Medieval Metropolis
Dorestad
April 17 - November 1, 2009
National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden
Introduction [projected]
Welcome to Dorestad, an early-medieval
trade centre, that grew into a European
junction in the seventh century and
collapsed in the ninth, after lots of Viking
attacks. Dorestad was located at the site of
present-day Wijk bij Duurstede, not far from
Utrecht. In the eighth and ninth centuries
A.D., the age of Charlemagne and his
successors, Dorestad was the largest town
in the Netherlands and one of the largest in
northwestern Europe. While about 400
people were living in Utrecht, Dorestad had
a few thousand inhabitants. They lived in a
town about two miles long and half a mile
wide, stretched out on the bank of the
Rhine. Ships could moor all along this
length; basically Dorestad was one big
harbour. In summer, traders came from
far and wide to this metropolis with its
international atmosphere. In winter stocks
were prepared for the coming trade season.
The exhibition comprises of two rooms:
town|winter on the first floor and
harbour|summer on the second. Almost all
the objects on display have been excavated
in Wijk bij Duurstede, date to the eighth
and ninth centuries A.D. and are part of the
‘Dorestad Collection’ of the National
Museum of Antiquities. Only when this is
not the case are details provided. A special
children’s track runs through the entire
exhibition and can be recognized by the
‘Dorestad dragon’. The accompanying,
richly illustrated book in Dutch is available
in the museum shop.
2
First Floor: City I Winter
Dorestad retraced
[theme sign ‘Ontdekking’]
Discovery
Early-medieval Dorestad disappeared
from the map after the ninth century.
The town was rediscovered only by accident around 1840. Shortly afterwards
the National Museum of Antiquities
carried out excavations and around
1920 another part of the town was
investigated. From 1967 to 1978, over
90,000 acres were excavated by the
National Archaeological Service--the
largest excavations ever undertaken in
the Netherlands.
Occasional research continues to take
place in the Carolingian town, most
recently in 2007/2008.
[showcases that contain only children’s trail
information, have been left out]
Showcase 1
Searching for Dorestad
In the cold winters around 1840, ‘needy’ people dug up
and sold off at least a million pounds of bones in Wijk bij
Duurstede. This digging uncovered ‘antiquities’: the first
witnesses of early-medieval Dorestad. In the following
century and a half excavations became more extensive,
while carrying them out and analyzing them became
increasingly unfeasible.
1. Sherd of Badorf ware, acquired by the museum in
1843.
2. Plate with finds in L.J.F. Janssen’s excavation report
from 1843.
3. Find number 1 of the excavations by the National
Archaeological Service, June 8, 1967.
4. Various find containers used in the excavations by the
National Archaeological Service.
5. Storage box filled with tubes and pots of samples for
archaeo-botanical research.
Depiction: ‘Objects from ancient Dorestad’ in a 1890 book.
Showcase 2
Where did Dorestad originate?
The name Dorestad appears for the first time on gold
coins dating to c. 630 A.D. One side shows the name of
coin master Madelinus and the other side ‘Dorestat fit’:
made in Dorestad. In the Merovingian era, a predecessor
of Dorestad stood here. The presence of the coin master
and the rich finds indicate the importance of that
settlement.
3
1. Merovingian gold jewellery from graves on the De Geer
site, 7th century.
2. Gold pendant found on the Veilingterrein site in 2007,
7th century. Collection ADC/Bouwfonds.
3. Gold bar, 7th century.
4. Gold hoard from the De Geer site: three coins and two
bars, 7th century.
5. Gold coins of Madelinus from Wijk bij Duurstede,
Maastricht and Geldrop, 7th century.
6. Gold coin of Madelinus from Wijk bij Duurstede,
from the diggings around 1880.
Amersfoort, Flehite Museum.
Depiction: Gold coin with inscription ‘Dorestat fit’ enlarged.
Intermezzo ‘Ontdekking’
Shivering in bone pits
‘The sunlight had scarcely announced the short day, or
one could see groups of gathered households leaving
town with baskets, wheel-barrows, trays, drinking kettles
and carts; – upon arrival the virgin soil was examined, the
spade put down, where one thought it right, and soon
most of the diggers disappeared below the surface.
Around noon, there was great liveliness: the bones dug
up were loaded and transported; some went home, to eat
the rich and tasty food, provided by their labour; while to
others a dug, from which they hoped to recover a good
supply, as perhaps somebody else might have claimed
the mine when they returned.
In fear of these robbings, as well as to avoid the eye of
the watchmen, who at first tried to prevent these
diggings, this work was continued by some at night.
A small light was lit in the pit, and while cold gusts of
winter winds skimmed the fields, one found here, in the
dark of night, men in ragged clothes, stained with dirt,
breaking the layers of earth and bones beneath the
ground, that had been resting here for over a thousand
years.’
J.C. van der Veur on the bone digs in Wijk bij Duurstede in
the winter of 1841/1842, Utrechtsche Volks-almanak for
1843.
4
The people buried
[theme sign ‘Dood’]
Death
The town contained at least three large
cemeteries, located in between the living
quarters. Most burials followed Christian
practice, with the head facing east, in
wooden coffins and without grave goods.
But there were older graves too, in which
objects were placed with the deceased.
The burial grounds were used over a long
period and the skeletons were placed
closely next to and above each other.
Some people were buried in expensive
limestone sarcophagi. These persons
must have held a high clerical or secular
position.
Showcase 4
Grave goods
In the 7th century, utensils, food and drink were provided
in the grave. This custom disappeared slowly after the
introduction of Christianity, as in this faith only a soul is
needed for life after death. Nonetheless, even in Christian
graves objects are sometimes found, items that were part
of the clothing or equipment of the deceased.
1. Part of a hipbone with a belt buckle.
2. Buckles.
3. Glass beaker. Municipality of Utrecht, Collection of the
PUG.
