CHAPTER IV
HUMAN VALUES IN SELECTED KHASI SHORT STORIES
4.0
Introduction:
This chapter is the most crucial in the present study as it deals with the
textual analysis of the selected stories. This is felt important in order to find
out the human values projected by the authors of the stories. The discussion
is under the following moot points:
(i) Meaning and purpose of textual analysis
(ii) Approaches to textual analysis
(iii) Textual analysis of the Khasi Short Stories.
4.1 Meaning and purpose of textual analysis
On reading any story, the first question that comes to mind is whether
one likes the story or not. This may be for the reasons that it entertains,
relaxes, fiilfills moral and emotional expectations or because of its realistic
presentation of human life.
However, the first impression the reader
perceives, does not fiilly project the underlying meaning of the story. In this
regard Mark Schorer had this say:
We can know what the story says only by what the story is; we
can know the author's meaning only by his technical
objectification of that meaning.'
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The above comment clarifies a position, which proposes that a story's
first impression may be tragic, comic, humorous, romantic or realistic. This
is what the story says but this does not convey the underlying implications or
the totality of author's meaning. Guy de Maupassant clarifies this point
when he explains the aim of the novelist:
His aim is not to tell a story, to entertain or touch our hearts, but
to force us to think and understand the deep significance of
events^
The above viewpoint establishes the importance of analysing the
different elements which go into the technical objectification of the author's
meaning. The elements are the plot, characterization, narrative styles and
techniques as parts of the author's creative process in conveying his
meaning. Therefore, on analysis K. L. Knickerborger et al explain as
follows:
The chief reason for analysing a story is to assure us that our
total reading experience has been provided by the story. ^
In the present study, the 'total reading experience' implies the 'total
value experience' as may be highlighted by textual analysis. Thus
Knickerborker et al further continues:
It helps to suspense judgement until the story is understood as a
complete whole.
In this connection, the view of understadning the story as a complete
whole fits well with the scholarly views that a good story in its total
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implication produces more than one value. Therefore, in relation to the
present study, the application of this methodology will help project the
authors' values in a sound and scholarly manner.
4.2
Approaches and modes in textual analysis
Textual analysis on the basis of the well-accepted literary norms
Elizebeth Mcmahan et al^ projected plot, characterization, narrative
perception or narrative style and literary techniques as the most important
parts of the author's creative process. The handling of the plot includes the
situation, complication, rising action, crisis, falling action and development.
The characterization is the author's vision of a human character in relation to
different human situations. These are the accepted norms in the literary
process and as such essential as the working paradigm for textual analysis.
However, the following approaches and modes in textual anlysis may also
be highlighted.
Analysis and the values of man's inner reality
In a literary work, writers and critics alike have emphasised the
significance of what Knickerbocker et al (1965: 341) referred to as 'the
essential man' or termed by Foster {Aspects, 1927: 55) as the 'hidden life'.
This aspect of man focuses on inner values, which are unchanging and
universal. These are considered as intrinsic or higher values. The analysis on
this basis sought to assess a literary work on its capacity to express these
values. Therefore, this approach touches on the second objective of the
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study, which is - "Whether the values projected are intrinsic and universal in
nature".
Textual analysis and the expression of the varied and diverse human
significances
This approach takes a stand that the inner values of man is not the sole
criteria of textual analysis. Literature as an expression of life expresses the
variety and diversity of life and their corresponding values. Therefore, in his
views on the novel, Ian watt explains that the variety and diversity of life
contributes to the element of "Realism" which makes it convincing:
If the novel were realistic merely because it saw life from the
seamy side, it would only be an inverted romance; but in fact, it
surely attempts to portray all the varieties of human life.^
The Khasi authors are also well aware of this function of literature. In
particular, H. W. Sten takes cognisance of this fact when he quoted the
views of Owen Rowie, a leading Khasi critic, as follows:
Hynrei u Rowen Owie um kyntait pat ia ka jingsngewbha bad
jingsngewsih, ka jingitynnad bad jingishyrkhei kiba don la ka
dor ha kapor sngewbha ne sngewsihJ
(But Owen Rowie does not reject the happy and the sad, the
appealing or the terrifying which have their own value in times
of joy and sorrow.)
Another Khasi wnter and critic, B. L. Swer is also is of the opinion
that literature should focus on the different facets of life if it is faithflilly
present the reality of life.
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Modes and patterns in textual analysis
It appears that, these expressions of the varied aspects of human life
and their corresponding values are summed up by Robert Scholes as modes
and patterns of presentation. To quote him:
"A fictional work that presents a world better than the real
world is in the mode of romance. A work that presents a
fictional world worse than the real world is in the mode of antiromance...
The comic rise and the tragic fall are straightforward because
the values of the orderly world represent human virtues raised
to the heroic power. The satiric rise and the pathetic fall are
ironic because of the inverted values of the debased world".^
From the above, the modes and patterns express the values and ideals
reflected in a literary work. Closely related to the modes, are the moods
projected through such works of art. Thus Author Waterman's review of
Aiken's stories drew attention to "The moods they express are equally
varied; humorous, sad, ironic, satiric, macabre, cruel, insane, sentimental,
erotic and melancholy".'^ All these moods are conveniently reflected in the
wide ranging episodes presented in the style and temper in which these are
couched. Therefore, the textual analysis should focus on the human
significance of the varied aspects of life, thus, presenting life in the totality
of its meaning.
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The creative approach
In his introductory article to the collection of short stories, Thomas
Gullason'' suggested the creative approach on the part of the reader to assure
all possible insights into the varied values reflected by the author. On this
point Knickerbocker et al made an apt comment when they state:
Fortunately, there is no single formula as guaranteed
excellence. Fortunately indeed because if there were, the
fascinating variety in stories would be lost.'^
Gullason's own creative reading experience convinced him that "a
good story develops more than one effect, more than one theme" {The
Creative, 1971:11). This approach does not confine analysis and study to
literary norms only but encourages a free play of the readers' sensibility.
This approach may also be applied in the analysis of the Khasi selected
stories for better results.
4.3. Textual analysis of the Khasi short stories
Coming to the Khasi Short Stories, a random reading shows that the
modes and patterns projected, range from the tragic, the comic the satiric,
the ludicrous, the repugnant, the compassionate and the patriotic. As such
these explain the multi-faceted nature of human values captured by the
stories. However, it may be pointed out that in addition to the approaches
discussed, the following two points need to be kept in mind in the context of
the selected stories.
83
The impact of the age during the periods in which the authors write
their stories
The developmental forces, which brought wide global changes also
have far reaching impact on the Khasi society. These are the spread of
education, transport, the coming of Christianity and outside immigration.
These ushered new values such as those found in people's work attitude and
their craze for wealth and comfort. Observing these changes, u Soso Tham,
the Khasi poet laurete lamented the search of new knowledge at the cost of
indigenous knowledge. Similarly, H. Elias,''* another poet, reminisces the
loss of the Khasi traditional way of life. This shows that the age profoundly
affects the writers and their value approach.
The culture and traditions of the Khasis
As highlighted in Chapter I, the Khasis have their own traditional
values, norms and conventions, which guided their social life as well as the
life of the individual. These are the roots, which sustain their life as a
distinct tribe. These significantly influence the author's sense of values and
his overall philosophy of life.
Types of human values reflected in the selected Stories
Therefore on the basis of the points discussed, the textual analysis
may be carried out. The selected stories taken for this research are as
follows:
1.
Eleven stories from S. J. Duncan's Phuit Ka Sabuit 1968.'^
2.
Nine stories from Hughlet Warjri's Ka Nongkylliang 1985.'^
84
3.
Eight stories from Wan Kharkrang's Shihali Ki Khana 1986.'^
4.
Twelve stories from Paul Lyngdoh's Shi Thiar Ki Khana
Lyngkot, 1989.'^
Before proceeding fiirther it is observed that the reflection of values in
most of the selected stories is not confined only to one value. For instance, a
story like Duncan's ''Ka Akor kaba Tam'" (Politeness Counts) besides the
value of politeness also projects prudential values of prudence and common
sense as well as well-being values of humour and laughter. Wan
Kharkrang's story ''Ha Ranab u Lum Sohpetbneng" (On the Slopes of Mount
Sohpetbneng) highlights social superstitions but also impresses us with
values of humour. Therefore, an attempt will be made to project all values
reflected by the stories. However, for a clearer presentation, based on
scholarly views, the study and analysis will be under the following broad
value categories:
1. Moral and ethical values.
2. Social and traditional values.
3. Political values.
4. Personal values.
5. Religious values.
6. Well being values (among which wit and humour, prudence and
human possibilities may be mentioned).
4.3.1 Moral and ethical values in the selected stories
As highlighted in Chapter II, man as a human being is generally
sympathetic and kind by nature. Therefore, values pertaining to this nature
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are the most meaningftil and basic of human values. These pertain mostly to
moral and ethical values.
The discussion of these values immediately projects the need to
explain their differences. In this context, Jacques Thiroux'^ noted the
tendency to use these terms interchangeably. However, based on the views
of philosophers, Paul Roubiczek propounded a difference between moral
and ethical values. Moral values have their basis on freedom of choice. The
reason forwarded is that "unless one is free to act upon one's choice one
cannot be held responsible for one's actions".
On the other hand, ethical
values imply principles and norms of 'ought' and 'ought not' in one's
relation with others. These facts are explained by Thiroux when he states
"We speak of codes of ethics, but we never seem to mention codes of
morality".
On the basis of these views, moral values come from deep
within man, whereas ethical values may be
imposed from outside. But
normally these are accepted by man's moral nature. John Dewey sums up
the difference as follows:
The former places the standard and rules of conduct in ancestral
habit, the latter appeals to conscience, reason or to some
principles which includes thought.
As projected by Dewey the word 'former' refers to ethics and 'latter'
to morality. In addition to these views, another scholar, L. A. Blum explains
altruistic values as moralistic in nature as these motivate beneficent acts of
love and kindness for the sake of others. Therefore, Blum listed "a wide
range
of
(altruistic)
virtues:
compassion,
kindness,
sympathy.
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thoughtfiilness,
generosity, benevolence, consideration".^^
The
other
reflection of moral values are conscience related. Paul Tillich (Titus and
Keeton, 1966: 36) calls this inner aspect as man's "inner voice", while
Morris Ginsberg (Titus and Keeton, 1966) describes it as man's sense of
right and wrong. The reflection of these values in the stories will be further
discussed in later sections.
4.3.11 Moral Values - Altruistic facet
In the moral context, a marked contribution of some of the stories is in
reflecting the theme of compassion and concern in the face of pain and
suffering. Among the selected authors, S.J. Duncan is found to be the most
articulated. Describing the emotional and mental sensitiveness of Duncan,
Owen Rowie, a Khasi critic expressed as follows:
Ka bor kaba kot ban sngewthuh, ban sngewlem ne buh dor
kaba shisha- ka compassion bad ka appreciation- ban wad ia ki
bin bin Jong ka jingsngebha ka dohnud briew.^'*
(The power to understand, to sympathise or to appreciate in a
sincere manner- the compassion and appreciation - to search the
inner most feelings of the human heart.)
This is exemplified in a moving depiction of the relationship between
a boy and a dog, in the story "U Khynraw" (The Youth). The boy, deeply
touched by the pathetic fate of a wounded dog illtreated by the neighbours,
nursed it back to health. A deep bond developed, but the life of the dog was
tragically cut short by the bullet of a municipal man.
87
Written in a tragic mode, the story reveals the author's remarkable
craftsmanship in articulating values of sympathy and kindness. The theme of
compassion is introduced by firstly projecting Khynraw's special response
of ''ow-wow-ow wu-oow" to the boy only. Next shown through the boy's
eyes, are the ugly festering wound in the dog's neck for which, people
mercilessly stoned and chased it away. The literary effect of this narrative
part is the desired emotional response to the plight of the dog.
