FINAL REPORT
NIJ Law Enforcement
Aviation Technology
Program
Introduction
I
n 2015, the U.S. Department of Justice, National
Institute of Justice (NIJ), concluded the Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program (LEATP),
a 10-year project to identify and evaluate costeffective alternatives to traditional aviation assets
for use in surveillance and other law enforcement
operations. NIJ, in cooperation with the Sheriffs’
Association of Texas and The Center for Rural
Development (located in Somerset, Ky.) established
LEATP in fall 2005 to evaluate the applicability,
affordability and frequency of use of various aviation assets by smaller – predominately rural – law
enforcement agencies across the United States. The
program provided several small and rural agencies
with examples of selected aircraft for use in day-today operations; in return, the agencies provided NIJ
with data that informed the research and analysis.
This report presents the results of the project.
The program first conducted an analysis of traditional aviation technology used by law enforcement
across the United States. The Bureau of Justice
Statistics (BJS) released a special report in 2007,
Aviation Units in Large Law Enforcement Agencies (available at http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/aullea07.
pdf). This report indicates that of agencies with 100
or more sworn personnel, only 201report having an
aviation unit. According to the report, “the percent
of agencies with aviation units varied depending
upon agency type and size. Approximately 75% of
the 89 agencies with 1,000 or more sworn officers
had aviation units, compared to 6% of agencies with
less than 250 sworn officers.” Given these numbers,
it is easy to see that hardly any agencies with fewer
than 100 sworn officers operate an aviation unit.
In High-Priority Criminal Justice Technology Needs (National Institute of Justice, 2010, available at https://
www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/230391.pdf), NIJ recognized the need for “safer, more cost-effective aerial
surveillance solutions to identify, locate and track
illicit activities and to locate missing persons, particularly for application with small and rural agencies.
Solutions must consider regulatory requirements.”
To help address this need, NIJ selected aircraft for
evaluation based on acquisition costs, published
operating costs and safety records. The objectives
of the evaluation portion of LEAPT were to:
• Research, test and evaluate aviation technologies, with an emphasis on cost-effective and safe
equipment.
• Develop minimum performance standards and
best practices.
• Disseminate findings and information to the field
through demonstrations and via electronic and
print media.
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 1
In addition, LEAPT had the following focus areas:
• Conduct operational evaluations and demonstrations of various aviation technologies for public
safety officials.
• Develop a best practice guide for aviation technology implementation in an operational setting.
• Investigate and analyze emerging aviation
technologies.
• Work with the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) on law enforcement guidelines for the
safe and lawful use of unmanned aircraft systems
(UAS).
2
• Work on quickly deployable, low-cost and safeto-use aircraft camera systems.
• Work on a rapidly deployable, low-cost and safe
tethered aerostat (balloon) for use as an observation and communications platform.
• Conduct outreach efforts to better educate law
enforcement officers on issues such as federal
restrictions on the use of UAS and safety issues
related to public safety aviation technologies.
• Develop baseline standards and a standards testing program.
The Aircraft
N
IJ started by identifying aircraft for inclusion in the evaluation, with an emphasis on
cost effectiveness and safety. The Aviation
Technology Working Group (TWG), comprised of
15 experienced practitioners from local, state, tribal
and federal agencies and laboratories, assisted with
the identification process.
All aircraft used in the program are two-seat models
that accommodate both a pilot and a tactical flight
officer or observer, and are classified as light sport
aircraft (LSA). The FAA defines an LSA as an aircraft
– other than a helicopter or a powered-lift – that
since its original certification continues to meet the
following:
• Maximum gross takeoff weight: 1,320 pounds
(600 kilograms) or 1,430 pounds for seaplanes
(650 kilograms).
• Maximum stall speed: 51 mph/45 knots calibrated
airspeed (CAS).
• Maximum speed in level flight (at sea level at
standard temperature):138 mph/120 knots CAS.
• Seats: Two (maximum).
• Engines/motors: One (maximum, if powered.)
• Propeller: Fixed-pitch or ground adjustable.
• Cabin: Unpressurized.
• Fixed-pitch, semi-rigid, teetering, two-blade rotor
system, if a gyroplane.
• Landing gear: Fixed (except for seaplanes and
gliders).
Powered Parachutes
For the first test platform, NIJ selected the powered
parachute (PPC), a tandem two-seat aircraft with a
parachute as its wing. These aircraft are very affordable, generally costing less than a patrol car. They
have an excellent safety record and a very low cost
of operation.
A PPC typically flies at a constant speed of 30 miles
per hour (mph). The aircraft is controlled by increasing or decreasing power to gain or lose altitude
and turned by means of a steering bar manipulated
by the pilot’s feet. A PPC is easy for a trained user
to control and can be deployed from almost any
flat location. The aircraft has dual controls, allowing
either occupant to take off and land the aircraft. The
cart attached to the parachute is an open cockpit
with a metal roll cage, and the parachute is attached
to the cart via a series of lines. These steering lines
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 3
are attached to the outer edge of the parachute and
routed, through a series of pulleys, to the foot bars.
EXHIBIT 1: AIRWOLF
Manufacturer
Advantages and disadvantages of PPCs include:
Powrachute LLC
http://www.powrachute.com/
• A PPC costs $15,000 to $30,000 to purchase and
$20 to $30 per hour to fuel and maintain.
• A PPC does not require an airstrip for takeoff
and landing.
• A PPC has a fixed airspeed of 30 mph.
• Once in the air, the PPC offers outstanding visibility: a 270-degree unobstructed view allows the
pilot and occupant to see far more than from any
other aircraft.