4. Combs.
5. Tweezers.
6. Needles.
Depiction: Skeletons, a sarcophagus and finds from the
De Heul site in the excavation report of 1857.
5 [On platform]
Sarcophagus
This coffin has been hewn from a large block of soft
limestone; the cutting traces can be seen on the sides.
This type of sarcophagus, an expensive alternative to
wooden coffins, was produced in the Meuse area and
distributed over the Carolingian Empire, partly through
Dorestad. The skeleton in this coffin is of a man over six
feet tall, possibly an abbot or a priest.
1. Sarcophagus with skeleton, found by J.H. Holwerda on
the De Heul site around 1930.
Depiction: A body laid down in a coffin. Detail from the
Utrecht psalter of c.830.
5
Showcase 6
Skeletons
The cemetery on the De Heul site alone once contained
at least 2,350 burials. 1,650 skeletons were recovered
from Wijk bij Duurstede, of which a small number date to
the later Middle Ages. A large number of early-medieval
graves were destroyed in the 19th century and others are
buried below modern buildings. The skeletal material that
was recovered will be investigated in the coming years.
1. Five skeletons, mostly from the cemetery on the
De Engk site.
Depiction: Bones in a box, they way they were packed
after excavation.
6
Living and working in the town
[theme sign ‘Leven’]
Daily life
Hundreds of houses once stood in Dorestad. Close to the river bank the space
was rather densely built, while more
inland the dwellings were bigger and
placed further apart. Every house was
built within a fenced yard, with a water
well and one or more waste pits. There
were public buildings too: small churches, a mint, and possibly an assembly
hall. The people of Dorestad practiced
various professions: there were fishermen and farmers, but specialized artisans and salesmen, clergymen and
authorities as well.
Showcase 7
Agricultural tools
Among the tens of thousands of metal objects from
Dorestad are all kinds of implements used in working the
land or the garden. Cutting tools like scythes, reaping
hooks and knives were sharpened using whetstones.
Some have clearly been worn in the middle due to
frequent use.
1. Scythe. Roman era, Wijk bij Duurstede.
2. Reaping hooks.
3. Blades of spades.
4. Plough shoes, to strengthen plough shares.
5. Whetstones.
6. Pronged tool, possibly a rake or meat hook.
Depiction: Man carrying scythe in an astronomical manuscript of 818 A.D., Munich Library.
Showcase 8
Playing in Dorestad
On long winter nights, the people of Dorestad enjoyed
games, like the board game ‘hnefatafl’. For this game a
number of gaming pieces and a ‘king’ were used. Children
played with, for instance, small boats and miniature
utensils. In addition, stories were told, songs sung and
music played, as evidenced by flutes and the remains of
a string instrument.
1. Set of 27 gaming pieces with a king.
2. Separate king, recognizable by the metal tip.
Municipality of Utrecht, collection of the PUG.
3. Glass gaming piece.
4. Reconstruction of a set of glass gaming pieces.
Drawing by Roel Bakker.
7
5. Gaming disc in re-used Badorf ware.
6. Flat gaming pieces with numbers. Municipality of
Utrecht, collection of the PUG.
7. Dice.
8. Knucklebones.
9. Bone object, possibly a spinning top. Municipality of
Utrecht, collection of the PUG.
10. Miniature bone knife.
11. Bone flute. Municipality of Utrecht, collection of the
PUG.
12. Amber bridges over which the strings of lyres were
drawn. Municipality of Utrecht, collection of the PUG.
Depiction: Man playing a lyre in a 9th-century prayer book,
Stuttgart Library.
Showcase 9
Around the hearth
Inside the living quarters of every house there was an
open fire, which served as heating and cooking facility.
Around it were benches to lie or sit on. Above the fire a
kettle containing soup or stew often hung suspended
from a long kettle chain. Cooking pots could be placed in
the fire on an iron-footed coaster (trivet).
1. Kettle chains.
2. Iron kettle.
3. Kettle handle.
4. Part of an oval trivet.
5. Wooden bowl.
Depiction: A hearth reconstructed in the re-built Dorestad
house in Amersfoort.
Showcase 10
Food and drink
Analysis of bones, seeds and pollen reveals that the
menu in Dorestad was quite varied: grains, pulses, fruits,
nuts, meat and fish. Most inhabitants ate shellfish such
as mussels and large oysters as well. The food was well
seasoned since at that time exotic spices could best be
found in Dorestad. Herbs were crushed in a stone mortar.
1. Flasks.
2. Mortar.
3. Pestle from the diggings around 1880. Amersfoort,
Flehite Museum.
4. Bronze skillet.
5. Bronze bowls.
6. Oyster shells.
7. Mussel shells.
8. Bone plate of sturgeon. Municipality of Utrecht,
Collection of the PUG.
Depiction: Women with a mortar and pestle, depicted in a
9th-century manuscript.
8
Showcase 11
Tools for craftsmen
Craftsmen such as carpenters, smiths, shoemakers and
bone workers had boxes with specialized tools, including
hammers, drills, gouges, awls and tongs. In Dorestad all
those implements have been found in various sizes and
shapes, adapted to every task. This indicates far-reaching
specialization, characteristic for large towns with a
significant import and export economy.
1. Pick-axe.
2. Hammers, also called pole-hammers.
3. Drills.
4. Awls.
5. Tongs and pincers.
6. Melting-pots.
7. Moulds.
Depiction: Smiths using hammers and tongs. Detail from the
Utrecht psalter of c.830.
9
10
The Dorestad Brooch in context
[theme sign ‘Schatkamer’]
Treasury
The Dorestad brooch is a unique find
and an icon of Dutch archaeology.
This large brooch from around 800 A.D.
is decorated with precious stones and
colourful inlay in cruciform patterns.
It shows similarities with seventhcentury church treasures and circular
brooches like those on display here.
