Improvements in ship design lowered the cost of transportation.
Clipper ships (pictured right) were built. Eventually, steam
engines were used.
The Age of Enlightenment
The Enlightenment Age took place from the 1600’s through the
1700’s. During this time, the scientific method was applied to both
the natural world and human behavior. Enlightenment thinkers
believed that human progress was possible through the application of
scientific knowledge and reason to issues of law and government.
Enlightenment ideas influenced the leaders of the American
Revolution and the writing of the Declaration of Independence.
The Enlightenment:
- Applied reason to the human world, not just the natural world.
- Stimulated religious tolerance.
- Fueled democratic revolutions around the world.
Enlightenment Thinkers and Their Ideas:
- Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan: Humans exist in a primitive “state of nature”
and consent to government for self protection. Hobbes believed in absolute
power of the central government/monarchy. Government is a contract in which
people give up freedoms for self-protection and the opportunity to live in an
orderly society.
- John Locke’s Two Treatises on Government: He believed that people were
generally rational and moral. People are sovereign and consent to government
for protection of natural rights to life, liberty, and property. People choose and
elect their leaders and have a right to self-rule and equality (democracy).
People have the right to overthrow the government if it fails to protect people’s
rights.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s The Social Contract: Believed people are naturally good, but
evils of society corrupt them. Government is a contract between rulers and the people.
Examples include the right to implement initiative, referendum, recall, and
impeachment. Initiative is when citizens can put an issue on a state ballot.
Referendum is when citizens can vote directly on whether or not to accept a
proposed law. Recall is when citizens are able to remove elected officials from
their jobs if they are doing something wrong. Impeachment is charging an
official with a crime.
- Montesquieu’s The Spirit of Laws: The best form of government includes a
separation of powers. A separation of powers (executive, legislative, judicial)
ensures system of checks and balances to avoid corruption.
- Voltaire: Religious toleration should triumph over religious fanaticism;
separation of church and state. Voltaire believed in freedom of speech. He was a
great influence on the 1st Amendment (separation of church and state). “I do not
agree with what you have to say, but I’ll defend to the death your right to say it.”
Influence of the Enlightenment:
- Political philosophies of the Enlightenment fueled revolution in the Americas
and France.
- Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence incorporated Enlightenment ideas.
- The Constitution of the United States of America and the Bill of Rights incorporated
Enlightenment ideas.
- Enlightened despots were monarchs who attempted to rule according
to Enlightenment principles while maintaining their traditional royal
powers, e.g., Queen Maria Theresa of Austria who protected the rights of
serfs and Frederick II of Prussia who established elementary schools and
promoted industry and agriculture.
The Rights of the Englishmen
Political democracy rests on the principle that government derives power from the consent of
the governed. The foundations of English freedoms included the jury trial, the Magna Carta,
and common law. The English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution prompted further
development of the rights of the Englishmen.
Development of the Rights of the Englishmen:
- Oliver Cromwell (pictured right) and the execution of Charles I: In
1629, Charles I dissolved Parliament (England’s lawmaking body).
Years later, the English Civil War began (1642-1651) between a
temporarily reinstated Parliament and supporters of Charles I. Cavaliers
supported Charles I and Roundheads, led by Oliver Cromwell, were on
the side of Parliament. Eventually, Charles I was captured, tried, and
executed. This made it clear that no monarchs can claim absolute power.
- A commonwealth was created under Oliver Cromwell after he ordered
the execution of Charles I in 1647 and Parliament abolished the office of the monarch and the
House of Lords. A commonwealth is a state governed by elected representatives.
- The restoration of the monarchy under Charles II: After the death of Charles I, England
was ruled like a dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell. Eventually, Charles II was invited to
the throne. This was called the Restoration.
- The development of political parties/factions: In 1685, Whigs who did not want the
brother of Charles II (James II, a Catholic) to become king and Tories who defended the
hereditary monarchy.
- Eventually, James II fled to France after leaders of Parliament invited James II’s daughter
Mary (a protestant) and her husband William III to rule. James II fled to France. This
overthrow was called the Glorious Revolution because no blood was shed.
- The Glorious Revolution was an example of an increase of parliamentary power of royal
power.
- William and Mary passed laws known as the English Bill of Rights of 1689. This restated
some of the ideas in the Magna Carta and focused on ideas such as trial by jury, protection
from cruel and unusual punishment, and limited the monarchs’
powers. A constitutional monarchy was created, which is a form of
government in which the monarch’s powers are limited by the
constitution.
The French Revolution
The ideas of the Enlightenment and French
participation in the American Revolution influenced the
French people to view their government in new ways.
They overthrew the absolute monarchy (Louis XVI),
and a new government was established.
Causes of the French Revolution:
- Divisions in French Society: Clergy, Nobles, and
Everyone Else.
- Influence of the Enlightenment ideas.
- Influence of American Revolution and Glorious Revolution.
- Economic Problems.
The Three Stages of the French Revolution:
1) 1789-1791: Enlightenment ideals were realized: Nobles lose privileges,
“natural rights” established, monarchy’s power is limited.
- Storming of the Bastille. The Bastille is a French prison in Paris that was
taken over by citizens on July 14, 1789 and led to a revolutionary government
in Paris. This marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
2) 1791-1794: Radical phase; Violence escalates; war is declared on other
European states; France declared a republic, Reign of Terror begins:
- Reign of Terror, which lasted from 1793 to 1794, took place in France.
After extreme radicals called Jacobins gained control of the Committee of
Public Safety and executed and/or imprisoned many people who they felt
were not loyal to the ideas of the French Republic. The leader was
Robespierre (later tried and executed).
3) 1795-1799: New constitution drafted; widespread corruption, economic problems, and
riots. Enter, Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon was put in power to deal with the chaos. His
power grew. He took the role of Emperor in 1801.
Outcomes of the French Revolution:
- End of the absolute monarchy of King Louis XVI.
- Collapse into terror.
- Rise of Napoleon.