• A PPC is vulnerable to the elements and cannot
fly in strong winds or bad weather.
The PPC proved to be an outstanding observation
platform. The ability to fly the aircraft at slow speeds
and low altitudes makes it ideal for searching for
lost/missing persons, observing possibly illegal activity and taking photographs. A significant disadvantage
is the impact of inclement weather, which can drastically reduce flight time. Cold temperatures, wind
and precipitation take a toll on pilots and observers.
A PPC should not be flown in winds greater than 14
mph, as winds at those speeds pose a severe safety
risk.
A PPC is relatively simple to operate and pilots can
be trained rather quickly. A pilot must have a sport
pilot certificate to fly a PPC, which requires a minimum of 12 hours total flight training (10 hours dual
training and two hours solo time). Note these times
are the minimum needed to receive a sport pilot
certificate. The actual time necessary to become
proficient in flying a PPC depends on the individual.
Two models each from two different manufacturers
were selected for evaluation. Exhibits 1-4 provide
information on these aircraft.
4
Characteristic
Model
Dimensions
Parachute
Length
Height
Width
Weights
Max. takeoff weight
Weight empty
Standard useful load
Performance
Sink rate
Glide ratio
Airspeed
Climb rate
Takeoff distance
Landing distance
Engine
Fuel capacity
Cabin configuration
MSRP
Details
Airwolf 912ULS
500 or 550 sq. ft.
128 in.
83.5 in.
81 in.
1150 lbs.
485 lbs.
650 lbs. with
500 sq. ft wing
700 lbs. with
550 sq. ft. wing
10-12 ft per second
4:1
32-36 mph
600-1100 ft per min
25-300 ft
10-100 ft
Rotax 912ULS (100 HP)
10 US gal
Tandem
$34,585
EXHIBIT 2: PEGASUS
Manufacturer
EXHIBIT 3: DREAM MACHINE
Manufacturer
Powrachute LLC
http://www.powrachute.com/
Buckeye Aviation
(no longer in business)
Characteristic
Model
Dimensions
Parachute
Length
Height
Width
Weights
Max. takeoff weight
Weight empty
Standard useful load
Characteristic
Model
Dimensions
Parachute
Length
Height
Width
Weights
Max. takeoff weight
Weight empty
Standard useful load
Performance
Sink rate
Glide ratio
Airspeed
Climb rate
Takeoff distance
Landing distance
Engine
Fuel capacity
Cabin configuration
MSRP
Details
Pegasus 582
500 or 550 sq. ft.
128 in.
83.5 in.
81 in.
1,045 lbs.
420 lbs.
575 lbs. with
500 sq. ft wing
625 lbs. with
550 sq .ft. wing
10-12 ft per second
4:1
32-34 mph
500-900 ft per min
50-300 ft
10-100 ft
Rotax 582 (100 HP)
10 US gal
Tandem
$19,250
Performance
Sink rate
Glide ratio
Airspeed
Climb rate
Takeoff distance
Landing distance
Engine
Fuel capacity
Cabin configuration
MSRP
Details
Dream Machine
500 sq. ft.
NA
NA
NA
900 lbs.
325 lbs.
500 lbs. with
500 sq. ft. wing
NA
NA
34 mph
800 ft per min
450 ft
100 ft
Rotax 582 (65 HP)
10 US gal
Tandem
$6,290 (Purchase price)
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 5
Weight Shift Controlled
EXHIBIT 4: BREEZE
Manufacturer
NIJ selected weight shift control aircraft (WSC),
often referred to as trikes, as the second type of
aircraft to evaluate. This aircraft resembles a PPC,
except it has a fixed-delta wing in place of the parachute (similar to a hang glider). As the name suggests, this type of aircraft is controlled by changing
the center of gravity through the pilot’s shifting the
position of the carriage in relation to the wing.
Buckeye Aviation
(no longer in business)
Advantages and disadvantages of a WSC include:
• A WSC costs $50,000 to $90,000 to acquire,
approximately $18 per hour to fuel and another
$20 per hour to maintain.
Characteristic
Model
Dimensions
Parachute
Length
Height
Width
Weights
Max. takeoff weight
Weight empty
Standard useful load
Performance
Sink rate
Glide ratio
Airspeed
Climb rate
Takeoff distance
Landing distance
Engine
Fuel capacity
Cabin configuration
MSRP
6
Details
Breeze
500 sq. ft.
NA
NA
NA
900 lbs.
395 lbs.
500 lbs. with
500 sq. ft. wing
NA
NA
34 mph
500 ft per min
450 ft
100 ft
Rotax 582 (65 HP)
10 US gal
Tandem
$11,790 (purchase
price)
• The aircraft has a broad speed range (35 mph to
100 mph), allowing it to patrol slowly or cover a
large area.
• The WSC cockpit is open, providing exceptional
visibility but also making it susceptible to bad
weather.
• A WSC can handle wind better than a powered
parachute, but is still wind limited.
• Training opportunities and maintenance support
are limited in many areas of the country because
this type of aircraft is not widely used.
• WSC do not have as good a safety record as do
PPCs.
The program tested one WSC and quickly determined that it was not as easily integrated into law
enforcement operations as the other aircraft in the
program. A challenge for previously certified pilots
is that trike controls are reversed from those of traditional fixed-wing aircraft. In a fixed-wing plane, the
pilot pulls back on the stick to go up. In a WSC, pulling back on the bar tips the wing forward, reducing
the angle of attack and causing the aircraft to speed
up. Combined with adjustments in throttle, this can
cause the aircraft to fly faster or to descend. Similarly, a pilot flying a fixed-wing aircraft pushes or
turns the control yoke in the direction of the turn.