But the Dorestad brooch mostly
resembles precious metalwork from the
vicinity of the imperial court, especially
that on book bindings. The ornament
was probably once fixed to a book or
casket.
Treasury [page-through book]
Superb Carolingian Manuscripts
Page 1 Cover of Metz Sacramentary with ivory carvings,
email cloisonné and gemstones. Metz 835-845. Paris,
Bibliothèque Nationale de France, ms latin 9383. Photo:
BNF Paris.
Page 2 The emperor Charles the Bald enthroned,
surrounded by his royal household. Gold Codex of St.
Emmeram, Imperial Court School c.870. Munich,
Bayerische
Staatsbibliothek, CLM 14000, f 5v. Photo: BSB Munich.
Page 3 Decorated letter I. Gold Codex of St. Emmeram,
Imperial Court School c.870. Munich, Bayerische
Staatsbibliothek, CLM 14000, f 47r. Photo: BSB Munich.
Page 4 The emperor Charles the Bald enthroned,
surrounded by royal household and clergy. Bible of
Vivien, Tours 845. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de
France, ms latin 1, f 423r. Photo: BNF Paris.
Page 5 Christ enthroned between the evangelists. Bible
of Vivien, Tours 845. Paris,
Bibliothèque Nationale de France, ms latin 1, f 329v.
Photo: BNF Paris.
Page 6 ‘Life fountain’ with birds and a roebuck. Gospels
of Charlemagne, Imperial Court School 781-783. Paris,
Bibliothèque Nationale de France, ms NAL 1203, f 3v.
Photo: BNF Paris.
Page 7 Character D with the women at Christ’s empty
grave. Sacramentary of Drogon, Metz 845-855. Paris,
Bibliothèque Nationale de France, ms latin 9428, f 58r.
Photo: BNF Paris.
Page 8 Christ on the cross. Sacramentary of Charles the
Bald, Imperial Court School 869-870. Paris, Bibliothèque
Nationale de France, ms latin 1141, f 6v. Photo: BNF
Paris.
Page 9 The emperor Lothar I enthroned. Gospels of
Lothar, Tours 849-851. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de
France, ms latin 266, f 1v. Photo: BNF Paris.
11
Page 10 King David with harp surrounded by muses. Bible
of Vivien, Tours 845. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de
France, ms latin 1, f 215v. Photo: BNF Paris.
Page 11 Various agricultural works throughout the year.
Astronomical manuscript, Salzburg area 818 A.D. Munich,
Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 210, f 91v. Photo: BSB
Munich.
Page 12 The evangelist Marc writing. Gold Codex of St.
Emmeram, Imperial Court School c.870. Munich,
Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, CLM 14000, f 65r. Photo:
BSB Munich.
Page 13 Lion between the symbols of the evangelists.
Gold Codex of St. Emmeram, Imperial Court School ca.
870. Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, CLM 14000,
f 16v. Photo: BSB Munich.
Page 14 Decorated word ‘In’. Second Bible of Charles the
Bald, St.-Amand-en-Pévèle 871-877. Paris, Bibliothèque
Nationale de France, ms latin 2, f 11r. Photo: BNF Paris.
Page 15 Page with characters in silver and gold ink. Gold
Codex, Southumbria c.750.
Stockholm, Kungliga Biblioteket, ms A.135, f 11r. Photo
via www.wikimedia.org.
Page 16 Cover of the Gold Codex of St. Emmeram,
decorated with gold and fitted gemstones. Imperial Court
School ca. 870. Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek,
CLM 14000. Photo: BSB Munich.
Showcase 12
Carolingian manuscripts in Leiden
In the Carolingian age, many books, religious as well as
secular, were produced. The most expensive book covers
were decorated with gemstones, inlay and ivory, like
reliquaries. The pages were decorated too, with colours
and gold leaf, often using the same motifs employed in
precious metalwork.
1. (April-July 2009) Aratea, manuscript with zodiac signs,
825-850. University Library Leiden, ms VLQ 79.
2. (July-October 2009) Gospel book from St. Amand,
800-850. University Library Leiden, ms BPL 48.
Depiction: Page from the gospel book from St. Amand,
Leiden Library.
Showcase 13
Dorestad Brooch
In this brooch precious stones, inlay and open-worked
forms have been combined with multi-coloured enamel in
gold cells, the so-called ‘email cloisonné’. The brooch was
found on the 18th of July 1969 by two members of the
national youth organization for history. They were helping
at the dig and emptied excavated wells, one of which
contained this masterpiece.
1. Dorestad Brooch.
2. Small pieces of email cloisonné.
Depiction: Finders at the well in which the brooch was
found, from the magazine Fibula.
12
Showcase 14
Merovingian disc brooches
Circular brooches with cruciform patterns occurred in the
7th century as well. Like the Dorestad Brooch these have
been decorated with precious stones and colourful inlay in
gold cells. In between there is usually filigree. This
characterizes Merovingian metalwork and is missing from
the Carolingian Dorestad Brooch.
1. Disc brooch from Rosmeer. Tongeren, Provincial
Gallo-Roman Museum, 76.C.260.
2. Disc brooch from Wittislingen. Munich, Bavarian State
Archaeological Collection, IV 1903.
Depiction: Backside of the Rosmeer brooch, with cruciform
cavity.
Showcase 15
Liturgical precious metalwork
Relics, the remains of saints, were of great importance in
the early days of Christianity.
Much money and attention was devoted to the caskets in
which relics were kept. They were made from precious
metals and decorated with precious stones and cruciform
inlays. These objects were often portable, both for safety
and to allow them to be taken on conversion missions.
1. Small reliquary from around 700. Utrecht, Museum
Catharijneconvent, ABM m.904.
Depiction: Reliquary of Teudericus, 650-700, Abbey of St.
Maurice d’Agaune.