As the story moves on, the human value of sympathy and kindness is
fully illustrated. The dog's pathetic condition touched the boy to very core of
his heart. Further, his parent's scoldings, the terrible smell from the dog's
festering wound created a mental conflict. But in spite of this he felt sorry
for the dog as reflected in his moving narration:
Nga khot mian mian, "Khynraw, Khynraw..." ba ioh ki
iohsngew ha ing, nga khroh hor shi hor. Khatduh khatwai u
mih, nga bat nga syrpai ia ka met sharum ka jingmong bad ka
bym kwah ban peit ia ka Jingmong?^
(I called softly, "Khynraw, Khynraw..." less someone hears me
from the house, I coaxed tenderly. At long last he came out, I
held and caressed his body down from the wound, though not
really wanting to look at the wound.)
The quotation shows the boy did feel repugnance, yet as Blum noted,
in the altruistic attitude, "one goes out of one's way" (1980:19) when moved
by compassion. As such the moral aspect of the altruistic is made clear. The
next stages of the story unfolded a truly remarkable and deeply satisfying
88
relationship between the boy and the dog. These are displayed by the dog's
refusal to eat food in failing to chase and pester the goats; and also in
defending his young master whenever the need arose; his courage and
leadership among the dogs of the locality, and his unbounded joy when he
could accompany the boy on fishing and hunting trips. Thus we see love,
kindness and understanding on the part of the boy, and understanding, fierce
loyalty and love on the part of the dog.
But of special interest is the intensely human character of the boy, as
reflected in his emotional and imaginative sensibility. It enabled him to
deeply appreciate the dog's special qualities and its thrill and joy during the
hunting trips:
Ka jingkmen kaba da i hunjai. U tang shu iohi ia nga ba nga
bat tieh-batur, u la shad la kynthih, bad ka rwai ka sngewbha
artat. Nga ong "rwai", namar ki jingsawa kiba mih na ka
shynturjong u kim del shuh tang ka jingwiar dep rukom. ^
(IGiynraw is really very happy whenever we went to the woods.
His joy was truly satisfying. As soon as he saw me holding my
sling, he would dance and jump, with singing and happiness. I
say "sing", because the sounds coming from his mouth are not
the usual barking sounds of a dog.)
By including these materials in his plot and by arranging these in a
relational sequence, the author fully projects the meaning of a happy and
rewarding relationship. It is in specifying such textures of life that one could
realise the strength of the 'Well-being theory'. According to James Griffin,
it is these "deep, authentic reciprocal relations of friendship and love"^^
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which give point and substance to human life. These values are concretely
demonstrated by the story besides values of compassion and kindness.
The dog's tragic end against these happy backdrops, fully enhanced
the dramatic effect for added result, hence, the desired emotional impact.
The death scene movingly captures the feelings of compassion and pain
welling up from the depths of a human heart:
Shiphang ngam sngew lah peit, hynrei nga shong hajan. U
dang pynhiar mynsiem. Nga shim ia ka khlieh nga syrpud
kumba ju leh. I kumba u dang sngewthuh ba dei ma nga uba
wan ktah. Upeit khyndiat ki khmat. Bad ka iam artat, nga khot
ieit: Khynraw!...
"Ow-wow-o..." u thie kumba ju thie, hynrei tang shiteng, u
sngap noh jar. Nga ruh, kumba dung ngak na u dohnud, nga
iam lynniar.
(For a moment I could not bear to look at him, but I sat close.
He was still breathing. I took his head and caressed him as I
used to. It seemed he could still sense me that it was me who
touched him. He opened his eyes a little. With tears in my eyes,
I called out lovingly: Khynraw!...
"Ow-wow-o...." he responded as he used to but half way
through, he became silent. I felt as if I was pierced through my
heart, I wept aloud.)
The story illustrates Robert Scholes' tragic mode (1991: 126) which
begins in harmony but ends in tragedy. The story's moral impact is that it
profoundly moved us as it moves the human heart of the boy. Thus, we
90
could discern the intrinsic and universal worth of compassion, sympathy and
kindness.
Such altruistic values are also found expression in Wan Kharkrang's
story, ''Ban Aiti namar ki Kiwei" (To Sacrifice for Others). It narrates the
love and sacrifice made by an elder brother Karmel for his brothers. They
prospered in life but then forgot what he did for them and even looked down
on him. Later on poor, sick and with a big family, Karmel collapsed with
illness. At this, the brothers repented, and Karmel died in peace.
Compared to Duncan's story, the story presented in the descriptive
style lacks the same moving power although its theme is of touching human
value. Nevertheless, its distinct feature is in demonstrating the intrinsic
nature of love and sacrifice in the complex contradictions of human life. The
author weaves his theme through three parts. The first part narrates the
family hardships with the passing away of the father. This underlines the
innate goodness of young Karmel in helping his mother support the family.
At this point the author's focus on the mother's teaching to Karmel,
introduces his moral vision:
"Ko khun", ia u kaju sneng, "kynmaw barobor ban hun ha ki
jingpyniaid Jong uba najrong, namar ma U, U don la ki
Jingthmu. Nga sngewsarong ba phi don kane ka mynsiem aiti na
ka bynta kiwei,
("Son" she urges him "always remember to be content in God's
plans for he has his own purpose. I am proud that you have the
spirit of sacrifice for the good of others".)
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The second part, which is the major part, consisted of two parts. The
first is the death of the mother, which brought out Karmel's sterhng
qualities. He resolved to shoulder the family responsibility upon his young
shoulders. Furthermore, he gave moral support to his brothers to be
industrious in their studies and did not allow them to worry about
educational expenses. At the same time he emphasized on a life of "tipbriew, tip-Blei"
(loiow-man, know-God/
This is substantiated
by
informative details of Karmel's pressing himself to the utmost with long
hours of hard work and braving bad weather. The picture is of a fme human
character with complete selflessness.
With quick strokes, the second section presents the changes in
Karmel's life. These are the burden of his big family and his poor and
deteriorating health. But to this condition, the brothers showed indifference
and apathy. These stages in the plot structure served to enhance Karmel's
nobility. This is lucidly conveyed when Karmel is shown as not oblivious to
the brothers' attitude to him:
U ithuh na ka khmat jong ki ba ki pelt bein bad peit poh ia u
namar ba u duk bad ba um donjing nangjingstad}^
(He could see from their face that they looked down on him and
even felt ashamed of him for he is poor and illiterate.)
Karmel's reaction was not to pay any attention to their attitude
towards him for he loved them dearly and could not allow his brotherly love
to crumble for these reasons. These demonstrations confirm the altruistic
92
values as the unshaken foundation of the family institution. These are the
intrinsic and universal values and as such the story fulfils the objective
requirement of reflecting these values. But the high point in the story came
at the illness of his children when Karmel had to seek financial help from his
brothers. They outrightly expressed their displeasure at him. This broke his
heart, yet as the author delves deeper into Karmel's inner self, the reason
why he avoided his brothers was made clear. It was his fear less they
misunderstood his honest wish to see them and not to ask money from them.
With this, the author vindictates the man's moral maturity and genuine
humanity as a rare human attribute.
The end of the story presents Karmel collapsing at work and being
admitted to the hospital. At this stage the author's induction of an old friend
of Karmel's father is cleverly used to drive home the human values of
remorse and repentance and forgiveness. The old man criticised the brothers
for their callous behaviour towards Karmel. This brought them into their
senses and repentance. But the value impact is in the revelation of the final
moment. Karmel could no longer talk, but yet there was no change in his
love and sacrifice to the very end. This is eloquently conveyed as follows:
U Bah Karmel u la ai ia la ka kti ba kin bat, bad u la phuh
samrkhie kmen, hynrei um don bor shuh ban kren. Ka khmat
Jong u kynsan ka ihun bad I suk kynjai, ....u iohsngew biang ia
kito kijingsnengjong ka kmie.
(Bah Karmel gave his hand for them to hold, smiling happily,
but he could no longer speak. His face suddenly glowed with
deep peace,... he once again heard his mother's instructions.)
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The description "his face suddenly glowed with deep peace" strongly
projects the moral attainment which the Khasi described as 'leng rangbah u
briewjoit, suk u Blei lyngai" (with man asserting his human self, God is at
peace).^^ Thus the story conveys its moment of epiphany revealing the noble
act of self-sacrifice. The end part leaves us in no doubt as to the moral
conviction of the author that unselfish love and sacrifice can change even the
shallow and unfeeling to become good human beings.
In Paul Lyngdoh, the altruistic values of compassion and sympathy
are affected mainly through a sensitive portrayal of the pain and suffering of
the weak and the helpless. The story "U BeiJ" (The Fool) presents the
repeated tragic incidents which befell young Welsing, ultimately driving him
into insanity. He then became the object of fun and laughter to the
thoughtless community.
The handling of the plot shows the author's conscious efforts in
articulating the theme of suffering and a desired social attitude towards the
unfortunate section of the society. This is evident in the author's eye for
dramatic effect in the opening lines of children shouting, "U BeiJ! U BeiJ!
Ale barohpeit ia u BeijV ("The Fool! The Fool! Everyone come one and see
the Fool!"). This is followed by details of Welsing's physical appearance of
a good height and a light dark complexion. The appearance pathetically
contrasted with the nonsensical acts of dancing, singing and stuttering
prompted by the boys. It heightens the poignant sense and therefore values
of sympathy and kindness.
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The development at this stage of the story, is the author's focus on
Welsing's quahties which adds to the lyrical pathos of the boy's fate. These
are his contribution to the family income by doing manual work. Later on,
he nursed his gravely ill mother, foregoing play and games. The result is the
ironic mode which projects the irony of fate which does not spare the good
and innocent. This is in the small but subtle details of the death of the
mother who silently passed away in the night and the tragic drowning of his
small sister. Hence, he completely lost his sanity and became known as "w
beif^ (The Fool). Richard Abcarian and Marvin Klotz's observation express
such contradictions as follows:
At any time, the equilibrium of our lives, the comfortable image
of ourselves and the world around us, may be disrupted
suddenly forcing us into painful reevaluation. These disruption
create pain, anxiety and terror but also wisdom and
awareness.^^
The contribution of the story is in giving insights into these
contradictions. But, in doing so it enabled us to grasp and understand the
reality of human life. Its value is in sensitizing us to the meaning of being
kind and human. The other value conveyed by the story is in creating the
needed social awareness to the plight of the mentally challenged and the
insane.
4.3.12 Moral values - Other Facets
In the moral context, the stories displayed insightfiil interpretation of
moral values and moral virtues. Firstly, there are human values based on
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moral qualities such as honesty, obedience, goodness, justice and
forgiveness.
Five stories belong to this category which
includes
contributions from Hughlet Warjri, Wan Kharkrang and Paul Lyngdoh.
The analysis of Hughlet Warjri's stories compared with other authors,
projects him as keenly absorbed with moral issues. This is evident by the
number of moral values, which the author highlighted. Among these, ''Ka
Bek Pisa'' (The Wallet) demonstrates the moral value of honesty through a
simple story of loss and found. Kynting a rich businessman lost his wallet
which contained important papers. It was found by a poor boy who returned
it back to Kynting.
The theme of honesty is lucidly presented through a sequential
arrangement of details. These are the painstaking efforts of Kynting to
recover
the
wallet
through
careful
search
and
through
printed
advertisements. It enhanced the value of the wallet and therefore the honest
nature of the poor family. The next stage presented the meeting between
Kynting and the poor family also projects important value implication. This
is observed in the author's comment on the boys' external appearance as
''duk rathai" (indicating an extremely poor condition). Of special note in
this, is the author's subtle value suggestion on their honesty in spite of their
poverty. Further the details of the boys being on their own, their father
having passed away and their mother away in work, strongly reminded one
of Sib Charan Roy' image of "A:/ khun tipsngt"^^ (obedient and good
children). Thus on being asked about the wallet, the elder brother's answer
96
was that he had given it to his mother. This underlines the well-grounded
values of honesty and trustworthiness which guided the family. The last part
of the story is a climax where the author's projection of honesty is apparent
in the mother's report:
"La shitaiew mynta," ka iathuh, "u ioh une u khun heh Jong
nga. Ngam tip ngan leh kumno kumno ruh. Nga shu buh noh
kumto ioh don kiba wan wad.""