In a trike, the pilot pushes the bar away from the
direction of the turn, which causes the wing to bank
in the turn’s direction. This can prove a challenge for
traditionally trained pilots to overcome, especially in
emergency situations.
Though more versatile than a PPC relative to
performance, a WSC is still impacted by weather.
Also, the pilot has direct control of the wing and is
subject to becoming fatigued rather quickly. With
all that being said, a WSC could be successfully
employed by law enforcement as long as there
is a thorough and complete understanding of its
operations and limitations. The decision made by
the program to terminate its evaluation was based
mainly on lack of available training. Exhibit 5 provides details about the Revo trike.
Fixed Wing
Thirdly, the program evaluated fixed-wing LSA (see
exhibits 6-9), selecting both side-by-side and tandem
seating configurations. All aircraft were high-wing
style, providing more field of view for observation.
With closed cockpits, these aircraft allowed agencies
more flight days than possible with either a PPC or
a WSC, as they provided protection from weather.
These aircraft resemble what one typically thinks of
as small private aircraft.
Advantages and disadvantages of fixed-wing aircraft
include:
• Fixed-wing LSA generally cost between $60,000
and $130,000 to purchase and $50 per hour to
fuel and maintain.
• LSA can fly at a wide range of speeds — 35 mph
to 125 mph — making them an excellent platform for performing a broad range of law enforcement missions.
• The enclosed cockpit offers protection from the
elements, permitting a longer flying season in cold
regions.
• These sturdier planes can handle significantly
stronger winds than can a PPC.
• Fixed wings can carry a payload of up to 500
pounds.
EXHIBIT 5: REVO
Manufacturer
Evolution Trikes
http://www.evolutiontrikes.com
Characteristic
Model
Dimensions
Parachute
Length
Height
Width
Weights
Max. takeoff weight
Weight empty
Standard useful load
Performance
Decent rate
Glide ratio
Airspeed
Climb rate
Takeoff distance
Landing distance
Engine
Fuel capacity
Cabin configuration
MSRP
Details
Revo
145 sq. ft.
107 in.
98 in.
76.5 in.
1,040 lbs.
395 lbs.
645 lbs.
460 ft. per min
10.7:1
55-80 mph
1,065 ft. per min
855 ft.
800 ft.
Rotax 912UL (80 HP)
14.4 US gal
Tandem
$67,500
• Fixed-wing aircraft are widely available across the
United States, and finding training and maintenance support should be relatively easy.
• Fixed-wing aircraft have reduced visibility compared to other lower cost aircraft.
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 7
8
EXHIBIT 6: EAGLET
Manufacturer
EXHIBIT 7: 600 SPORT
Manufacturer
Costruzioni Aeronautiche TECNAM S.r.l.
http://www.tecnam.com/
Iniziative Industriali Italiane, S.p.A
http://www.skyarrowusa.com/
Characteristic
Model
Dimensions
Wing span
Wing area
Fuselage length
Fuselage height
Cabin width
Weights
Max. takeoff weight
Weight empty
Standard useful load
Performance
Cruise speed
Max. speed (Vne)
Stall speed (flaps down,
power off)
Practical ceiling
Takeoff distance
Landing distance
Demonstrated crosswind
Engine
Fuel capacity
Range
Cabin configuration
MSRP
Characteristic
Model
Dimensions
Wing span
Wing area
Fuselage length
Fuselage height
Cabin width
Weights
Max. Takeoff weight
Weight empty
Standard useful load
Performance
Cruise speed
Max. speed (Vne)
Stall speed (flaps down,
power off)
Practical ceiling
Takeoff distance
Landing distance
Demonstrated crosswind
Engine
Fuel capacity
Range
Cabin configuration
Purchase price
Details
P92 Eaglet
28.5 ft.
129 sq. ft.
21.3 ft.
8.2 ft.
45 in.
1,320 lbs. (Rotax 912)
795 lbs.
525 lbs.
129 mph (75% power)
154 mph
47.2 mph
15,000 ft.
830 ft.
915 ft.
17.3 mph
Rotax 912ULS (100 HP)
23.8 US Gal
493 NM
Side-by-side
$130,000
Details
600 Sport
31.5 ft.
145 sq. ft.
24.9 ft.
8.4 ft.
NA
1,320 lbs. (Rotax 912)
840 lbs.
480 lbs.
109 mph (75% power)
127 mph
44 mph
13,500 ft.
890 ft.
660 ft.
NA
Rotax 912ULS (100 HP)
26.4 US Gal
501 NM
Tandem
$65,000
EXHIBIT 8: SAVANNAH
Manufacturer
EXHIBIT 9: COYOTE
Manufacturer
Skykits Corporation
http://skykits.com
Rans, Inc
http://Rans.com
Characteristic
Model
Dimensions
Wing span
Wing area
Fuselage length
Fuselage height
Cabin width
Weights
Max. takeoff weight
Weight empty
Standard useful load
Performance
Cruise speed
Max. speed (Vne)
Stall speed (flaps down,
power off)
Practical ceiling
Takeoff distance
Landing distance
Demonstrated crosswind
Engine
Fuel capacity
Range
Cabin configuration
Purchase price
Details
Savannah VG
30 ft.
128 sq. ft.
21.3 ft.
8 ft.
NA
1,000 lbs. (Rotax 912)
600 lbs.
400 lbs.
100 mph (75% power)
125 mph
30 mph
13,500 ft.
200 ft.
450 ft.