Showcase 16
Clothing and accessories
The way people dressed in this age is known mainly from
depictions. Men often wear tunics and puttees, women
wear rather straight dresses and head scarves. The details
of dress are known from the finds: brooches to keep
pieces in place, strings of beads and belt mounts to
attract attention. Remains of shoes and a woollen mitten
have been found as well.
1. Small brooches, used to fasten clothing.
2. Fragment of a mould to cast a ‘Domburg-brooch’.
3. Ceramic and glass beads from 19th-century digs.
Municipality of Utrecht, Collection of the PUG.
4. Fragments of textile and felt.
5. Right-hand woollen mitten.
6. Parts of leather shoes.
7. Tweezers, for keeping moustaches and beards.
8. Ear spoons, for de-greasing ears.
Depiction: Woman with circular brooch in 9th-century prayer
book, Stuttgart Library.
13
Showcase 17
Household work
Typical finds in 9th-century towns are lumps of glass with
a spherical bottom. Although some think these might be
glass bars, they have been found accompanied by an
‘ironing plate’ in the graves of Viking women. In addition
to ‘ironing’, spinning, weaving and needlework were done
inside the house. Woollen fabrics of high quality were
both for private use and for sale.
1. Smootheners, also known as ironing glasses.
2. Two bone smootheners.
3. Pinching scissors.
4. Needles.
5. Spindle whorls and spindle pegs, forming spindles, to
spin wool.
6. Two weaving cards, for weaving strips with patterns.
Municipality of Wijk bij Duurstede.
7. Loom weights for a vertical loom.
8. Bone coil from 19th-century digs. Municipality of
Utrecht, Collection of the PUG.
Depiction: Whalebone board from a woman’s grave on Scar
(Orkneys), Kirkwall Museum.
Showcase 18
Writing
In Dorestad, as elsewhere, people could learn to read and
write. Important texts were written in ink on parchment,
but for other notes wax tablets and writing pegs were
used. The tablets were covered in wax, in which you wrote
with the sharp point of a writing peg. You could use the
wide blunt end to erase the words again.
1. Writing pegs, also known as ‘styluses’.
2. Double writing tablet, 9th century, Dokkum. Collection
National Museum of Antiquities.
Depiction: Evangelist holding writing pegs in 9th-century
gospels. Vatican Library.
19 [On the floor]
Dorestad’s stone well
In the centre of the cemetery on the De Heul site stood a
square well, made of heavy tufa blocks. This was the only
stone well in Dorestad. It stood before a small wooden
building, possibly a church. This must have been an
important place, perhaps where one would be baptized a
Christian. The church and the graves may have been
there because of the well.
1. Square stone well, reconstructed.
Depiction: The well on the De Heul site during the
excavation.
14
Showcase 20
Everything locked
In Dorestad large numbers of keys of various sizes have
been recovered, as well as parts of locks. With these, the
doors and the chests, which were used as closets in this
age, could be closed. The multitude of keys implies that
people, stock and valuables were kept safely behind lock
and key in Dorestad.
1. Bronze and iron keys.
2. Key with decorated bit, used as a pendant later on.
3. Five bronze keys. Municipality of Utrecht, Collection of
the PUG.
4. Mould for casting keys.
5. Parts of door and chest locks.
Depiction: A small box with a lock. Detail from a
9th-century prayer book. Paris Library.
Showcase 21
Private houses
The houses of Dorestad were boat-shaped, with a double
row of wall posts. They had four entrances, wooden
partition walls and a hole in the roof to allow smoke from
the fire to escape. The walls were half-timbered: between
wooden posts and beams daub was fitted by hand. This is
why daub often contains hand- and finger prints of the
inhabitants of Dorestad.
1. Pieces of house loam with prints of hands and reed
stems.
2. Stone parts of houses.
3. Piece of green-spotted marble.
4. Staves of a water well, made from a barrel.
Depiction: Loam from Dorestad with finger prints.
15
16
Showing who you are
[theme sign ‘Identiteit’]
Identity
Dorestad had a very varied population.
There was a large elite that was engaged
in, among other tasks, government and
defence, and that promoted Christianity.
This group was associated with the
emperor, the local count or bishop.
The elite showed its wealth and power by
carrying expensive weapons and by
moving about on horseback. In addition,
the high-ranked liked to show that they
could afford luxurious clothing and
accessories and that they knew about
the latest fashion and science.
Showcase 22
On your high horse
In the Carolingian age power lay with a broad group of
noblemen. Only important and rich persons were allowed
and able to keep a horse: a riding horse was a precious
possession. On horseback, of course, you literally looked
down on people. In Dorestad an infrastructure around
horsemen had emerged, with special harness- and cart
makers and farriers.
1. Horseshoes.
2. Horse bits.
3. Connecting rings of horse and cart harnesses.
4. Horse grooming comb.
Depiction: Emperor on horseback, 9th-century bronze
statuette. Louvre Museum, Paris.
Showcase 23
Stirrups
Dorestad not only yielded a remarkable number of horse
harnesses, stirrups and spurs but these were often richly
decorated as well. Stirrups and spurs regularly have
inlays of copper and silver, usually in lineal patterns but
sometimes with figures, preferably animals. Riding your
horse through town was obviously the way to make a
‘shining’ impression.
1. Pair of decorated stirrups.
2. Stirrups.
3. Stirrup with image of a griffin. 10th-11th century,
possibly with older parts.
4. Reconstruction of the griffin stirrup. Drawing: Roel
Bakker.
Depiction: Horsemen with stirrups and lances in a
9th-century book, St. Gallen Library.
17
Showcase 24
Spurs
Carolingian horsemen rode with spurs on both shoes, as
demonstrated by the pairs of spurs that were found.
These have sharp points to spur on the horse. The spurs
themselves are usually of iron. Sometimes copper was
used, although the points still remain iron. The spurs, like
the stirrups, were decorated, sometimes with animal
patterns.