("It has been a week now", she said "since my eldest son found
it, I just don't know what to do. I just kept it in case somebody
comes looking for it".)
The explanation "I just don't know what to do" conveys the Khasi
moral precept of ''ka hok kaba tarn" (honesty counts) which R. T. Rymbai
(1995: 75) explains as ''kajuban lak" and ''ka hole" (the worth of a spoken
word and honesty). It implies complete honesty in one's behaviour and
action. This is certified by the wallet, which Kynting found to be intact. The
last part of the story reflects the strong moral impact of the honest family on
Kynting. It motivates him to kind acts of repaying the family. But an
appreciative detail is the well-timed revelation of the mother's Khasi name
"Sieng" (Warjri, p.27). It means "giving out a sweet lingering aroma." With
this the simple story projects the sterling character of a poor ordinary woman
with high moral integrity. The character of Kynting also impresses us as a
good human person whose example of gratitude and generousity command
respect and admiration. Thus the story impresses us with more than one
value.
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From honesty, the author focuses on obedience, a moral virtue, which
is especially desirable for the moral growth of children. The story ''Ka
Jingkwah u Kpa'' (The Father's Wish) narrates the problems faced by a
disobedient son who ran away from home. But in going away, he realised his
wrongs. He returned home and was reconciled to his father.
The theme of obedience is meaningfully conveyed through the
presentation of the young son with long unkempt hair, tight dirty pants and
coming home very late. His casual response to the mother's worried
question clearly reflected his wayward attitude. This was his refusal to go to
school or to get a job. The father's scolding resulted in Batkupar leaving the
house causing immense worry to his family. With this problematic situation,
the author's conveyed his viewpoint on the need to inculcate obedience on
one's children. This was affected in the strong stand of the father which
resulted in family exchanges and worries. These found expression in the
mother's worry, "The boy has really run away" and "You have spoken
without considering the boy's feelings". To this the father's replied, "How
should I speak to him? Should I coax? I scolded, but he ran away from
home. Let him go." (Warjri p.29)
This puts an end to the matter. Its value significance is however in the
father's firm stand which provided a clear sense of direction to the family's
approach towards disobedience. It illustrates the well-being values specified
by Griffin (1986:63) as "acting rightly". In the story, it removes anxiety and
unnecessary hassles which the family, which Batkupar might have faced in
98
absence of such discipline. Realizing the unbending stand of the father, the
son realised his faults and returned home.
The other story ''Ka Jingbha ia ki Briew Baroh" (Goodness to all
Men) exemplifies the moral value of goodness through Mietshai the only son
of Kong Jeni. The story with its pronounced Christian element will be
considered under the category of religious values. However in the moral
context, Mietshai's exemplary goodness is seen in his sympathy to the poor
family of Kong Sian inspite of the mother's snobbish attitude. In this the
episode explicates the value and truth of human goodness in its intrinsic
worth.
The theme of human goodness is treated by Wan Kharkrang in the
context of wrongs being inflicted on an innocent person. The story "UBlei u
lohi ia kiei kiei Baroh" (God Sees Everything) presents God's justice in the
affairs of men. In the course of the narration it focuses on the moral value of
goodness. The story is about the rich house owners who deeply wronged
Bah Rank, the poor tenant. When his wife could no longer work for them,
they forcefully evicted them from their house. However, their only daughter
became seriously ill and was saved by the blood transfusion donated by Bah
Rank.
The plot arrangement presents a causal sequence linking the four parts
of the story and thus conveyed the values of justice and human goodness.
Firstly, the story reflected goodness through a comparative projection of the
characters of Bah Rank and the rich house owners referred to as 'U Pasan'
99
and 'Ka Meisan' (Uncle and Aunt). Bah Rank and his family were poor, but
people who upheld the importance of the precept "tip-briew, tip-Blei'
(know-man, know-God). The house owners were extremely rich with many
cars and houses, but who were proud, greedy and self centred. Further, the
theme of patience and goodness is meaningfully projected through the poor
family's acceptance of the cunning adjustment of the rental charges with the
wife's laborious work in their house. The second part presents the serious
illness of Bah Rank's wife due to hard work, and her discontinuation of
work. This drove home the "proud insolence" of U Pasan and Ka Meisan for
they forcefully evicted them from their rented house. The scene of the
frightened cries of his small children made the experience extremely
traumatic. Thus the values of pity and consideration and thereof in human
relationship and their lack thereof are concretely highlighted in this story.
The last section finds the house owners' only daughter in grave
illness. Unknown to the houseowners, Bah Rank's blood matches that of the
daughter's rare blood group. But on realising the fact. Bah Rank bore no
grudge but willingly offered his blood for recovery. Upon seeing him both
the house owners are conscience-striken and repented, offering any amount
for his act of saving their daughter. Thus the element of co-incidence is
suitably used to underline the value of God's justice in the life of man. As
shown, the human goodness of Bah Rank is found to have had a deep moral
impact on U Pasan and Ka Meisan. They repented not only in words but in
deeds. The last lines of the story, unfolded the memorable moment of
realisation in their life projected through the author's comment.
100
Hynrei kawei kaba phylla eh na kane ka jingkylla Jong ki, ka
long ba kynsan ka wanrah jingtngen, jingsuk bad jingkmen ia
ka mynsiemjong ka.
(Bui what is truly wonderful in their change, is that they found
contentment, peace and joy in their heart which they never
experienced before.)
The above lines project Sean O'Faolain's 'point of illumination'.
37
As
in ''Ban Aiti Namar Kiwei" (To Sacrifice for Others) the lines once again
project the author's unique insight into the human qualities of sympathy,
love and kindness. As experienced by the house owners, these brought real
peace and make life truly meaningful.
The values of sympathy and kindness have also been projected in the
Khasi world-view. Thus R. S. Berry's KiJingsneng Tymmen^^ (Teachings of
the Elders, pt.l. 54.1-4) emphasised not to "refuse help and co-operation to
those in trouble, whether they can repay your kindness or not". Bah Rank's
sympathy and consideration in the face of suffering bore example to this.
But in the altruistic context, it is the concept of not hurting what Mawrie
{The Khasi Mileu, 1981: 25) refered as a person's 'rngiew' (aura) and
emphasised by Berry. It connotes the intrinsic worth of being truly human.
Such fellow feelings are submerged by greed and material values. These
facts are demonstrated by the greed of Kharkrang's house owners, whereas
in Waijri, it is the material values that are so important to Mietshai's mother.
However, the moral change in their lives highlighted man's moral self,
which the Khasis referred to as ''ka sap tip-briew tip-Blei". H. O. Mawrie
translated this as "the inherent and instinctive power of 'know|:Hhn,dittowGod' {TheEssence, 1981: 17).
\ ^ \
The story ''Map bad Kief (To Forgive and Forget) by Paul Lyngdoh
interprets the moral virtue of forgiveness in the context of an erring human
being. Kyrsanbor the central character though from a rich and well to do
family had a close friendship with Vincent, a poor friend. However,
Vincent's strong objection to Kyrsanbor's misconduct with his grandmother
so hurt his ego that they parted ways. Vincent wrote to Kyrsanbor to forgive
and forget but this took effect on Kyrsanbor only after four years. He was
then convinced of the need to forgive and forget, only to find that Vincent
had since passed away.
The author's creative efforts showed carefiil plotting of the materials
for conveying the value of forgiveness. The special technique used is in
starting at the end stage of the story. The story started with the scene of
emotional and mental conflict in Kyrsanbor as he recalled memories of
Vincent. The plot then moves backward unfolding details of friendship. This
highlights man's weakness when such relationship is blinded by ego as
illustrated in Kyrsanbor's anger. Further, Kyrsanbor's reaction: "When he
saw Vincent's name (on the letter), his heart bums, heats and flares up"
(Lyngdoh, p. 3) to Vincent's appeal to forgive and forget reflected human
weakness. Considered in the context of the theme, these are extremely useful
as these are insights into the value of forgiveness in the context of an erring
human.
102
While Kyrsanbor presents the erring human, the character of Vincent
exemplifies the divine quality of forgiveness. Yet while being firm in his
moral stand at his friend's misconduct, he could not bear the continued rift
with Kyrsanbor. His letter addressing "dear Kyrsanbor" reflected the
magnimity of his love and concern for his friend. As the story progresses, it
moves full circle, bringing us back to the moral conflict in Kyrsanbor. What
is significant in the story is that Vincent's forgiving example is not in vain.
Of significance also is the author's projection of Kyrsanbor's response to the
urgings of consciense. It shows that in spite of man's weaknesses, one can
be redeemed if reason and conscience prevail for this leads to self
realization:
Em, u ong halade, ngam dei ban buhnud sah ia kaba la dep.
Nga dei banjubab ia ka shithi u Vincent wat la ka long hadien
39
saw snem.
(No, he told himself, I must not bear grudge. I must reply
Vincent's letter even if it is after four years)
The above expression marked an important change in Kyrsanbor's
life. Such moments of moral choice in the life of man has been emphasized
by Soren Kierkegaard. As explained by George L. Stack, Kierkegaard
viewed these moments as follows:
There is for each individual a significant moment that although
it is transitory, is the "right time" (Kaires) for the
transformation of the self through choice.'**^
103
The last part of the story, which unfolded the news of Vincent's death,
clinches the message of forgiveness. As erring humans one needs to 'forgive
and forget'.
4.3.13 Moral Values and man's baser nature
In addition to the projection of moral qualities, the depiction of man's
baser aspects reflect the authors' realistic approach to moral qualities in the
complex human situation. As discussed in Chapter II, human nature is beset
by human weaknesses like greed and pride. The view of Thomas Hoppes of
man as selfish, proud and greedy is well known. These weaknesses lead to
envy and hostility depriving man of his peace of mind. But these negative
aspects are not without values from the point of view of human values. Thus
while philosophers like Paul Roubiczek (1969: 224) highlighted the values
of the negative, literary critics like Abcarian et al (1990: 1220) are of the
view that the loathsome and the depraved directs attention to the ideals that
man aspires. In the words of Wilfred Stone et al the portrayal of the
depersonalised culture in the modem short stories for all its 'its antitraditional tendencies' conveys "an implicit wish that things are not this
way" (Stone et al, 1976:22).
The aspects dealt are envy and jealousy in the works of S. J. Duncan
and Hughlet Warjri, human greed and self-centredness in those of Wan
Kharkrang. Paul Lyngdoh projects the proud, the self-willed as well as
human weakness of getting embroiled in social evils. The portrayal of the
104
baser traits in all their loathsome and repugnant forms enhances the meaning
of the corresponding positive values.
In S. J. Duncan, the story "Wat Ai Nishan ia Kiwef (Do not Disgrace
Others) ranks as one's of the author's most insightful psychological study of
man's baser nature. It presents an episode in which Worsing who was
envious of his friend Ringson, slanderously alleged Berina, Ringson's
daughter, of being drunk. This was on the flimsy ground of hearing a
drunken woman responding 'We' instead of 'Be' which he thought stood for
'Berina'. Elated at the chance of taking revenge, he ran to Ringson's house
only to be chased by the police. Filled with fright, he stood before Ringson's
door, opened by no other than Berina. The experience so shocked him that
he realised the evilness of his envious atttitude.
As the analysis reflected, the moral points projected are the author's
insights into the peculiar characteristics of a mind obsessed with envy and
jealousy. On hearing a drunken voice familiar to that of Ringson's daughter,
Worsing's imagination was set on fire. It casted aspersions on the innocent
Berina whom he saw standing near the picnic bus but "Now lying drunk here
in Ward's Lake". Using the dramatic touch, the author's searchlight focuses
on envy as the force driving men into ugly acts of vengeance as shown
below:
"Kaba bha eh ", Upyrkhat ka long ban shu leit noh bran bran
sha ing u Ringson, ban pyniathuh lem ba ka Berina, tip ba ka
lei, ka don hangne ha Nan Palok . Yn nai da bun ktien eh, yn
105
nai da ong ba ka la buiad, hynrei ban shu ong ba ka la kren
kumba thlun.