30 mph
Rotax 912ULS (100 HP)
19 US Gal
NA
Side-by-side
$95,776
Characteristic
Model
Dimensions
Wing span
Wing area
Fuselage length
Fuselage height
Cabin width
Weights
Max. takeoff weight
Weight empty
Standard useful load
Performance
Cruise speed
Max. speed (Vne)
Stall speed (flaps down,
power off)
Practical ceiling
Takeoff distance
Landing distance
Demonstrated crosswind
Engine
Fuel capacity
Range
Cabin configuration
MSRP
Details
S-6ES Coyote
30 ft. 4 in.
137.6 sq. ft.
29 ft. 9 in
7 ft. 8 in.
45 in
1,320 lbs. (Rotax 912)
675 lbs.
645 lbs.
105 mph (75% power)
130 mph
36 mph
14,000 ft
220 ft
260 ft
NA
Rotax 912ULS (100 HP)
18 US gal
420 miles
Side-by-side
$79,000
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 9
Gyroplanes
The fourth and final style of aircraft evaluated were
gyroplanes (Exhibits 10-12), often referred to as “gyrocopters” due to their resemblance to helicopters
because they employ a large rotary wing to provide
lift. Styles evaluated included both open and closed
cockpit designs, and side-by-side and tandem seating
configurations. All gyroplanes selected were configured with a rear mounted engine and propeller in a
pusher configuration. Although a gyroplane resembles a helicopter, it is truly a plane wherein the rotor
behaves much like a wing in fixed-wing aircraft. The
gyroplanes tested in this program were not capable
of a vertical takeoff, requiring a runway for both
takeoff and landing. The top rotor is unpowered and
rotation is caused by air flowing through the blades
as the aircraft moves forward. Most gyroplanes have
a pre-rotator that enables the pilot to spin up the
rotor prior to taking off, providing for a shorter
takeoff roll.
Once the rotor RPM is above the minimum, the
pre-rotator disengages. The gyro is usually stationary
at this point and begins its takeoff roll only after the
rotor RPM reaches the minimum level.
Advantages and disadvantages of gyroplanes include:
• The cost of a gyroplane ranges between $60,000
and $100,000, and it has a low operating cost of
approximately $40 per hour.
• Gyroplanes can fly low and at slow speeds, and
can maintain tight orbits. They cannot take off
vertically, but can make very short takeoffs and
landings.
• Gyroplanes have exceptional visibility, similar to a
PPC.
• Gyroplanes present no risk of stalling, unlike a
traditional fixed wing. If a gyroplane engine were
to stop altogether in air, it would begin to descend
gradually. Despite being a three-axis aircraft, the
gyroplane is remarkably stable.
• Training and maintenance for gyroplanes is somewhat limited; however, this is changing as gyroplanes gain in popularity.
• A gyroplane is capable of flying in strong winds,
and can land and take off safely in a strong crosswind.
10
EXHIBIT 10: CALIDUS
Manufacturer
AutoGyro GmbH
http://auto-gyro.com/en
Characteristic
Model
Dimensions
Length
Height
Width
Weights
Max. takeoff weight
Weight empty
Payload
Performance
Cruise Speed
Max. speed
Rotor diameter
Fuel capacity
Range
Engine
Configuration
MSRP
Details
Calidus
15.75 ft.
8.9 ft.
5.6 ft.
992 lbs. w/912
1,235 lbs. w/914
595 lbs.
397 lbs. w/912
639 lbs. w/914
100 mph
115 mph
27.6 ft.
19.5 US gal
Up to 5 hrs.
(with optional auxiliary
9.5 gal tank)
Rotax 912ULS
(100 HP) or Rotax
914UL (115HP)
Tandem (front and
back seats)
Rotax 912: $89,120
Rotax 914: $97,750
Pricing dependent on
exchange with the Euro
EXHIBIT 11: MTO SPORT
Manufacturer
EXHIBIT 12: ORION
Manufacturer
AutoGyro GmbH
http://auto-gyro.com/en
Magni Gyro
http://magnigyro.com
Characteristic
Model
Dimensions
Length
Height
Width
Weights
Max. takeoff weight
Weight Empty
Payload
Performance
Cruise Speed
Max. Speed
Rotor diameter
Fuel capacity
Range
Engine
Configuration
MSRP
Details
MTO Sport
16.75 ft.
8.8 ft.
6.2.ft.
992 lbs. w/912
1,235 lbs. w/914
NA
NA
100 mph
115 mph
27.6 ft.
10.3US Gal
Up to 5 hrs
(with optional auxiliary
905 gal tank)
Rotax 912ULS
(100 HP) or
Rotax 914UL (115HP)
Tandem (Front and
Back Seats)
Rotax 912: $71,000
Rotax 914: $88,000
Pricing dependent on
exchange with the Euro
Characteristic
Model
Dimensions
Length
Height
Width
Weights
Max. takeoff weight
Weight empty
Payload
Performance
Cruise speed
Max. speed
Rotor diameter
Fuel capacity
Range
Engine
Configuration
MSRP
Details
M-24 Orion
15.3 ft.
8.6 ft.
5.9 ft.
1,212 lbs. w/914
629 lbs.
583 lbs.
90 mph
105 mph
28 ft.
21 US gal
3 hours
Rotax 914UL (115 HP)
Side-by side
Rotax 914: $91,000
Pricing dependent on
exchange with the Euro
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 11
Unmanned Aircraft
Systems (UAS)
• An sUAS is portable and can provide immediate
and covert situational awareness of a crime scene
(e.g., a hostage scene).