1. Pair of copper spurs.
2. Spurs.
3. Spur with animal pattern.
4. Reconstruction of the animal pattern spur. Drawing:
Roel Bakker.
Depiction: Horseman with spurs on his feet in a 9th-century
book, St. Gallen Library.
Showcase 25
Put to the sword
The beautifully decorated and very strong steel swords of
the Franks were ‘world-famous’ in their age. The Frankish
sword blades (the long parts) were sold by blacksmiths in
Dorestad. There are two basic types: two-sided broadswords, sharp on both sides, with a hilt consisting of
pommel, grip and crossbar, and one-sided sword knives
(saxes).
1. Two-sided broadswords with decorated cruciform hilts.
2. Fragment of a sword with decorated hilt.
3. Large, one-sided sword knives (saxes).
4. Bone crossbar.
5. Shield boss.
Depiction: Sword fight in a 9th-century prayer book.
Stuttgart Library.
Showcase 26
Royal hunting
‘Winged lances’ are named after the sharp protrusions on
both sides of the shaft. Steel lance heads were fastened
to long wooden poles and the ‘wings’ prevented the lance
from overshooting. This ‘royal’ lance was a symbol of the
hunt. Because you needed permission to hunt and carry a
lance, it was a clear symbol of status too.
1. Heads of steel winged lances.
2. Carolingian wooden bow, found in Wassenaar.
Collection RMO.
3. Arrow heads.
Depiction: A hunter with bow and arrow in a 9th-century
psalter. Stuttgart Library.
18
Showcase 27
Sword with gilded hilt
This luxury sword with gilded hilt was found in July 1969
close to the large Dorestad Brooch. The sword and the
accompanying spear head were probably originally placed
with a skeleton in a weapon grave. The top part of the
gilded pommel is older than the bar and crossbar. The
sword blade is decorated with a damascene welded
pattern.
1. Spear head, found with the sword.
2. Sword with gilded hilt, after restoration in 2009.
3. Reconstruction of the sword with gilded hilt. Drawing:
Roel Bakker.
Depiction: Man holding sword with gilded hilt in 9th-century
book. Munich Library.
Intermezzo ‘Identiteit’
Was Charlemagne ever in Dorestad?
‘Especially during the reign of Charlemagne, Dorestad was
an important ‘emporium’ (trade centre) on the edge of the
large empire. One of the ways in which Charlemagne
managed to keep his empire together, is by continuously
travelling around and literally showing his face everywhere. He resided in Aix-la-Chapelle, which is not very far
away, at least not when travelling by boat. And one of his
other palaces was in Nijmegen, from where one could
easily reach Dorestad. Unfortunately, we do not know his
itinerary, but he must have been in Dorestad sometime.
What was it like, to have the emperor visiting? He will
have made a striking entry in the town, on horseback,
surrounded by his noblemen. His clothes and outfit will
have shown that he was the emperor. Maybe on this
occasion he wore his gold-lined clothes, the gold brooch
and the sword inlaid with precious stones that are
mentioned in the biography by Einhard as the outfit of
Charlemagne on festive days.
Likely the local ruler welcomed him, offered him dinner,
had music played for him, gave him gifts and showed him
around town. Mass will have been celebrated by the local
clergy, and possibly a procession was held with relics or
treasures. The emperor will have spoken to the people of
Dorestad, a good speech, maybe with privileges given to
the town. Did the inhabitants set up a throne for him, or
hung banners? Did they decorate their houses, wear their
best clothes, dress to impress? A day to remember?’.
Annemarieke Willemsen in Dorestad, een wereldstad in de
Middeleeuwen from 2009.
19
20
Second floor: Harbour I Summer
Ships in the harbour
[theme sign ‘Water’]
Water
Its location alongside the water was both
a source of wealth and a problem for
Dorestad. The river was the most
important trade route, allowing ships
from everywhere to reach the harbour.
But the Rhine was restless and kept
changing its course. The people of
Dorestad invested heavily in controlling
the river and in reclaiming land in the
marshy bank zone. In the harbour,
remains of over 150,000 wooden piles
have been found, along with fish-traps
and fragments of ships.
Showcase 29
Gliding on ice
Gliders (bone skates), useful for crossing ice or marshy
terrain, were made of the metatarsals of butchered
horses or cattle. Often the front was narrowed to a point
with sometimes a hole drilled in it. The bones could then
be tied under the shoes and used as skates. Bone skates
functioned as gliders under transport sledges as well.
1. Bone skates.
Depiction: Reconstruction of a sledge with bone gliders,
excavated in Bunge (Sweden).
Showcase 30
Mooring ships
The numerous finds of boat-hooks and heavy chains in
the harbour zone of Dorestad are evidence of the
manoeuvring and mooring of ships and thus the activity
there. Boat-hooks were nailed to a long stick and come in
two types: fork-shaped ones to push forward and
semicircular ones to pull ships towards you.
1. Links of a heavy boat-chain.
2. Boat-hooks.
3. Reconstruction of a boat-hook. Drawing: Roel Bakker.
Depiction: Ships moored near a town. Detail from the
Utrecht psalter of c.830.
21
Showcase 32
Pieces of ships
In the harbour area, a few pieces of ship wood have been
discovered. The planks are clinker-built, fastened with
large rivets, and the chinks between were caulked
watertight with a mixture of wool, string and pitch. This
shipbuilding technique originates from northern Europe.
Possibly the ships were dismantled here instead of sunk.
1. Ship wood from Dorestad. RACM, Nautical
Archaeological Deposit Lelystad.
2. Ship rafter.
Depiction: The ship wood pieces during excavation.
Showcase 33
Use of water
Of course, the river was used for fishing. Apart from quite
large fish hooks, remains of fish-traps were found in
Dorestad as well as a creel, a basket of willow shoots to
keep caught fish fresh under water. Drinking water was
taken from the wells in the yards. In one well, a wooden
bucket that had been preserved under the groundwater
level was found.