(The best thing, he thought, is to go straight to Ringson's house,
to inform that Berina was in Ward's Lake. There is no need to
say much, no need to say that she is drunk, but simply say that
she is stammering in her speech.)
In addition to these projections, the author's imaginative rendition of
the hatred and hostility highlights envy in all its perverse form as it savoured
vengeance:
"Kumto keinl" u la nang kyrkok hapoh mynsiem, "ba u la
lehmynleh riewbha riewhok than eh ia lade, uto u
Ringson!...Mynta te un sa peitmat arta ha kane ka khun buaid.
Un sa shu par syndon bad kti bad kjat kum u sew dem tdong "f^
(IServe him right!" he excults in his heart, "he who considers
himself as good and righteous, that Ringson!... Now he will be
taught a lesson by his drunken daughter. He will crawl on hands
and feet like a dog with his tail between his legs.)
Of special note is the intense grip of jealousy on Worsing's envious
mind. This is reflected when his thoughts merged with memories of the past,
unfolding deep-seated resentment against Ringson. With this the author
presents one of the most interesting character study. Its success is in the
exceptional insight into the psychological danger of envy on the human
mind which literature alone can articulate. Thus admitting the superiority of
literature to philosophy, Nicolai Hartmann, a leading philosopher refers to
106
"the hand of the master who unobstrusively brings the significant into the
foreground so that it becomes evident to the eyes of the common man."'43
As the story progresses, it unfolds Worsing's memories of defeat and
humiliation at the hands of Ringson. These are Worsing's kite being cut by
Ringson; Worsing being scolded for stoning helpless dogs and lizards;
Ringson's brilliant results in all examinations or the early official promotion
in his job. As explained by Worsing these were nothing for he could have
easily achieved had he also tried. The impression conveyed is that of an
intensely insecure person with deep feelings of inferiority bending his
frustration on Ringson, his friend. It revealed a degraded human condition
which Karen Homey describes as the "destructive attitudes of pride, conceit
and vindictiveness" (Titus and Keeton: 38) detrimental to the expression of
man's essential reality.
The remaining part of the story is of special importance as it reflects
the author's sympathetic attitude to man's weakness. This is conveyed
through Worsing's shocked reaction of a simple "O...!!!" at the sight of
Berina opening the door (whom he thought was lying drunk at Ward's
Lake). It reveals Worsing as nothing but a pitiful human being in his
unguarded moment. With this the author effortlessly guided the story into
what James Joyce as the "moment of ephiphany" (Stone et al, 1976: 9).
Alone with his thoughts, Worsing faced himself In quick sucessions, he
recalled his disgracefiil allegations. Self-realisation is clear as he bitterly
condemned himself:
107
"Shi me !' ka jingiatip lem jong u ka kynteit noh ia u, "Me
pyrkhat tang ia la ka met. Wat ai nishan ia kiwei".
("Serve you right!" his conscience scolded him, "You always
think only of yourself. Do not falsely slander others.^
The above incident illustrates Paul Tillich's reference to 'the inner
voice' (Titus and Keeton: 36) calling man back to himself. Further the inner
processes taking place in Worsing, illustrates Macmurray's 'emotional
knowledge' (1972: 43) and Mackenzie's 'rational choice' (1929: 102)
referred to in Chapter IL These enabled him to discern the meaning and
reality of moral values in contrast to envy and hostility. From the Khasi
viewpoint, it fits the moral perception of'Heng rangbah u briew joit" (man
asserting his human self). The impression of Worsing conveyed by the
author is not of a totally evil character, but one who deserves understanding
and pity.
The end of the story which leads to Worsing's traumatic experience at
the hands of the police is perhaps the author's way of showing that such
testing happenings are a blessing to man. These cleansed him of his deepseated hatred and jealousy. Thus the story is an exposition of the values of
love, kindness and tolerance to all men. But at the same time, the theme of
repentance and self-realisation is fully explained. These can restore back
man's humanity and his basic human values.
Hughlet Warjri projects similar insights into the nature of envy but on
a simpler level. His story ''Ka Step kaba Dum" (A Dark Morning) explicates
108
envy through the character of the jealous mother-in-law. Monlang, the
daughter-in-law, with four children was a sickly person but was fortunate to
have a sincere, honest maidservant in Kyndong. But this aroused envy in the
heart of the mother-in-law. She
got rid of her by accusing her falsely of
theft. With no servant to help, the ill Monlang attended to her household
work, only to collapse to her death.
The plot of the story, which follows the simple pattern of beginning,
middle and end is skilfully structured to convey the theme of envy. The first
part, which unfolded the details of the sick Monlang with four children
drove home the values personified by Kyndong "who is active, clean and
sincere". Through this projection, the author conveys the power of envy. It
blinded the mother-in-law to the good qualities of the servant. As in
Duncan's story above, it eats into her thoughts and feelings, so that as days
went by, her envy became intensified. She was shown as driven into
scheming destruction. The sight of the sling bag suggesting a way out to get
rid of Kyndong.
Again the second stage compared closely with Duncan's 'Wat ai
Nishan ia KiweV' (Do not Disgrace Others). It projected envy as the driving
force prompting envious people into negative resourcefulness. This is her sly
reaction, "Shish phi ki bapli" (Oh how can the poor innocents do such a
thing) when initially the children were suspected of stealing the mother's
money. It is also the clever hinting at Kyndong through the carefully
guarded reply of "P/?m ong shuh kumno pat ka" (what else can you say).
109
when Monlang suspected Kyndong when again money was found missing.
In a suggestive, but powerful manner, envy was shown as motivating the
mother-in-law to ''trei bing bing'' (work energetically) after Kyndong left the
house. The ending part, which focused on the tragic consequences of
Monlang's death fully brought out the destructive dimension of envy. It
reminded us of the Biblical proverb: "Wrath is cruel, and anger is
outrageous; but who is able to stand before envy"."*^ The treatment of envy
by Duncan and Warjri project the nuances of the human situations and
therefore the degree of values of repentance and self realisation.
With Paul Lyngdoh, the baser nature in the form of man's pride and
selfishness in their most perverted forms. In the story ''Ah Blei!" (O God!),
these are shown as driving man to self-destruction. Kong Tibon, proud and
self-willed, paid no attention to her relatives' words and advice. She ran
away with a non-Khasi man who later left her in the lurch. Her wayward life
brought untold problems and suffering to herself and her family. In her old
age, alone and miserable, she became a pathetic figure continuously
murmuring "O God!".
The author immediately conveys the theme of human degradation
with Kong Tibon's utterance ''Ah Blei! Ka nusibjot aiu kum kane" (O God!
What an awful fate is this). Focussing his lens on Kong Tibon's closed eyes
and murmuring lips, the author vividly portrays a desparate woman
continuously in a state of mental turmoil as a result of her moral confusion.
110
As it is she was driven into the edge of insanity and murmured God's name
without realising its meaning.
As the story progresses, it strongly reflects the Khasi kinship values of
'Hip-kur, tip-kha" (know one's maternal and paternal uncle) as projected in
Chapter II. In this context, it implies respect of one's relatives' words. As it
is, Tibon's sufferings are shown as the consequences resulting from Tibon's
rejection of the age-old values and Khasi social conventions. However, the
author's depiction of Tibon's attempt to attend church, reflects the author's
sympathetic attitude towards human weakness and the author's recognition
of human conscience. In her second marriage to a heavy drunkard who died
leaving her alone, the author projects his practical philosophy of human life.
It explains man's self-destruction, which in the author's view is caused by
human weakness. The end of the story, which presents the estrangement of
Tibon from her own children illustrated the condition of human degradation
which aptly fits Paul Tillich's observation:
Unchangeable is man's freedom to contradict his own nature, to
fall away from what he essentially is and ought to be, to try to
escape from his true self into sickness in body and mind."^^
Old, lonely and miserable, Kong Tibon had no one to turn to and so
continuously called upon God's name. But as unmistakenly suggested by the
author, her tragedy is that she could not repent. She took God's name not in
the spiritual context but for the selfish ends of winning people's sympathy
for herself Such doomed human condition is not a life worthy of a human
Ill
being. In brief the powerful negative projection convinced us of the meaning
and value of humility, morality and family values of love.
4.3.14 Ethical Values
While the above three authors highlighted facets of moral values, Wan
Kharkrang interprets these values from the ethical aspect. Projected in the
social context, his stories highlight human greed and selfishness leading to
the negation of social ethics. The serious social issues are those affecting the
welfare, peace and security of the public specially the weaker sections of the
society. The stories, which are the experiences of Bah Ta En though brief are
aimed at crooked government officials, doctors and police officers whom the
author's revealed as completely unethical. The stories are written in an
ironic mode. An example, is the title of the first story "Bah Ta En Sa Lett
Suk MoF' (Bah Ta En Go in Peace). It expresses the conventional well
wishes of the Khasis on parting with relatives or friends meaning 'may all be
well with you'. Its irony is that, it was uttered by his peon friend who knew
of Bah Ta En's bitter experiences with the corrupt officials.
In the story, learning that the government was giving grants to the
farmers, Bah Ta En went to Shillong, but soon found out that he had to pay
his way at every stage. This also included providing a deer to an inspector.
In the end after all efforts, he learned that the government had withdrawn the
grant. Boarding the bus back to his village, his so called friend wished him
"Bah Ta En left suk moV (Bah Ta En Go in Peace!).
112
The special feature of the story is the use of stereo-typed characters
through whom the author projects the theme of corruption. The weak and the
innocent are represented by Bah Ta En, while the corrupt and the callous by
the government officials. The irony conveyed is in the practice of corruption
being given a respectable facade. It was referred to by Bah Ta En's peon
friend as,"bai jingbam" meaning a, 'tip'. In the corrupted language, it was
considered as ''ka akor" (good manners) to bribe those who helped a person.
To the poor man paying money each time for the needed help was so
traumatic, that on again being informed by the B. A. to pay for service
rendered, his ears experienced the painful sound expressed in Khasi as
The government officials and the educated are ethically bound to help
the weak and the ignorant, but as reflected these are the very people who
blatantly flouted the norms. Compared with the literary techniques of other
authors, the author's technique of a sarcastic and ironic style effectively
conveyed his views against human depravity. This is projected in such
instances such as 'the polite helpful gesture of the B. A. friend after being
paid twenty rupees by Bah Ta En'; it is also the 'changed countenance of a
sullen clerk which shines and softens after getting thirty rupees from Bah Ta
En'; the 'gleeftil excitement of the peon friend when Bah Ta En handed over
the money' and the 'shameless demand of the drunken inspector from the
poor man to procure a deer'.
113
The last part, which focused on the details of expenditure incurred and
the distance covered by Bah Ta En, showed the author's recognition of the
power of money to completely to corrupt values of sympathy and fellow
feelings. It thus drove home the human significance of social ethics in the
modem world of greed and selfishness.
The next story '7a/ Shah Bah Ta En" (Be Patient Bah Ta En), projects
the negation of ethics of help and duty by the government doctors, savers of
men's lives. Not able to attend to his fields due to illness. Bah Ta En went to
a government health centre for treatment. But there also he found that while
the doctor was very nice to the rich well-dressed man, he was extremely
rude to him. Bah Ta En was then hospitalised, but there also the nurse was
found to be extremely rough to poor people like him.
As in most of his stories the ethical norms of 'ought to help our fellow
beings' are effectively conveyed through the ironic mode. This is in the
subtle dig when the peon friend advised him to be patient in spite of such
apathy and double standards in government officials to the weak and the
poor. The analysis of the plot and characterisation has shown the author's
conscious efforts in conveying the values of social ethics. Firstly, the details
of the hopes and expectations of Bah Ta En from the highly qualified
doctors, overtly heightens the unethical conduct of the doctors. As the story
progresses, the impression projected is the arrogance, superficiality of the
rich and the educated. This is displayed when Bah Ta En 's turn to meet the
doctor is brushed aside by the doctor's well-dressed friend who just walked
114
in. It is heightened by the greeting exchange in Enghsh between the doctor
and his friend.