The program initiated some preliminary work on
small unmanned aircraft systems (sUAS). This included researching the different types of sUAS available
and their capabilities. Commonly referred to as
drones, sUAS are not the aircraft typically shown on
the news. The military and U.S. Border Patrol employ large unmanned systems capable of extended
flight times that can be used as weapons platforms.
A sUAS typically weighs less than 25 pounds and
comes equipped with an HD camera that wirelessly
transmits video to a control station.
• The device can be both launched and recovered
onsite by law enforcement personnel.
Law enforcement agencies wishing to start an sUAS
program face several hurdles. An sUAS can be a
valuable tool for law enforcement; however, the
FAA considers an sUAS an aircraft and currently it
cannot be flown under the public aircraft exemption.
The FAA requires governmental entities wishing to
deploy sUAS to apply for, and receive, a certificate
of authorization (COA) prior to operating sUAS.
This initially was a long and arduous process and
ultimately prohibited the use of sUAS for incidentspecific responses. A working group was formed in
2005 that included representatives from the FAA’s
Unmanned Aircraft Systems Integration Office,
invested law enforcement agencies and NIJ. This
group was charged with looking at the regulations,
streamlining the COA process and working toward
reaching common ground with regard to public use
of sUAS. In spring 2013, this group succeeded in
releasing a common strategy as outlined in a memorandum of understanding (MOU) between the
U.S. Department of Justice and the FAA. This MOU
established parameters for the operation of an
sUAS by a public agency and streamlined the COA
process.
Advantages and disadvantages of sUAS include:
• The price of an sUAS ranges between $40,000
and $125,000; day-to-day operating costs are low
because an sUAS operates on a rechargeable battery and requires no fuel. The price varies widely
because of the levels of options and sophistication available.
12
• Obtaining an FAA COA to fly legally can be
burdensome.
• Radio interference can cause control issues with
the aircraft and with GPS.
• Many of the commercially available aircraft are
not designed for continuous operations and are
fragile; consequently, this technology may not
offer a good return on investment for all types of
law enforcement agencies.
• Although camera technology is continually improving, the cameras usually found on an sUAS
cannot currently provide fine detail, such as faces
or weapons.
• The device cannot be flown legally in congested
airspace and can only be airborne for a short
time (typically 40 minutes or less).
LEAPT, working with the FAA and the Miami-Dade
Police Department, produced an informational video
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jys4dFi_DDE)
highlighting Miami-Dade’s UAS program and how
the department uses sUAS in support of tactical operations. This video was released at the Unmanned
Aircraft Systems Workshop held in Annapolis, Md., in
June 2013, and hosted by the National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center System’s
Small, Rural, Tribal and Border Regional Center in
support of NIJ. The main purpose of the workshop
was to discuss the role of sUAS in public safety and
brief the attendees on the Common Strategy MOU.
Although the workshop was recorded for instructional purposes, NIJ determined it would not release
the video or recordings.
Aerostats (Moored Balloons)
NIJ evaluated aerostats, also known as moored
balloons, on a limited basis. Aerostats can be rapidly
deployed and can carry a variety of sensors, cameras
or communication equipment. The aerostat tested
by the program could carry payloads ranging up to
12 pounds, allowing for a camera or radio transmitter to be deployed up to several hundred feet in
the air. Aerostats can carry their payloads aloft for
long periods of time, typically up to 72 hours, before
requiring additional helium.
LEAPT originally began evaluating aerostats to help
create an improvised radio structure in remote locations or locations devastated by natural disasters.
An aerostat can be launched with repeaters, creating
a simulated radio tower and expanding radio service
area.
• The launch and recovery equipment can be
extensive, requiring a trailer with multiple helium
tanks to fill the balloon.
• Launch and recovery can be performed onsite.
• Unlike an sUAS, an aerostat can provide persistent surveillance or situational awareness from
hours to days on station. Because it does not
require fuel or electricity to stay in the air, it can
be deployed for extended periods of time.
• FAA imposes fewer regulatory requirements on
the use of aerostats.
• Aerostats do not face the same operational hurdles as sUAS because they are anchored to the
ground.
• The aerostat is fixed in location and cannot be
used for covert operations.
Advantages and disadvantages of aerostats include:
• The price of an aerostat ranges from $5,000
to $500,000, depending on the balloon’s specifications. Operating costs are low because the
aerostat requires only helium to fly.
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 13
Results
M
any small agencies find it difficult to staff
and maintain an aviation unit, as they are
stretched thin simply covering regular shifts.
Also, agencies most often cite the costs associated
with acquiring, operating and maintaining aircraft as
the main obstacles preventing them from establishing an aviation unit. A comparison of traditional aviation platforms to the LSA evaluated by the program
shows a wide disparity in the cost of acquisition and
operation of different platforms; see exhibits 13
and 14.
The hourly cost of operating the powered parachutes resulted from the low flight hours of the
agencies using them.
Cost Analysis
As referenced many times throughout this document, LEAPT evaluated lower cost aviation technologies for law enforcement. Notice the term used
is “lower” cost and not “low” cost. The cost of an
aviation program is divided into three categories: 1)
acquisition, 2) operational and 3) fixed.
Acquisition costs are those costs related to purchasing and outfitting the aircraft for law enforcement use. Appropriate radios, navigation systems
and cameras are some of the additional equipment
required.