1. Fish hooks.
2. Wooden buckets.
3. Caulk and ship rivets.
4. Ship rivets and caulk.
5. Piece of caulk and ship rivets. RACM, Naval
Archaeological Deposit Lelystad.
6. Shells, including panther cowries from the Red Sea
area.
Depiction: Reconstruction of creel, found in the harbour.
22
Buying and selling
[theme sign ‘Markt’]
Market
During the entire sailing season,
Dorestad was a kind of prolonged annual
fair. Here, the whole world came together
and the town was a multi-cultural
meeting place at the northern frontier
of the Carolingian empire. All kinds of
things were sold and the sound of coins
filled the air. Some of these were minted
in Dorestad itself. The visitors to
the market brought not only their
merchandise, but their own fashion,
habits and language too. The market
must have had a bustling cosmopolitan
atmosphere.
Showcase 35
Dorestad coins
All those in power and therefore controlling the mint
between c.750 and 860--Pippin, Charlemagne, Louis the
Pious, Charles the Bald, Lothar--had coins minted in
Dorestad. They show the emperor’s name and portrait, the
name ‘Dorestatus’ and a symbol for the town: something
Christian or a trade vessel. These coins and that image
were spread across Europe.
1. Coin hoard from Tzummarum (Frisia) containing over
2,800 coins of Lothar I from
Dorestad. Money Museum Utrecht, Tzummarum 1991.
2. Coin of Louis the Pious with ship and ‘Dorestatus’.
3. Coins of Charlemagne from Dorestad.
4. Coins of Louis the Pious from Dorestad inscribed
‘cristiana religio’.
5. Ten coins from the Wieringen Viking hoard, minted in
Dorestad.
Depiction: Coin of Louis the Pious with ship from Dorestad
enlarged.
Showcase 36
Coin hoards from Dorestad
In 1972, in rapid succession, two hoards were found in
Dorestad. The first contained 25 coins of Pippin the
Younger (king from 751 to 768), the other contained,
among other things, 17 coins of his son Charlemagne. The
coins show their names and ‘RF’ for Rex Francorum: king
of the Franks. All these coins carry a battle-axe as a
symbol of Dorestad.
1. Coin hoard Wijk bij Duurstede 1972-I, silver coins of
Pippin.
2. Coin hoard Wijk bij Duurstede 1972-II, coins of
Charlemagne and Louis the Pious.
Depiction: Coin of Charlemagne from Dorestad enlarged.
23
Showcase 37
Money weighed
The value of coins derives from their weight in precious
metal. Essentially they are small, constant units of silver.
The weight was important especially to smiths and
mint-masters; the people normally relied on the coins.
Bars and coins were weighed using a balance and lead
weights. The latter were calibrated, as shown by the
stamps.
1. Horizontal balance arms.
2. Lead weights.
Depiction: Christ holding a balance in a 9th-century prayer
book, Stuttgart Library.
Showcase 38
Tried and tested
The quality of precious metal and coins was tested using
touchstones made of lydite. For instance, you drew a line
on the stone with a gold coin, and after that a line with a
piece of metal of a known carat. Then the colours could
be compared. Coins were used as hallmarks in their turn,
as on these lead discs, which may have been lead bars.
1. Touchstones with holes for carrying.
2. Touchstones.
3. Touchstone found at the Veilingterrein site in 2007.
Collection ADC/Bouwfonds.
4. Lead discs with impressions of coins.
Depiction: Lead disc showing imprint of a coin with a
building from Dorestad enlarged.
Intermezzo [handel]
Could people on the market of Dorestad
talk to eachother?
‘Usually, yes. Not much is known of the spoken language
in this period, but it is possible to draw a comparison
with later situations in which groups of people speaking
different languages meet each other regularly. For
instance, anthropological linguistic research has
investigated spoken language on regional markets in very
thinly populated areas.
In situations like these, a mix language, called ‘pidgin’,
often arises naturally. It is very functional because the
vocabulary is limited, yet practical. For trade goods and
selling/buying in particular, there are terms that everybody
is familiar with. Even when a pidgin is not needed, words
and terms are often exchanged, adapted and mixed at
markets. Traders sometimes start to use those words at
home as well, so the ‘trade language’ influences the
regular language too. Besides goods, language must have
been exchanged in Dorestad and within the earlymedieval trade network, making communication not only
possible, but self-evident.’
Linguist Wouter Jansen of Birmingham City University in an
interview in 2008.
24
A worldwide network
[theme sign ‘Handel’]
Trade
Goods from far and wide were on offer at
the market of Dorestad: wine from the
Rhineland, salt, fur, Italian glass, Scandinavian jewellery, beautiful swords,
manuscripts, hunting dogs and slaves.
The people of Dorestad profited from
both the demand for as well as the
supply of luxury goods. Wine barrels
were emptied and re-use in Dorestad,
ceramics and glass were both acquired
and re-sold. Products that had come
from or through Dorestad could end up
in the far North.
Showcase 41 [floor-lit]
Amber
In other places, amber (fossilized resin) is rare.
But in Dorestad pits full of amber were excavated, over
5,000 pieces in all. Sometimes, when the archaeologists
reached a new level, they saw amber twinkling in the sun
everywhere. Many lumps are too big to be interpreted as
production waste; more likely they were traded from
Scandinavia as raw material for making beads.
1. Raw amber.
2. Lumps of amber from 19th-century digs. Municipality
of Utrecht, Collection of the PUG.
3. Amber beads. Municipality of Utrecht, Collection of the
PUG.
4. Amber pendants.
5. Spindle whorls in amber.
Depiction: Excavation bag filled with amber, like it was
packed after excavation.