Further is the extra attention to the man's maid servant
involving thorough check up and the assurance in EngHsh "Don't worry
she'll be o.k. within two days". When he turns to Bah Ta En's case, came
the doctor's voice changed and became rude which satirically described by
the author as "the sudden change of the angel" (Kharkrang, p. 10). Before he
could explained the symptoms of his illness, he was dismissed with a
perscription of 'two teaspoonfiil, three times daily'. Thus, through
pinpointed style, the author scoringly emphasises the doctor's partial attitude
to the poor.
The other experience of the medical profession is the unsympathetic
attitude and extreme rudeness of the hospital nurse. The last lines which
express Bah Ta En's desire to go back to the village is a powerful indictment
on the lack of sympathy and ethical sense in modem society. These are still
available in the village where Bah Ta En feels at home.
The last episode "U Blei un Khykhu ia phf (God Bless You) presents
an experience with the policemen, guardians of the law. This time while
going to Shillong to buy a blanket, Bah Ta En was dragged to the city jail.
The reason was his similarity in his look to the leader of a gang. He was
rescued by the kind and sympathetic police officer who investigated the
case.
The episode articulates the misuse of power resulting in the silent
sufferings of the weak and the helpless. The particulars of severe beatings of
115
Bah Ta En vividly present how brute force can be used to silence all protest.
But of special interest in the author's value insight is unfolded through the
plot development in the next stage. This includes the policemen's report of
the case which projects scanty details such as a small sharp knife recovered
from Bah Ta En, thus exposing the mockery of the system. These
expositions convey the implicit political overtones as these effect people's
trust in government institutions.
The end part of the story reveals the author's strategy manifested in
brief but insightful details of the officer's handling of the case. He was an
honest, intelligent and highly qualified officer who passed from reputed
Police institutes. Through these, the author explicitly directs attention to the
values of proficiency and ethical sensitivity for a desirable social life. These
certainly contributed to the well-being of an individual in particular and the
society in general. But of special note, is the officer's objective approach in
finding out the real source of the trouble. It resulted in the information from
the M.L.A. that Bah Ta En was a respected elder in his village. Lastly, by
including details of the officer's readiness to apologise, the author
emphasised the significance of a humble and humane attitude in public
dealings.
The significance of the 'Bah Ta En' series is that they present a voice
of protest on behalf of the poor and the helpless. In doing so, they elucidate
the human value of social ethics in a world of indifference and lack of fellow
feelings. In addition, the stories concretely underlined the human
116
significance of political values of justice and equality in a just social order as
highlighted by Ernest Barker (1967:117,150). The analysis of the moral and
ethical values in the selected stories are further discussed below:
Firstly, the stories highlighting moral issues as characterised by a
distinct sense of timelessness. This is exemplified in Duncan's Khynraw and
U Men Mali, Warjri's Mietshai, Kharkrang's Karmel or Lyngdoh's Welsing,
the fool. These stories are essentially character studies impacting us with the
value image that they personified. The effect achieved reminded us of W.
Hudson's observation (1983:145) on the impact of the character element,
which is remembered long after the story is forgotten. In contrast to this
effect, the stories reflecting ethical values are confined to a particular time.
The stories of Wan Kharkrang distinctly relate to contempory life. These
value reflections fulfill the requirement of the objective "Whether the values
projected are universal in nature".
Secondly, there is a marked difference in the projection of the baser
characters between the older authors and the younger authors. With the older
authors the characters are found susceptible to the urges of conscience.
Duncan's Worsing or Warjri's vindictive mother-in-laws are such examples.
But with the younger authors, the characters appeared devoid of conscience.
Thus Kharkrang's characters be it the doctor or the policemen are most
loathsome, while the corrupted officials are even more hideous. In Paul
Lyngdoh, the poignant note of fatalism is characterised by Kong Tibon, or
Kong Maibon who were beyond redemption. The marked difference is on
117
account of the corrosion of human values which guided the eariier period
and the increase of greed, shallowness and selfishness due to social changes
prevalent in the latter period.
4.3.2 Social and traditional values
On the basis of the chronological sequence, the important periods
projected are the 1970s and the 1980s. The first period is clearly influenced
by traditional values. Of importance are the work values in the early period
as recorded by P. R. T. Gurdon that a Khasi clerk "is not above manual
labour"."^^ Gurdon also appreciated the cheerfiil and humorous nature of the
Khasis and their love of nature. Writing in the Shillong Centenial
publication in 1976, Duncan expressed these values of the 1960's and
1970's in his remenisces of the Shillong of his youth. The lines are
reproduced below:
In the early morning about 7-8 a.m., groups after groups of such
men and women with cheerful and laughing faces, going to
work somewhere in the town and returning later in the evening
5-6 p.m., sfill happy."^^
However, writing in the same publication but referring to 1976, B.R.
Kharlukhi"*^ noted that certain changes occurred in Khasi society due to
Christianity and education. In his words, "the educated youths are becoming
more and more adverse to manual work." In addition, "The love of nature
and the faculty to appreciate its paraphernalia is being replaced by the love
of physical beauties".
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Among the causes for this change highhghted by ''Pansard"^^ a
leading Khasi weekly, are greed and self-centredness; the influx of outside
immigrants and imitation of new ways during the 1980s. The introduction of
television created a craze for wealth and luxury leading to corruption. This
resulted in the loss of the Khasi cultural ethos or what B. R. Kharlukhi called
their 'originality'. E. W. Dkhar^' lamented the loss of these values in his
poem ''Balei! Balei! Balei\ (Why! Why! Why!). It focuses on the corrosion
of morals and the negation of family sanctity as the reason of his "why".
In addition to the nature of the age, the implication of social values as
propounded by scholarly views is also essential. As highlighted in Chapter
II, Aristotle explains different levels of social relationships for a happy
social life. These are man's relationship with his family, friends and social
associates. These evolve facets of social values, which relate to all aspects of
social relationship. However, in the context of human life, not only the
moral but also the personal and the traditional values are important in actual
living. In this connection, literary critics have directed attention to the
conflict between the social and the personal values. This arises in the form
of rigidity of the law of the land, thereby suppressing the voice of the
individual. The unique distinction of literature is that it expresses both the
manifestation and the negation of the social, political and traditional values.
The short story covered these aspects by presenting episodes of real life
situations. Dewey (1967:103) referred to the accepted moral law, which
emphasises the equation between the social and individual interests. Then
only a quality social life can be achieved in which the individual's
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tialities can blossom. Therefore a literary attempt should focus on areas
ing social, political and traditional values for a desirable human life.
il Social values - work and responsibility
In the social aspect, the authors' deep concern is with problems oi''ka
ingsahlang" (social life) of the Khasis. In this regard S. J Duncan's story
Mad ia ka Shillong'' (They Experienced Shillong) is of immense value
projecting the social changes affecting the Khasi society during the
70's. The story marked by a serious note conveys the author's anguish at
e disappearing social values through a misguided objective of education.
ncouraged by the village school teacher not to be tied to the hoe and
asket, Kyrhai and Rimai and other village children avoided all manual
/ork. Later, brother and sister moved to Shillong and got entangled in a
;riminal and immoral life. Their lives were corrupted, but remembering their
happy village life, they returned back home.
The story projects more than one value. These are values of hard work
and social morals. The first is pronouncedly presented in the impatient calls
of Kyrhai's mother asking him to dig the garden. It culminates in the
unwillingness of Kyrhai to attend to manual work. The social values of
responsibility and hard work are then highlighted by simultaneously
focusing on two life patterns. The first is the conventional life in which
young people took the hoe, the dao and the basket and proceeded to the
woods and fields to collect firewood, dig the fields or carry manure. To this
happy life is added the charm of nature with "The pure spring waters, the
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sweet air which make them healthy, free and happy". In contrast, is the
emerging pattern of a 'no work attitude' and a feeling of shame to even hold
the hoe. This resulted from Babu Rishon's encouragement to study hard in
order to be free from manual labour. Further with the teacher's derogatory
description of, "Don't you feel ashamed to go on carrying the hoe and the
worn out baskets?" (Duncan, 1970, p. 142) the charms and beauties of nature
lost their appeal. These misguided attitudes so impacted the young people
that the normal life of the village was completely disrupted.
However of special note in the loss of these values, is a deep sense of
regret as reflected in the author's repeated projections of the happy village
life. This is in the vivid description of the scenic beauty, the happy carefree
life together with the sounds of birds and the smell of rice plants. These,
direct attention to a far more serious issue associated with the loss of a
distinct way of life with its age old values. Its distinct feature is a hard
working but happy and cheerful life guided by values of ''Kamai ia ka hok^'
(earn righteousness). Thus free from the moral conflicts as unfolded in the
latter part of the life of Kyrhai and Rimai, they lead a contented life fiill of
the joy of living. This is the kind of the Khasi ideal life noted by Sujata Miri
{Khasi World View: 1988) and P.R.T. Gurdon (Rep 1990). Hence the distinct
note of melancholy expressed by the author on the decline of this distinct
feature of the Khasi society. The story also touched on the moral facet of
social values and may be considered under the heading 'social morals'.
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4.3.22. Social morals
The story portrays the corruption of social morals chiefly through
abhorrence of manual work by Kyrhai and Rimai and their craze for city life.
In fact, for many such young people, city life ended in the thieving nooks,
the dens of prostitution, the black marketing holes and the gambling houses.
For Kyrhai it was a life of theft (Duncan p. 153) described as 'shim kat kaba
ioh' (take whatever one could lay one's hands on) to survive; trading of
alcohol, gambling, frequent jail experiences and lastly burglary and even
murder. Rimai also knew all about flesh trade as she fell into the clever
ploys of Robin Das and ended living at Police Bazaar. Their young life was
thus one of fear, deception and duplicity. A friend like Deribon could
deceive for her benefit, the members of the gang worked hand in gloves with
the policemen and one always faced a threat to one's life. Thus each facet
presents a total moral degradation reducing men to an animal-like state
vividly presented by the author as follows:
Teng teng mynmied, teng teng mynsngi, ki ia leit sha ing ki
briew, ki ia swait shuwa na sha surok, bad ynda haba la long
ban rung, ki rung shapoh ing bad tang jing Jang ki la wan rah
CO
kijaitpa
kijait.
(Sometimes at night, sometimes during the day, they broke into
people's house, they spied from the roads, they entered and
within moments brought out all sorts of things.)
The description, which fully conveyed the animal-like agility,
powerfully connotes the total lack of feeling on the part of the gang. This is
complemented by the hand-picked names such as "w Miaw-wa'' (Tom cat),
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Risang (squirrel) and "(/ Shyntum'' (a reticent person). This explicitly
expresses the author's uncompromising condemnation of such anti-social
elements, devoid of human conscience.
However, the author's portrayal of Kyrhai and Rimai, projects them as
susceptible to moral conscience. In the early part of Kyrhai's life in
Shillong, he was deeply troubled and concerned at the news of his sister
going away with Deribon. Even when he became used to the life of crime,
he was disturbed by memories of the clean happy life in the village. Of
particular note, was the time when Kyrhai left out of a job by the gang.
During this phase of his life, night-time found him in 'lew Mawlong', a
notorious den of social evils, struggling with fear, loneliness and memories
of his village and its serene life. He was then possessed with intense
remorse. Tears came to his eyes as he realized how he had defiled his life.
These serve as insights into the author's faith in man's humanity of which
the author brought to their logical end. In this respect the author made use of
the element of co-incidence so that the innocent father was lodged in the
same jail with Khyhai. The sight of the weeping father prompted Kyrhai to
leave the life of crime. With Rimai, it was the feeling of shame and remorse
at the pathetic sight of her old father at her Police Bazaar residence. It
brought her to her senses. Her moral conviction prevailed and she went back
to the village. The story ended in a happy note fulfilling our emotional and
moral expectation that all is well that ends well. Kyrhai and Rimai have once
again become good persons.