EXHIBIT 13: COMPARISON OF ACQUISITION AND OPERATING COSTS
Characteristic
Fixed-wing
Helicopter
Light sport fixed-wing*
Powered parachute*
Gyroplane*
Average Acquisition
Cost ($)
375,000
1,600,000
96,613
19,118
67,725
Average Annual
Maintenance ($)
16,000
58,300
1,265
1,171.65
2,407.48
Average
Annual Fuel ($)
13,000
29,900
1,692.68
269.60
1,236.45
*Note: The maintenance and fuel costs for the LSA were determined by using the average monthly costs experienced by agencies in
the program during 2014.
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 15
EXHIBIT 14: COMPARISON OF COSTS PER FLIGHT HOUR
Fixed wing
Helicopter
Light sport fixed wing*
Powered parachute*
Gyroplane*
Average Cost per Flight Hour ($)
Maintenance
Fuel
Combined
54.44
45.00
99.00
168.00
74.00
242.00
15.33
23.93
39.26
68.61
14.99
83.60
28.61
14.80
43.41
*Note: The maintenance and fuel costs for the light sport aircraft were determined by using the average monthly costs experienced
during 2014.
The hourly cost of operating the powered parachutes resulted from the low flight hours of the agencies using them.
EXHIBIT 15: LEAPT AIRCRAFT ACQUISITION COSTS
Aircraft Type
Fixed wing
PPC
Gyroplanes
WSC
Total Spent
$678,584
$85,564
$118,790
$79,576
Lowest Cost
$60,000
$6,295
$50,000
NA
Average Cost
$96,940
$16,980
$59, 395
$79,576
LEAPT purchased a total of 16 aircraft for evaluation, consisting of seven fixed-wing LSA, six PPC,
two gyroplanes and one WSC. Funds expended on
the purchase of the aircraft totaled $962,514. As
previously mentioned, NIJ quickly eliminated the
WSC from evaluation due to the lack of available
training and support infrastructure. Funds received
from the sale of the WSC went toward the purchase
of a gyroplane. Exhibit 15 provides a breakdown of
aircraft acquisition cost.
an average of 75 hours per year. Aircraft A’s agency
pays $4,500 per year ($375 per month) for insurance and $2,400 per year ($200 per month) in hangar rent. This means Aircraft A will cost the agency
$6,900 total, or $92 per hour, before the first hour
is flown for the year.
Operational costs are those costs associated with
the actual operation of the aircraft. These include
fuel, maintenance and personnel costs, and are based
solely on the number of hours flown. The more
hours flown, the more fuel consumed. Maintenance
costs also increase as regularly scheduled maintenance is required more often. Personnel costs
are slightly more complicated, as they depend on
whether the agency has a full-time aviation unit or
pilots who serve as needed. For purposes of this
report, personnel costs were not factored into the
cost analysis.
Of course, the more hours flown during the year,
the lower the per-hour fixed costs. However, when
total operational costs increase, the per hour rate
for the operational costs should remain constant.
Exhibit 17 shows the breakdown of reported costs
for the entire program in 2014.
Fixed costs are those expenses incurred whether or
not an aircraft is flown. Insurance and hangar space
are fixed costs. For example, assume Aircraft A flies
16
Highest Cost
$126,065
$34,785
$68,790
NA
Adding in costs for fuel and maintenance will
increase the overall cost of maintaining an aviation
unit; see exhibit 16.
Insurance makes up the majority of the cost for the
program at 44 percent of the total. Maintenance
comes in second at 24 percent. Storage (hangar
rent) is 17 percent and fuel costs make up 15
percent of the total program cost. It must be noted
that PPCs are stored in a trailer that can be parked
anywhere; therefore, PPCs have no storage-related
expenses. Participating agencies reported a total of
730.4 hours in 2014, making the overall cost per
hour $143.78.
EXHIBIT 16: AVERAGE OPERATIONAL COSTS
Aircraft A at
75 hours per year
Fixed costs
Insurance
Hangar rent
Operational costs
Fuel
Annual
Maintenance
Total combined costs
Per Hour
$4,500
$2,400
$60
$32
$1,575 ($5.25 per gal
at 4 gals per hour)
$1,300
$9,775
$21
EXHIBIT 17: 2014 OPERATING
COSTS, ALL AIRCRAFT
$17.33
$130.33
EXHIBIT 18: 2014 TOTAL COSTS,
FIXED-WING
$7,590.04
13%
$25,788.21
24%
$46,377.72
44%
$11,848.77
20%
$28,468.92
48%
$15,400.08
15%
$11,093.88
19%
$17,453.88
17%
■ Insurance
■ Storage
■ Fuel
■ Maint.
■ Insurance
■ Storage
■ Fuel
■ Maint.
EXHIBIT 19: 2014 OPERATING COSTS, FIXED WING
Cost Category
Insurance
Storage
Fuel
Maintenance
Gyroplane*
Total Costs
Reported
$28,468.92
$11,093.88
$11,848.77
$7,590.04
67,725
Flight
Hours
431.0
292.4
495
495
2,407.48
Cost
per hour
$66.05
$37.94
$23.93
$15.33
1,236.45
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 17
The breakdown by type is shown in Exhibits 18
through 23.
Agencies with fixed-wing aircraft reported a total of
495 flight hours in 2014. Exhibit 19 shows the cost
per flight hour for each category. It should be noted
that two of the agencies assigned fixed-wing aircraft
reported no storage costs and one agency is self
insured. This was taken into account in the following
illustration.
Insurance rates varied greatly. The highest rate was
$564.58 per month and the lowest was $212.50,
with an average monthly rate of $395.40
As noted above there are no storage-related costs
for the PPCs. Agencies assigned the PPCs reported
a total of 68.3 flight hours in 2014. Although the
EXHIBIT 20: 2014 TOTAL COSTS, PPC
$4,686.59
39%
$6,308.88
52%
■ Storage
■ Fuel
This is a perfect example of fixed costs impacting
the overall cost per hour calculation. One agency
underwent an annual during this reporting period.