Showcase 42
Tating jugs
These watertight black jugs are called ‘Tating’ or ‘Birka’
jugs after the places where they were found. They are
exclusive, but at least 50 were discarded in Dorestad.
Originally the jugs were decorated with tin foil patterns of
triangles, lines and crosses, still visible by the imprints.
These jugs have been linked with both Christian worship
and high status.
25
1. Tating jugs.
2. Tating jug excavated from the Veilingterrein site in
2007. Collection of the ADC/Bouwfonds.
3. Fragments of Tating jugs with traces of tin foil.
4. Unfinished Tating jug.
5. Fragments of Tating jugs from 19th-century digs.
Municipality of Utrecht, Collection of the PUG.
6. Reconstruction of a Tating jug with tin foil patterns.
Drawing: Roel Bakker.
Depiction: Man pouring from a jug in a 9th-century prayer
book, Stuttgart Library.
Showcase 43
Millstones
Grinding stones were made of rock-hard, dark grey tefrite
(a volcanic stone) that is most common in the German
Eifel mountains. Two grinding stones--called quernstone
and handstone--were used, one on top of the other.
Millstones have also been found in sunk ships and in
Scandinavia, England and the Baltic: they would have
been shipped from Dorestad onwards.
1. Tefrite millstones from the Eifel.
Depiction: Millstone from Dorestad.
Showcase 44
Carolingian ceramics
10-20% of the ceramics from Dorestad are spherical pots
made locally. The other 80-90% were imported, coming
from various pottery centres, each recognizable by the
colour and shape of their products. Although a lot of
ceramics were broken in Dorestad, that accounts only for
a small part of what was conveyed; usually the contents
not the containers mattered.
1. Grey storage container.
2. Globular pot decorated with printed triangles.
3. Spouting bowl with a decoration of wavy lines.
4. Bowls of Mayen ware.
5. Small pots of Mayen ware.
6. Two oil lamps.
Depiction: Large containers and barrels. Detail from the
Utrecht psalter of c.830.
Showcase 45 [floor-lit]
Glass and beads
One of the luxury goods sold and probably also processed
in Dorestad is glass. Many sherds of coloured and socalled retellica glass have been recovered, as well as
glass rods and mosaic tesserae that may have been used
as raw material for making beads. Dorestad was in
contact with both northern Italy and Scandinavia and the
glass was traded throughout Europe.
1. Sherds of glass beakers.
2. Sherds of coloured glass.
3. Sherds of reticella glass, with attached glass ribs.
4. Reconstruction of the reticella bowl. Drawing: Roel
Bakker.
5. Sherds of flat glass, used in windows.
6. Mosaic stones.
7. Eleven mosaic stones, found on the Veilingterrein site
in 2007. Collection of the ADC/Bouwfonds.
26
8. Beads.
9. Pieces of ironing glasses.
Depiction: Reticella bowl found in Valsgärde (Sweden).
Stockholm Museum.
Showcase 46
Beakers and gold foil
The most luxurious piece of glass from Dorestad is a tall
translucent beaker with gold foil decoration. The gold
forms a frieze with crosses underneath. Glass with gold
foil is known from only thirteen places in the world, so the
presence of this glass in itself points to the exceptional
wealth of the town. Even the ‘normal’ beakers are of thin
and decoloured--that is, expensive--glass.
1. Beakers.
2. Beaker, found on the Veilingterrein site in 2007.
Collection of the ADC/Bouwfonds.
3. Glass beaker with gold foil.
4. Sherd with gold foil, found on the Veilingterrein site in
2007. Collection of the ADC/Bouwfonds.
5. Sherds with gold foil.
Depiction: Glass beakers and a drinking horn in a
9th-century manuscript. Paris Library.
Showcase 47
Black ceramics
These black ceramics with notch decorations, probably
made in the Low Countries, were clearly inspired by the
decorations on Badorf pots and by Tating jugs. Regardless
of the type, a remarkably large fraction of all ceramics
from Dorestad are not common kitchenware, but rather
meant for transporting, preserving and serving wine.
1. Bowl.
2. Jug.
Depiction: Table with ceramic vessels. Detail from the
Utrecht psalter of c.830.
Showcase 48
Badorf ware
Hundreds of thousands of sherds have been found in
Dorestad, accounting for at least 25,000 pots. Over three
quarters are imported from the Vorgebirge in the German
Rhineland, between Cologne and Bonn. This we call
Badorf ware, because near the village of Badorf kilns were
found in which these pale yellow ceramics with stamped
squares were made.
1. Sherds of Badorf ware.
2. Whole Badorf spouting jugs.
3. Whole Badorf spouting bowl.
Depiction: Sherds of Badorf ware.
27
Showcase 49
Storage containers
A large number of sherds of Rhineland ceramics were
once part of large wine containers. Large amphorae with
attached clay bands are the most characteristic forms. It
seems the strips in relief were inspired by strings that
were originally bound around amphorae. The largest of
these ‘relief band amphorae’ measures 18 inches in
diameter and must have been over three feet high.
1. Badorf containers.
2. Badorf container with relief bands.
3. Relief band amphora.
Depiction: Relief band amphora during excavation.
Showcase 50
Relief band amphorae
In Dorestad an incredible amount of ceramics were
broken, evidenced by the hundreds of thousands of
sherds. In the rest of the Netherlands, only 4,000 rim
sherds of this type of Carolingian import pottery have
been found, spread over 500 sites. ‘Normal’ sites yield
only a few sherds of relief band amphorae; the amounts
from Dorestad are breathtaking.
1. Sherds of relief band amphorae.
2. Top parts of relief band amphorae.
3. Bicolour top part of a relief band amphora.
Depiction: Sherds of relief band amphorae.
Intermezzo ‘Handel’
Intinerary for mosaic stone
Passenger name:
Point of departure:
Departure date:
Tessera (mosaic stone)
Venice (Italy)
Autumn of 800 A.D.