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The corruption of social morals is dealt by Paul Lyngdoh in the
context of new forms of moral dangers to the Khasi society. The story
entitled ''Ka Ri ki Jingphohsniew" (The Land of Dreams) is about an episode
in which school boys stayed away from school, passing their time in viewing
immoral films. Shaibor saved enough money to borrow prohibited films.
Waiting till Mark's parents went to work, Shaibor and a group of fifteen
friends enjoyed themselves watching these films. Later Shaibor returned
home as if nothing happened.
As projected by the author, immorality has spread very widely in the
Khasi society. This is in the fact that Shaibor was from a poor family, but he
made conscious efforts to save bit by bit for the immoral purpose. The
paragraphs, which followed unfolded the act of conspiracy in which Shaibor
provided the film, Mark provided the place. Thus the school became the
centre where such vices thrived. The significance of the story is the moral
awareness of modem vices of pornography, which defile young minds.
4.3.23. Family values
Another serious issue in the depiction of social issues is the corrosion
of family values through the social problems of alcoholism and gambling.
These resulted in untold sufferings and broken homes. These stories present
a realistic picture of the silent and helpless sufferings of women, as such,
these serve as important women studies. In Duncan ''Ka Khana Krismas 11"
(A Christmas Story II), Irbon is blessed with a good husband and a son.
However, her husband died and later on so did her baby daughter. Plunged
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into grief, she fought back to survive for her son's sake. She then married
again, but her second husband proved to be a drunkard and a gambler.
Reduced to poverty and shame, she drove her husband away from the
family. Grieved with the thought of her son discontinuing his study, her
sufferings were alleviated by the voluntary help of the school children who
helped her work in the fields.
The story is an example of Duncan's study of women character
through which the author defines some of the most admirable human
qualities. This is achieved by unfolding the character of Irbon against the
testing circumstances in her family life. The immediate focus of the story
was on the first happy married life. This serves to enchance Irbon's
sufferings in the second marriage and as such emphasized her courage and
unselfish efforts. The remaining parts of the story unfold these human values
are manifested in Irbon standing out against the self-centred character of
Sorju, her husband. In this the author achieved credibility by focusing on the
details of Sorju's deceptive nature. Early on their marriage, to Irbon's
remark on his manner of digging the field, his reply is "why can't I do it? it's
just that I'm not used to it". The continuing narration, "But in his heart he
had decided that he is not one for mud digging" confirms his nature. Further
are the consistent projection be it the dwindling amount of money which
Sorju brought home or blaming his friends for his drinking bouts. These
details accentuating Irbon's moral courage and perseverance to carry on.
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As Sorju's alcoholic habits deteriorated, it threw into relief Irbon's
undaunted spirit inshouldering the duties and responsibility of a mother. This
is depicted in her thrifty ways and her resolution to work hard to feed the
children. These efforts fit the traditional image of "ka longmer (the Khasi
essence of motherhood) referred to in Chapter II. Sweetymon Rynjah
explains these values as the mother's sacred duty of "sacrifice for the
children which she had given birth".
The last encounter in which Irbon
drove away her drunkard husband in the face of starvation and deception,
showed the family values of moral strength and commitment for the survival
of her children.
However, the assesment of Irbon's moral courage is in the fact that
this does not make her bitter or hard-hearted. The weeping scene at her
son's good results projected the author's portrayal of a truly human person,
who could be moved to the depths of her being. Irbon wept unconsolably at
the prospect of Kyuin discontinuing his studies thereby reflecting the
mother's altruistic values.
Apart from these value manifestions, of interest also in the reflection
of family values, is the impact of the frequent quarrels on the child psyche.
Exposed to the ugly scenes, Kyiun, Irbon's son is shown as holding a stick
less Sorju harms his mother. In addition to this, towards the end of the story
the author took the opportunity to express his firm belief in work values. As
perceived, these should be imbibed as part of the educational values. This is
126
illustrated when the school headmaster initiated the students to help prepare
Irbon's fields for planting crops.
Hughlet Warjri's story ''Ka Bainong kaba Kham heh" (A Higher
Wage) may be regarded as another important study on women. It gives an
important glimpse to the suffering of the wife of an alcoholic husband. The
story opens with a picture of Sham as a hard working, responsible husband
and Sherri as a caring dutiful wife. Blessed with two small children there is
an atmosphere of love, warmth and security in the family. The problem
started when the husband announced his work assignment in a distant village
for 'higher wages'. There the husband got into the drinking habits. Then
came the irregular home comings and long hours of waiting on the expected
days as part of the lonely sufferings of the young wife. The last part presents
the vivid drunken condition of Sham. It is a picture of Sham's disheveled
hair, dirty crumpled clothes, too drunk to even walk. This realistically
captures the moment of shock and realization that many a wife or mother
had to encounter. In his characteristic simple but lucid style the author
expressed its impact as follows:
Ka Sherri ka tlot iar haba ka sngewthuh ia kaei kaba jia ia u
Sham. Kam shimphet, hynrei ka shong ha madan hangta hi bad
ka dem ha rmiangpalong kaba don hangta hajan.^'^
(Sherri felt drained with weakness when she realized what had
happened to Sham. She did not leave, but sat on the floor
leaning on the edge of the bed.)
127
The visual image projected in the above, mirrors the pain, which is
almost physical. But yet the small particulars "she realised what had
happened to Sham" and "She did not leave" speak volumes of the values of
patience and understanding in Sherri which the author tries to convey across
to the readers. Further, the ending lines, which projected the picture of a
future of poverty and starvation through Sherri's mental eye, explained the
values of love and responsibility for a happy family life.
Paul Lyngdoh's grappling with the corruption of family values is in
the form of family infidelity leading to alcoholism and the disintegration of
the family. The story ''Ka Khmat Baphuh Samrkhie" (A Smiling Face) starts
with the frightening young girl listening to the drunken shouts of her father.
The reason was due to the mother's illicit affair with a non-Khasi man. The
unbearable family situation was such that the young girl decided to end her
life.
Compared with the other authors, the author's craftmanship is in
making effective use of the tactile effects for conveying his concerns into the
causes of broken homes. The details are the drunken shouts of the father,
the life-like sounds of his falling and the image of his bloodstained face,
filling young Larissa with heart-stopping fear. The effect achieved was the
unbearable plight of children in broken families. Its painful poignancy is
when Larissa for all her young age philosophically asked: ''Ka pyrthei aiu
hum kane, ka kylli halade, ha kabaym donjaka ba phin im ha ka hurom had
ka jingsngew iaryngkat briew" (Lyngdoh, p. 51) (What kind of a world is
128
this, she asked herself, where you cannot live with respect and at par with
other people). This emphasizes the human significance of family values to
man.
At this point the projection of the wife's lover as 'U khyllah jait' (a
non-Khasi man) significantly suggests such immoral problems as part of the
social changes brought about by outside immigration. The other significant
issue is the author's exposition of the character of Larisa's mother as
indifferent and unfeeling to Larrisa's sufferings. Its significance is the image
of an uncaring mother, which is a recurring theme in some of the stories of
this particular author. The overall impression is that, the mother's obsession
in selfish ends - be it gambling or infidelity leads to the perversion of the
motherly altruistic values and the destruction of the family. This
interestingly compares with the motherly values personified by Duncan's
Irbon. With this the author conveys a thoughtful message on the causes
responsible for the crumbling of the family institution. A family should be
based on love and care for each other as highlighted by Erick Fromm, a
leading psychologist. The last part which presents Larissa's decision to end
her life by jumping from the fall Nohkasuna (one of the well known falls
within the city of Shillong) points to the extreme mental and emotional
conditions of children in broken homes. But the author's focus on her chance
meeting with a kind friend reafirms the importance of sympathy, kindness
and hope to human survival.
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4.3.24 Social Values through the exposition of social foibles
Some of the selected stories stress the importance of social values
through the exposition of social foibles. These are the social habits of
gossiping and carrying false rumours. As a social critic, Duncan's
observation did not miss their offensive and at times ludicrous results. The
stories are: 'Wga Kyrteng u Skei, Sa LeiT (My Name's a Deer. So What?)
and 'Thim Ngeit? IP (Don't You Believe? II). While the first exposes the
undesirable consequences which distorts human relationship, the latter
projects the foolishness of exaggerated tales which may even disturb social
life. However, in spite of the unpleasantness of the issues dealt with, the
stories display the author's graceful touches of wit and humour presented in
a smooth, effortless manner. Thus while readers gained insight into the
undesirability and backwardness of such behaviour, they are also entertained
with delighted reading. How true then is the well known comment of John
Dryden, "poesy only instructs as it delights".^^
The theme of the first story 'Wga Kyrteng u Skei, Sa LeiT (My
Name's a Deer. So What?) is 'the habit of gossiping'. Two women, Sawon
and Nguh were gossiping about a certain circus. But Sawon filled with
hostility towards Ke for her clever way of talking, diverted the talk to Ke.
The gossip was then turned to the ludicrous alphabetical names of Ke's
brothers and sisters. Afterwards, caught by the comical sense of it all, Sawon
lost her grudge and hostility against Ke. The second part of the story is also
a humorous episode about the Khasi naming ceremony in which a drunken
elder wrongly confirmed the name 'Shalaif
(Khasi dialectal expression
130
meaning 'get out') to a new bom-baby. This name was given because at the
moment of the naming ceremony, a dog came inside the house and was
shouted 'Shalaif
meaning (get out) by the paternal aunt. The drunk
confirmed that as the name of the boy.
The value conveyed by the story is in the author's interpretation of the
negative and positive aspects of gossiping. In the first place, the author
highlights its offensive nature which though appealing on the surface, its
motive is extremely unsavourly. The motive could be understood in Sawon's
persuading invitation to Nguh to come over for 'kwaV (betelnut), saying that
she has something to tell her. Of special note is the author's projection of a
sense of intimacy, which binds the gossiping-mongers together. This enables
them to freely divulge their innermost feelings of grudge, envy and hatred
towards somebody they dislike. In a life-like manner, Kong Sawon was
shown as brushing aside Nguh's interest in the circus, impatient with her
desire to attack Ke. As such the author pinpoints hatred and hostility as a
source of gossiping. At this point, we are also impressed by Sawon's
brilliant arguments as she tries to influence Nguh negatively towards Ke as
illustrated below:
Ha pyrthei, ki ong, don arjait ki briew, kiba stad bad kiba beij.
Hynrei don sa kawei pat ka j'ait, kiba stad-beij...Ngam mut ia
phi, nga mut ka Ke kein. ^
(In this world, they say, there are two types of people, the
clever and the foolish. But there is another type the cleverfoolish...."! don't mean you, I mean Ke.)
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The trend of her argument further shows her ingenuity as she
continues:
Ka pyrthei, ki ong, ka pyllun kum u sohniamtra, ym dei? Ka
tyllun ruh ha la ka jong ka lynti, ym dei?...hynrei haba sngap
pat ia ka Ke ba ka kren stad,sngew kumba dei ma ka kaba
pyntyllun ia ka pyrthei.
(The earth, they say, is round like an orange, right? it rolls on
its own path, right? but listening to Ke's clever talk, one would
think she is the one who rolls the earth.)
In this, we are reminded of the driving force of envy in Worsing in
''Wat ai Nishan ia Kiwef (Do not Disgrace Others). As the author probes
deeper, Sawon's secret feelings are brought to the fore. So, as she
recollected Ke's clever talk, she expressed the urge to physically attack Ke
till she cried like a cat. These projections convey the pettiness and inhuman
nature of gossiping, which in the author's words are "to cut Ke into pieces".
(Duncan p. 87)
The second aspect of gossiping as perceived by the author is its lighter
side. The author's presentation of this part impressed us with the maturity
and largeness of his attitude to life. This is brought about by the fact that
while the author takes cognizance of women's weakness to gossip, his
sympathetic perception is in the context of the monotony and drudgery of
their daily chores. What the author discerns is their need to exchange and air
their views on trivial day-to-day problems. Hence, the values of tolerance
and understanding are appreciated. These are of value for these smoothen
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the rough edges of life. This is humorously conveyed through Marti's
observation in the story ''Phim Ngeit? 11" (Don't You Believe? II):
Ma nga ruh, ma phi ruh, kein mo, haba iohsngew ia kaei kaei,
ngi iathuh lem, kein mo, ha ki lok kijor, kein mo, shu lah hi ban
set?''