This cost ($2,830.99), coupled with the low flight
hours reported, resulted in the high maintenance
cost per hour for the PPCs.
The breakdown for the gyroplanes is somewhat
misleading, as there were some enhancements made
to one aircraft that caused the maintenance cost
to be inflated. Queen Anne’s County (Md.) Sheriff’s Department elected to replace the engine in
its gyroplane. Although the cost of the new engine
was not reported to the program, $6,133 in labor
costs was reported as maintenance. Queen Anne’s
also installed a police land mobile radio at a cost of
$2,600. If these costs are removed from the maintenance category, it lowers the maintenance costs
to $4,778.58, or 19 percent of the total costs. The
two reporting agencies using gyroplanes reported
a total of 167.0 flight hours for 2014. The cost per
hour calculation on reported costs is shown below.
The maintenance cost per hour has been calculated
using the total reported costs and total costs minus
the upgrades performed by Queen Anne’s County.
Note there was a large difference in the insurance
rates paid by Queen Anne’s and those paid by the
Somerset (Ky.) Police Department. For 2014, Queen
Anne’s County paid an average $863 per month
while Somerset paid $175 per month. It is unknown
if this is due to the area of the country, pilot training
and experience, or past safety record.
$1,078.41
9%
■ Insurance
totals for the PPCs are much lower than fixed-wing
aircraft, the substantially lower flight hours resulted
in a higher than anticipated cost per hour.
■ Maint.
EXHIBIT 21: 2014 OPERATING COSTS, PPC
Cost Category
Insurance
Storage
Fuel
Maintenance
18
Total Costs
Reported
$6,308.88
NA
$1,078.41
$4,686.59
Flight
Hours
68.3
NA
68.3
68.3
Cost
per hour
$92.37
NA
$15.78
$68.61
Total Program Cost Breakdown
Operations Analysis
The percentages in the total demonstration project
cost breakdown closely mirror the 2014 figures. As
could be anticipated, 2014 maintenance costs do
reflect a slightly higher percentage. The aircraft were
procured at different times throughout the program,
with the first purchased in 2006 and the last in 2012.
As the program progressed, the aircraft entered into
a more regular maintenance routine. Exhibits 24-27
represent the breakdown of the fixed and operational costs for the overall program.
During 2014, participants in the Aviation Program
reported a total of 480 missions flown. It is important to understand that one mission may consist of
multiple mission types such as proficiency, patrol,
training, etc. Exhibit 28 is a breakdown of the mission types flown in 2014.
EXHIBIT 22: 2014 TOTAL COSTS,
GYROPLANES
Mission data was collected consistently throughout
the program starting in 2010. Participants reported
a total of 2,865 missions consisting of 4,368 different mission types; see Exhibit 29.
Proficiency and patrol made up at least 50 percent
of all missions.
Flight Time
$13,511.58
40%
$2,472.90
7%
■ Insurance
■ Storage
During 2014, program participants reported 730.4
flight hours. The fixed-wing LSAs, which made up
the majority of the aircraft in the program, recorded the most hours at 495, with an average of 70.7
hours. The Aiken County (S.C.) Sheriff’s Department
reported the most hours at 138.6, while the Pflugerville (Texas) Police Department reported the fewest
at 15.5.
$11,599.92
34%
The program started collecting flight hours data
consistently in 2012. Since that time, participants
reported a total of 1,950.4 hours. Exhibits 30 and 31
show 2014 flight hours and total hours reported in
2012-2014 by month and by each type of aircraft.
$6,360.00
19%
■ Fuel
■ Maint.
This indicates that agencies used fixed-wing aircraft
fairly consistantly throughout the year; however,
EXHIBIT 23: 2014 OPERATING COSTS, GYROPLANES
Cost Category
Insurance
Storage
Fuel
Maintenance
Minus Reported Upgrades
Upgrades
Total Costs
Reported
$11,599.92
$6,360.00
$2,472.90
$13,511.58
-$6,133 Engine Labor
-$2,600 Radio
$4,778.58
Flight
Hours
167.0
167.0
167.0
167.0
Cost
per hour
$69.46
$38.00
$14.80
$80.90
$28.61
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 19
EXHIBIT 24: 2012-2014 TOTAL COSTS,
ALL AIRCRAFT
$98,105.01
30%
$126,588.90
39%
$54,109.89
17%
■ Storage
■ Fuel
■ Maint.
EXHIBIT 26: 2012-2014 TOTAL COSTS,
PPC PROGRAM
$10,958.94
40%
$64,912.38
29%
$43,354.44
20%
$46,303.33
14%
■ Insurance
EXHIBIT 25: 2012-2014 TOTAL
COSTS, FIXED WING LIGHT
SPORT PROGRAM
■ Insurance
$80,901.68
36%
$32,693.33
15%
■ Storage
■ Fuel
■ Maint.
EXHIBIT 27: 2012-2014 TOTAL COSTS,
GYROPLANE PROGRAM
$22,233.69
29%
$13,740.61
50%
$31,946.61
42%
$8,124.79
11%
$13,610.00
18%
$2,630.66
10%
■ Insurance
20
■ Storage
■ Fuel
■ Maint.
■ Insurance
■ Storage
■ Fuel
■ Maint.