Recommended route:
Venice - Dorestad, by France.
Means of transport: Horse-drawn cart. You are travelling
in a locked box in an armed
convoy.
Stay-over:
Dorestad. Here you will be stocked
until the market season.
Dorestad - Ribe (Denmark), by the North Sea.
Means of transport: Viking ship. You are travelling in a
comfortable box filled with straw.
Tarpaulin recommended.
Stay-over:
Ribe. Here you will be worked
into a glass bead.
Ribe - Russia, by the Baltic coast.
Means of transport: Cargo-ship. You are travelling in
the company of many beads in a
shared bag.
Terminus:
Russia
Arrival date:
Spring of 803 A.D.
Total travel time:
2.5 years
Remarks:
Prolonged stop-overs. Route may
not be optimal.
28
Willy-nilly
[theme sign ‘Confrontaties’]
Confrontations
Dorestad emerged in the disputed
borderland between the Frisians and
the Franks. The town could flourish only
after the fight had definitively been
settled in favour of the Franks around
700 A.D. Later the Franks started
calling themselves Carolingians. During
the relative peace of the Carolingian
age, Dorestad experienced its heyday.
From 834, however, the town had
to cope with Viking attacks almost
every year, which in part brought about
the town’s final collapse.
So, Dorestad both started and ended
with confrontations between cultures.
Showcase 52
Weapons for the masses
Axes in all shapes were primarily meant for felling and
cleaving wood. But you could defend yourself with an
axe as well. Most people were not allowed or able to wear
a sword or a lance, so tools like axes and knives were
used as weapons too--if necessary. They were
multipurpose. Likewise, you would rather not run into an
angry peasant with a pitchfork.
1. Pitchfork.
2. Axes.
3. Knives.
Depiction: Axes used as weapons. Detail from the Utrecht
psalter of c.830.
Showcase 53
Frankish jewellery
Jewellery and amulets have multiple functions: to
embellish and protect as well as to advertise an
individual’s allegiance. Most jewellery from Dorestad is
not explicitly Christian, but it does show that the rich
liked to follow examples from Roman antiquity.
Roman gemstones with depictions were re-used and
even imitated in glass (so-called pseudo-cameos).
29
1. Bone amulets.
2. Brooches with enamel inlays, some cruciform.
3. Circular brooch with enamel, from the diggings
around 1880. Amersfoort, Flehite Museum.
4. Square brooches.
5. Cruciform head of a hair pin, with glass inlay.
6. Pendant with a piece of blue lapis lazuli.
7. Bronze bracelets.
8. Hair pins.
9. Ring with a re-used Roman gemstone.
10. Pseudo-cameos.
11. Strap end, for reinforcing the end of a belt, with an
equal cross. Municipality of Wijk bij Duurstede.
Depiction: Roman gemstone with a deer and a hunting dog
in the gold ring enlarged.
Showcase 55
Scandinavian jewellery
A cultural melting-pot like Dorestad gave rise to mixed
styles. This can be observed in the jewellery excavated in
Dorestad. Some objects are from Scandinavia, but more
seem to have been based on Scandinavian examples,
with a Frankish turn. For instance the pin buckle and the
oval ‘turtle brooch’ divert from Viking specimens; fashion
was ‘translated’.
1. Silver bracelets.
2. Gold braided bracelet.
3. Pin buckle.
4. Hair pins with facetted heads.
5. Hair pin with facetted heads, found on the
Veilingterrein site in 2007. Collection
ADC/Bouwfonds.
6. Buckles with animal patterns.
7. Strap end, for reinforcing a belt end, with an
interlacing pattern.
8. Strap end with an interlacing pattern, from the
diggings around 1880. Amersfoort, Flehite Museum.
9. Gold ring with stamped triangles.
10. Turtle brooch, in the shape of a turtle shell.
11. Reconstruction of the turtle brooch.
Drawing: Roel Bakker.
Depiction: Set of turtle brooches found in Birka (Sweden),
Stockholm Museum.
30
The afterlife of Dorestad
[theme sign ‘Beeldvorming’ ,
outside glass doors ]
Imagery
From the rediscovery of Dorestad in the
nineteenth century onwards,
depictions of the town have been made.
In most of these images, two
elements are clearly present: a view of
the harbour and the Viking raids.
Most Dutch people are familiar with
Dorestad because of the famous ‘school
plate’ made by J.H. Isings in 1927.
For this exhibition, new ‘school plates’
were produced. They show that every
image tells us something about the
Middle Ages, but even more about our
own times and, of course, the artist.
56 [On the wall and boards]
School plates
* ‘The Norsemen at Dorestad’, made by J.H. Isings for the
schools in 1927.
* ‘Panic in Dorestad!’, made by Rob Derks for the holiday
book of the children’s magazine Taptoe in 2007.
* ‘Bird’s Eye Perspective Dorestad A.D. 833’, made by
Wim Euverman, commissioned by the National Museum
of Antiquities in 2008.
* ‘Vikings in Dorestad’, made by Paul Becx, commissioned by the National Museum of Antiquities in 2008.
Showcase 58
Dorestad on paper
Books that are (partly) set in Dorestad often have as main
character a child, sold as a slave on the market of
Dorestad. In the stories, the town often occurs as a myth:
something you want to go back to, or that you would like
to see sometimes. The written image of Dorestad
contains the same stereotypes as the depicted image:
Vikings in the harbour, the town on fire.
1. Children’s books set in Dorestad.
2. Magazine Nieuwe Revu of April 5th 1974 with a large
spread on Dorestad.
3. Dutch passport of 1994 with Dorestad as part of Dutch
history.
Depiction: ‘Catla in Dorestad’, drawn by Arne Zuidhoek for a
2008 book.
31
The exhibition team would like to thank Luc Amkreutz
and Kate Delaney for correcting the English texts.