(You or me, when we hear hearing anything, we share with
friends and with others, can one keeps it?)
The author's understanding of the lot of women is made clear in his
treatment of the character of Kong Sawon. In the author's vision, Sawon was
really harmless for all her gossiping tendency. Indeed as overtly projected,
she was a rather a pitiable person for her sense of inferiority. In attacking
Kong Ke, she reflects her own sense of insecurity as she could never match
Ke's wit and cleverness. However, that she is human, there is no doubt about
it. This was displayed in her extremely comical narration of Ke's
grandmother's rhymic lullaby to Ke's sister by the name of Esh. The
comical sense as Sawon explained was the Grandmother's inability to
correctly pronounce Esh. She pronounced it as 'E-i-f which in Khasi means
'excreta'. This so tickled Sawon and Nguh, that Sawon completely forgot
her ill feelings towards Ke. It is as if laughter purged her of all meanness.
Both were certainly in a better mood after laughing heartily. That the author
laughed together with the women is testified by the irrepressible laughter
that Sawon's narration could affect. Lastly, the author's tolerance is in
projecting Sawon not only as humourous but also as witty. This was in her
comical comment that after changing the name from Esh to Hi, the
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grandmother stopped her rhymic lulaby. The reason was that it no longer
rhymed.
The sense of humour is also conveyed in the sense of camaderie
among the gossipers as displayed in their use of nicknames. Thus Nguh who
respectfully addressed Sawon as 'Kong Sawon' (Kong is for elderly women)
at the beginning freely called her 'Kong No'. Kong Sawon with her sense of
self importance must somehow gave her own version starting it with 'no'.
The overall projection is that humour and laughter as part of gossiping is an
important social tie, which bind human relationship.
The second episode in the story, good-natured questions the validity
of the Khasi naming ceremony. Focusing on the shaken hands of the
drunken Kpa ka Duh (Duh's Father), the author humorously exposes the
ludicrous of randomly picking names during the Khasi naming practice. This
is the belief of confirming a baby's name on the basis of a liquor drop
staying at the mouth of a dried gourd when poured by the ceremony elder.
On that occasion, the drop of liquor does not stay as the hands of Kpa ka
Duh shook badly due to lack of drinks. It was only after downing liquor, that
his hands steadied and the liquor drop stayed. But alas! the name confirmed
was the most awkward name as it means 'get out'.
In 'Thim Ngeit? 11" (Don't you Believe? II), the social foible picked
by the author was the habit of carrying tales. Two women, Marti and Lohi
were in a hot discussion on Lohi being called a 'shynreh' (deer). Later,
joined by other women, their mood was further intensified. However, the
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moment the snake baby (half-human, half-snake) was mentioned, they
completly forgot their quarrel as they presented their own version of the
baby. Only Bah Melo decided to find out the truth. His search landed him in
terrible experiences. Finally, exhausted he arrived home. At night he had a
terrible dream where people spreading the rumour were severely punished
by the government.
Firstly, the dangers of carrying tales is suggestively communicated in
the angry tone of Lohi"s starting line "If a human tongue is too long, war
may start, don't you believe" (Duncan p. 176). But the women's inquisitive
nature was such that they quickly shifted their topic at the mention of a
snake baby (half-human, half snake). Next, as in the story 'Wga Kyrteng u
Skei, Sa Lei" (My Name's a Deer. So What?), the author captures the lifelike tone of intimacy and camaraderie in gossiping which most women
simply could not resist. Thus to Lohi's question, "Don't you believe?"
Marti's response "oh, why won't I believe" or to Lohi's request to explain a
protruding tongue (a Khasi expression for the act of carrying false tales),
Marti's response "Oh! That much also you don't know". In addition to this
are the author's overt suggestions on the peculiar nuances of the gossiping
language affected through small but suggestive comments. These are Marti's
explanation, "The non-tribal up there dealt in this manner" (that is cutting of
tongues for carrying tale) is followed by the author's comment, "Marti
explains knowingly". Again to Lohi's question "Does a tongue grow again
when cut?" Kong Marti's reply "perhaps they leave a little so it will grow
again" is followed by "Marti makes up an explanation". These details
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highlight the nature of gossiping and its undesirable effect. At this point, the
author focus on the increasing hot exchanges among the women leading to
Lohi's angry announcement "I'll go and cut Riti's tongue" deserves
attention. It illustrates the hostility and vengeance, which are detrimental to
social relationship.
From this point onwards the story moves quickly as the author unfolds
people's reactions to Bah Melo's search for the truth. It reflects how false
rumuors fired the imagination and curiosity of the whole community. This is
seen in the gathering of people at Laitumkhrah to discuss the snake baby; the
exploitation of the situation by some miscreants where Bah Melo was
cheated of his money. In brief the different versions based on the repeated
'hana' meaning 'they say' clearly project the offensiveness of the whole
affair. The search, which took Bah Melo to different places ending in
different hospitals, convincingly projects the preposterousness of false
rumours. In addition, the nurses' stem scolding threw into relief the value of
an objective approach in such situations to discourage gullible acceptance of
any rumours. But as in other stories, the author did not miss the comical side
associated with such nonsensical events. Bah Melo was shown as hiding in
the bushes. Then his fearful flight is humorously described as: "He zoomed
as an arrow! From Law Mali forest to the river Umkhrah, uttering a single
word would take more time" (Duncan, p. 202). This delightfully brought out
the funny side of such social foibles, the humorous bend of which the author
fully exploited.
136
Finally, the author's presentation of Bah Melo's dream is a clever
device to voice the remedial measures to rid the society of such unpleasant
habits. The government's action in punishing the culprits is the best step in
controlling and guiding people towards responsible social behaviour. The
story's resounding success is the lucid depiction of the ridiculous nature of
these habits. As such it forcefully drives home the human worth of values of
reason, discipline and prudence for social development. In this connection,
false rumours have circulated from time to time in the Khasi society
disturbing day-to-day life. This significantly brought out the author's insight
into the causes of social backwardness and therefore, the author's social
consciousness.
4.3.25 Traditional values
The value reflection of the selected stories in this area deserves
special consideration. This category presents significant insights into two
important areas of the Khasi trdition. The first relates to the Khasi worldview as reflected in the moral spiritual, social and prudential aspect of
human life. These are embodied in the moral precepts of "tip-briew, tipBlei" (know-man, know-God) and "kamai ia ka hole" (to earn righteousness).
The second is associated with the identity and survival of the Khasi society.
Hence, its human significance is apparent. In this connection, the findings of
Erich Fromm^^ point to the instinctive need for rootedness and
belongingness, which is strongly dominant in a tribal society. This gives it a
sense of security. The findings of Raj at Kanti Das projected in Chapter II,
confirmed that tribals "were in favour of continuing their tribal identity"
137
(Das, 1997: 301). Two stories from Paul Lyngdoh focus on the issue of
dangers to the Khasi identity.
In the first aspect, the distinct social and cultural characteristics in the
Khasi tribe, significantly colour and shape its value projections. But viewed
from the author's scale, these are shown in their strengths and weaknesses.
While these are illustrated in character studies, their erosion in different
walks of life are matters of serious concern for the authors.
In the traditional values, S. J. Duncan's stories are of a vey high order
for their rare insight into the intrinsic nature of these values and also their
exposure in different facets. While referring to the stories of S. J. Duncan,
R.S. Lyngdoh*'^ mentioned ''Ki Mad ia Shillong" (They Experience
Shillong), "(/ Men Mair (The Old Gardener) and ''Ka Akor kaba Tarn''
(Politeness Counts) as the best specimens of Duncan's stories. Incidentally,
these stories also present the author's unique achievement in capturing the
essence of Khasi traditional values. The first story ''Ki Mad ia ka Shillong''
(They Experience Shillong) already included in the depiction of the erosion
of social values, is significant for meaningfully projecting habits of early
rising, of active life, hard work and responsibility. These reflected the work
attitude highlighted in Berry's ''Ki Jingsneng Tymmen" pt.l. 8 & 9 (1963).
While lamenting the loss of these values due to school education, the author
describes in glowing terms values of hard work as exemplified by rural
folks.
138
The other stories ""Ka Akor kaba Tarri" (Politeness Counts) and "L/
Men Mali" (The Old Gardener) are significant for reflecting the Khasi value
perception in the social context. The first story is remarkable for explicating
the commonly quoted norm of "politeness counts" in the complex reality of
day to day life. H. O. Mawrie {The Khasi Mileu, 1981: 81) projected its two
facets expressed in the complete phrase '^ka Suit ka Akor'. While "A^a Akor"
(politeness) is based on the Khasi basic moral approach of not causing harm
or offense to a fellow being's aura, ''ka Buif as explained by Mawrie is th^
application of reason for one's development. It also directs attention to 'a
sense of decorum' in human dealings, a unique value feature of the Khasis
highlighted by Berry (1963).
The story is about Kpa u Bor's efforts to sell his jeep in which he was
duped by some wily buyers. Completely lacking in prudence, he landed in
much trouble making a fool of himself Biased by his experiences, he
insulted Horshon, a Khasi gentleman who came to buy his jeep. Fortunately,
his wife came to his rescue with her polite and tactful manner. Thus she
disposed the jeep without any difficulty.
In the story, the value of polite behaviour is lucidly presented through
a relational sequence in a three-plot structure. The first part, which narrated
the business exchanges with the three buyers, reflects two value
implications. The first is the typical Khasi polite behaviour suggestively
communicated in the first lines narration of Kpa u Bor:
139
Nga tyrwa die ia ka jeep. U wan pan uwei u dkhar. Phi uba
naei, phi uei, nga kylli, namar ha ka iadie ka iathied dei ban da
kylli kumne.
(I offered to sell the jeep. One man approached to buy. Where
are you from, who are you, for in selling and buying one should
ask like this.)
The lines above reflect positive attitude. Further, on learning that the
buyer was from Nongthymmai his reaction was, ''oh, u para marjan dukhatei^ (Oh, but he's a neighbour) expressively conveyed the sense of
intimacy and trust normally shared by neighbours.
In contrast to such polite attitude, the buyers showed themselves
greedy and callous in their dealing with Kpa u Bor. The first buyer replaced
the good tyres of the car with worn out ones, the second buyer used his jeep
as a means of transport and the last buyer insulted him by offering very low
rates. These details sharply highlighted the lack of practical sense and
prudence on the part of the owner. As such the author questions the serious
implication of the Khasi traditional behaviour in the light of greed and
selfishness displayed by the non-Khasis due to winds of change. This is
made clear by the author's humorous treatment of the character of Kpa u
Bor. Angry at being duped, Kpa u Bor held his ears, next caught hold of his
nose to remind himself to be careful. At the same time, polite as he is, he bit
his tongue to hold back rough words. The mental picture of a man holding
his ears with a protruding tongue is so ludicrously comical that the negative
implication of politeness is fully revealed. However, for all his faults,
compared to the shallow and greedy buyers, he was a loveable character.
140
In the second stage of the story, Kpa u Bor's encountered Bah
Horshon, a respectable Khasi gentleman. This part is extremely significant
from the point of view of human values. Firstly, the author's selection of a
Khasi gentleman as the fourth buyer meaningfully suggested polite
behaviour as being typical of the Khasis. Biased by his unfortunate
experiences with the greedy buyers, Kpa u Bor insulted Bah Horshon who
responded sternly to him. The author's focus on Kpa u Bor's reaction to
Horshon's words that his heart felt pierced as if with a red hot iron (Duncan,
p.59) projected the Khasis' concept of polite behaviour. The unfortunate
encounter also illustrated the human value of common sense and prudence.
Without these a person may land in undesirable situations as faced by Kpa u
Bor.