EXHIBIT 28: 2014 MISSION TYPES
Other
4%
Surveillance
7%
Proficiency
25%
Narcotics
3%
R&D
1%
Infrastructure
11%
Patrol
30%
Photography
9%
Maintenance
6%
Search and Rescue
4%
Transport
0%
EXHIBIT 29: 2010-2014 MISSION TYPES
Proficiency
25%
Other
4%
Surveillance
7%
R&D
1%
Narcotics
3%
Infrastructure
11%
Patrol
30%
Photography
9%
Maintenance
6%
Transport
0%
Search and Rescue
4%
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 21
EXHIBIT 30: 2014 FIXED WING FLIGHT HOURS
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
EXHIBIT 31: 2012-2014 FIXED WING FLIGHT HOURS
200
180
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
20
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
the most hours were logged in the months of June
through October. With the enclosed cockpit, the
fixed-wing LSAs offer some level of protection from
the elements, allowing for a longer flying season.
Comparing data from 2014 to combined data for
2012-2014 shows a fairly consistent pattern of
monthly hours.
22
Jul
Aug
As expected, the PPCs flew more during the warmer months of the year. Grant Parish (La.) Sheriff’s
Department did experience mild weather during
February and its 4.9 flight hours represented more
than half of those reported. PPCs reported a total
of 68.3 flight hours for 2014 with an average of 5.7
hours. Pratt County (Kan.) Sheriff’s Department
reported 25.7 hours and Escambia County (Ala.)
EXHIBIT 32: 2014 PPC FLIGHT HOURS
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
EXHIBIT 33: 2012-2014 PPC FLIGHT HOURS
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Sheriff’s Department reported the fewest at 8.0
hours; see exhibits 32-33.
Although the trend indicates heavier use of PPCs
in warmer months, the 2012-2014 data shows that
PPCs can fly throughout the year (weather
permitting).
Jun
The gyroplanes compare directly to the fixed-wing
LSAs as far as flight time. Two agencies reported
consistently during the program. Somerset began
reporting in May 2012 and Queen Anne’s County
initiated reporting in January 2013. In 2014, these
agencies reported a total of 167.0 flight hours with
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 23
the average being 83.5 hours. Somerset PD reported 105.5 hours and Queen Anne’s County reported
61.5; see exhibits 34 and 35.
The gyroplanes evaluated included an Magni M24
with an enclosed cockpit with side-by-side seating
configuration, an Autogyro Calidus with an enclosed
cockpit with tandem seating and an Autogyro MTO
Sport with open cockpit with tandem seating. Somerset PD evaluated both the Magni and the Calidus.
The program briefly leased the Magni and cancelled
the lease when the Calidus became available for
purchase. Queen Anne’s County evaluated the MTO
Sport. The enclosed cockpit design has a heater
EXHIBIT 34: 2014 GYROPLANE FLIGHT HOURS
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
EXHIBIT 35: 2012-2014 GYROPLANE FLIGHT HOURS
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
24
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
that provides a minimum level of warmth while the
open cockpit comes with an auxiliary power connection for a heated flight suit. The protection of
the enclosed cockpit definitely allowed for more
flight time in less-than-ideal weather conditions as is
suggested by Exhibit 36.
Noteable Statistics
In addition to flight hours, the program began collecting data on program results in 2012. Participants
were required to submit the following data (see
exhibit 37):
• Amount of cash seized as a result of a mission
supported by the aircraft.
• Value of any property seized/recovered as a result of a mission supported by the aircraft.
• Street value of any drugs/narcotics seized as a
result of a mission supported by the aircraft.
• Number of criminal apprehensions.
When searching for missing persons, aircraft have
the ability to quickly cover larger, often inaccessible
areas in support of ground units. Due to an oversight, the program did not require data on missing
persons missions. However, a review of the mission
reports submitted by the participants indicated a
total of 105 search/rescue missions from 2012-2014.
As the result of the use of air support, agencies
located 16 missing persons.
EXHIBIT 36: OPEN VS. ENCLOSED COCKPIT FLIGHT TIMES
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
■ MTO Sport N811TX
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
■ Calidus N250PD
EXHIBIT 37: PROGRAM RESULTS
Cash seized
Property recovered/seized
Narcotics/drugs seized
Criminal apprehensions
$2,200
$123,425
$428,970
140
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 25
Summary
LEAPT accomplished its program objectives.
Aviation support is a valuable addition to law enforcement in general, and the introduction of LSA
proved to be beneficial to agencies that previously
did not have access to aviation support. LSA do
not replace traditional aircraft; rather, their use can
augment traditional aviation programs. LSAs can
accomplish 85-90 percent of the tasks of traditional
aircraft while operating at a much lower cost, but a
helicopter is still appropriate to use when inserting
a tactical team or to serve as a rescue/evacuation
platform where true vertical takeoffs and landing are
a necessity.
Any aviation program has associated costs, but
LSAs have been proven to have lower operating
costs than do traditional platforms. Fixed-wing LSA
operating costs (fuel and maintenance) averaged out
across the program at $39.26 per hour and gyroplane operating costs averaged $43.41 per
hour. PPC operating costs are something of an
anomaly at $83.60 per hour, attributable to some
higher than normal maintenace costs for repairs
and inspections after some aircraft were idle for a
extended period of time. Low flight hours compared
to other types of aircraft also are a contributing
factor. This suggests that a certain level of commitment to an aviation program is necessary if one is
to achieve adequate return on the investment in the
technology.
On an anecdotal side, there appeared to be a preference for the tandem seating arrangement over sideby-side seating. Tandem seating provided the tactical
flight officer (observer) a clear field of view of both
sides of the aircraft, making this arrangement better
suited for observation.
NIJ Law Enforcement Aviation Technology Program 27
28