The last part of the story which presented the wife's skill and
artfulness in handhng the business is significant in articulating what Sujata
Miri noted as "the profound sense of decorum" {Khasi World View,\9%%\
11) which is part of the Khasi cultural ethos. While spreading a sense of
good will, it justifies prudence as a well-being value theorized by Godschalk
(Titus and Keeton: 1969) and Griffin (1981). But typical of the author's
humorous sense, the presentation of this part is in a most engaging and
delightfiil manner. Overwhelmed by his traumatic experience, Kpa u Bor
took the sale money from his wife. However, clumsy as he was, he had to be
reminded that in receiving anything he should take in a polite way. With this
the author again expresses his knack for 'ka biria raV (with and humour)
making us laugh while gently pinpointing the undesirable. In her brief note
141
on R. S. Berry, Bijoya Sawian sums up the Khasi social etiquette as
perscribing how "one should eat, sit, speak, attire".
The artistic
achievement of the story is in illustrating the implications of this Khasi
social tenet.
In the story ''UMen Mair (The Old Gardener), Duncan's contribution
is in discerning the wider and noble implications of 'M kni' in the matrilineal
context. In brief, it tells the personal story of U Men Mali who as the
maternal uncle, faithfully looked after the ancestral lands. However, difficult
times came and the nieces sold the lands against his advice. The
disrespectful act so deeply pained him that he went away and led a solitary
life. It is only through his relationship with the boys of his new residential
place that his story was made known.
The traditional values embodied in the maternal uncle are unfolded
mainly through the character of U Men Mali. The author achieved this by
focusing on the distinct traits of the uncle, his life style and his relationship
with the boys. The old man, short in stature, dressed in dirty oversized
clothes and with a cloth on his shoulder, stood as a peculiarly quaint
character. His habit of not looking to the right or to left gave the impression
of being absorbed with responsibilities, while his constantly moving mouth
suggests an active mind ready with opinion and advice. All these details
distintly conveyed the image of the old word Khasi 'kni'' who could no
longer find a place in his clan or society.
142
The part narrating the relation of U Men Mali to the boys unfolds his
secret story. Seen from the inquisitive eyes of the boys, the old man is seen
rising up early in the morning and attending to his garden. This is evident in
the tidy garden full of vegetables and fruits. Therefore his life illustrates a
simple hard working life of 'earning righteousness'. The relationship started
when the boys were caught stealing his fruits. Frightened by his stem
countenance, the boys soon learned of his soft and generous heart when he
gave them fruits to eat. Henceforth, sprung the ties of warm relationship and
the boys were drawn to the hut of the lonely but kind old man on many an
evening. It was on such occasions, dressed in clean clothes and to the
accompaniment of his 'duitara' (Khasi traditional harp) the old man
unfolded his tragic past:
U long u kni rangbah ha la shnong bad u la peit la sumar ia ki
bri ki khyndew kur bun bun snem.
(As the chief maternal uncle in his village, he managed and
took care of the clan lands for many many years.)
The uncle's position explained above is not difficult to understand. In
his poem ''Ka InglMei"
(Mother's house), U Soso Tham, the renown Khasi
poet wrote about the maternal uncle as the most respected authority in the
Khasi clan. The lines from the poem may be quoted:
"Xa Ri ba tip, 'U kur u Kha',
ka Ri ba don, 'u Kni u Kpa'
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The above means "the land which knows the maternal and paternal
relatives, and the land which knows who the maternal uncle is and who the
father is" the same poem also explains position of the uncle:
Kumta ka Ktien u Ni u Kong,
Hapdeng shi kur ka Ain ka long 65
The lines means "the word of the uncle among the clan is the law" But
the exquisite point in the value expression of the maternal uncle is the
intensely tragic note of u Men Mali's poignant song expressing his
commitment in original song is as follows:
Phi la hun mo, ko pyrsa, ko para,
Baphi la die la ka mynsiem?
Ka ktien jong nga, te mo, ko para, ko pyrsa.
La kum ka khyndew ba phi iuh ha pohjat,
Khubilei, khubilei, lehnohei ka long kinii...^^
(You are happy now, my kith, my kin,
That you have sold your own soul?
My word, oh my kith, oh my kin,
As dust you trampled underneath your feet.
Farewell, Farewell, my being an uncle is all futile.)
The song and specially the expression "You have sold your soul" is of
special importance in the Khasi mindset. This is because the sale of land
symbolises identity and therefore life itself In this connection, Erick Fromm
explains man's innate sense of rootedness and the instinctive sense of
identity. He explained their social significance when he projects the
question, "Is it surprising, then, to find a deep craving in man not to sever
144
the natural ties, to fight against being torn away from nature, from mother,
blood and soil" (Fromm, Value, Psychology, 1959: 154). In ''U Men Mali",
the author's value perception is the identity and survival of the Khasi people
ensured only through the maternal uncle the protector of the clan. As the
maternal uncle, u Men Mali was ftilly convinced of the soundness of the
position of 'w kni'' as handed down by the forefathers. Therefore, the act of
ignoring his advice, was an act of betrayal.
However, the analysis of his song is remarkable for the absence of
anger against his relatives. What is conveyed is a lingering sense of sadness.
This is evident in the author's information: ''Haba u wrai ia kane ka bynta,
ki ummat tylli, jrup jrup, ki jaw na ki khmat jong u " (When he sings this
part, teardrops welled from his eyes). Listening to the old man, the boys
were deeply moved by his sadness (Duncan p. 104) and so "A:/ ummat jong
ngi pat ki la kumba theh na ka ktang" (our tears coursed down as if from a
funnel)
The song lays bare the altruistic heart of u Men Mali who was moved
with love and compassion for his nephews and nieces for their action was
like selling their own soul. These human qualities are also manifested in the
touching relationship he shared with the boy narrator. He was generous and
loving, giving him money whenever he came home from his studies in
Calcutta. Yet throughout, the old man maintained his dignity and integrity
by upholding his principles and not compromising with the wrong path of
his nieces. This is of special significance for it conveys the Khasi essense of
145
moral truth or ''ka sof (Sib Charan, Rep. 1990). Thus as 'w kni\ u Men Mali
upheld the cultural ethos of the Khasi matrilineal society in which he
occupied the center stage position. His mysterious disappearance is the last
finishing touch of the author. By obliterating his physical presense from the
story, the author heightens the impact of U Men Mali's passion for the
values of 'w knf.
Writing about the literary value of the short story worthy to be read
more than once, William Paden observes as follows:
It should have relevance above and beyond the relevance of the
incidents and characters themselves.
The story of u Men Mali is intensely personal as revealed in his
personal beliefs and principles, which guided his life. Yet the issues dealt
through him are of wider and higher implications for these affect the cultural
identity of the Khasis. Therefore the story fulfils William Paden's literary
criterion of a good story.
As highlighted in Chapter II, the Khasi world view is strongly
characterized by man-God relationship conveyed in moral tenets of 'kamai
ia ka hok' (earn righteousness) and 'tip-briew, tip-BleV (Know -man, knowGod). The authors do not as such directly refer to man-God relationship, but
implicitly reflect on the values based on it. This is displayed in a number of
character projections, which closely fit these value expectations. Apart from
Duncan's hard working old gardener, there is the author's courageous Irbon,
146
Warjri's young husband and wife as good parents and his poor honest
family. This is also reflected in Kharkrang's poor tenants described as "///>briew, tip-Blei" and Lyngdoh's young children of Tibon. These are ordinary
men, women and young people and as such confirmed the moral impact of
traditional values on the Khasi psyche.
The other reflections are the concept of 'ka longmei', the Khasi
essence of motherhood in which Duncan's Irbon emerged as the traditionally
approved 'longmei' (IVIother figure). In the story ""Sian Kum ki Bsein" (Be
Clever as snakes), Hughlet Warjri projects the erosion of the KJiasi precept
of ''ka juban lak" (the worth of the spoken word) highlighted by R. T.
Rymbai (1995). Guided by this moral norm, Bah Ksan believed a beggar's
tale of woe and gave him money. Later on, he learned that the beggar was a
thief
The Khasi moral precepts also imply the ethical 'ought' and 'ought
not'. The first is reflected in the polite and considerate attitude of Duncan's
Kpa u Bor, while the dishonest ways of the greedy buyers demonstrated the
'ought not' which harm people's 'rngiew' or 'aura'. The 'ought not' is also
meaningfully presented in Duncan's 'Wat ai Nishan ia Kiwei" (Do not
Disgrace others). It is also explicit in Kharkrang 's selfish house owners and
Warjri's changed Jeni. In the latter two stories, self realization and
repentance in these characters conveyed such sense of peace and moral well
being that it explained the Khasi moral attaintment of "ieng rangbah u briew
joit, suk u Blei lyngngaf' (Rymbai 1995:75). It means God is well-pleased
147
with man's assertion of his moral will. The emphasis of all authors on these
traditional values meaningtully conveys the fact, that from the Khasi viewpoint, a 'life valuable' is a life which demonstrates the value condition of
'tip-briew, tip-Blei' and "earn righteousness". In addition to this precept,
Paul Lyngdoh's stories ''Ah Bleil " (Oh God!) and ''Ka Por San Baje" (At
Five O'clock), focused on the unfortunate and pathetic degrated
human
conditions. In the latter story, Lyngdoh referred to this condition as 'sangsot
mai Blei' (the Khasi explanation of an extremely pathetic human condition
not as per God's will). While the phrase expresses pathetic fate befallen
man, in this context, it is the result of Tibon's proud disregard of age old
norms oftip-briew,
tip-Blei "(know-man'know-God) and "tip-kur, tip-kha''
(to know one's maternal relatives and paternal relatives).^^
4.3.31 Traditional values and the authors' scale of values
An interesting point in the projection of the traditional values, is the
authors' realistic approach to certain conventions, norms and beliefs. In this
connection, our analysis of S. J. Duncan's story ''Ka Akor kaba Tarn'''
(Politeteness Counts) questions the application of good manners in the
modem society of greed and materialism. Similarly, Hughlet Warjri's ''Sian
kum ki Bsein" (Be Clever as Snakes) cautions blind faith in the light of the
increasing trends of deception and dishonesty. The authors' focus also
seriously highlights the relevance of some of the conventions, practices and
beliefs which have outlived their relevance in the changed social conditions
of the Khasi society. In this respect, Duncan's story 'Wg« Kyrteng u Skei, Sa
lei?'' (My Name's a Deer. So What?), humorously exposes the validity of
148
the Khasis naming ceremony when conducted by a drunken elder. As
depicted, it resulted in a preposterous name 'Shalaif (get out) for which the
child had to bear its ignomity for life.
In highlighting the traditional aspects, Wan Kharkrang's two stories "/
Pa i la bthah" (Father has instructed) and "//a ranap u Sohpetbneng" (On
the slopes of Mount Sohpetbneng) dealt with two serious issues affecting the
social life of the Khasis. The first story exposes the foolishness of having a
feast on death occasions. Narrated through the death episode in a poor
family, it heightens the foolishness and irrationality of the convention.
Firstly, is the loathsome drunken and selfish character of the father. In the
typical Kharkrang witty style, the father is satirically described as 'u kpa
sarong awria" (prodigal father) in contrast to the biblical 'prodical son'.*'^
After deserting the poor family to their fate, in his old age he returned home
and died with them. Hence the conventional feast for friends coming to
sympathise with the father's death. The expenditure shown through the sons'
friends who knew of their poor condition, enhances the undesirable nature of
such practice. Lastly, in an ironic dig, the author drives home the foohshness
of superstition when the sons explained the feast as their father's wish.
Further also the money spent was a debt to be cleared by selling their fields.
As such all the details underlined the need to apply reason and good sense
where such foolish conventions are concerned.
The author's critical observation fiirther drew attention to the beliefs
in taboos such as he power of evil spell in "//a ranab u Lum Sohbetbneng"
149
(On the slopes of Mount Sohpetbneng). The author's selection of the literate
class such as the government officer shows the extent to such social aversion
still influences Khasi society. A government officer suffered from a swollen
body. Though advised by the doctors to eat vitamins, he was more
convinced by the neighbour's explanation of an evil spell and the need to
visit a ritual performer to rid him of the problem. The officer and the
performer went to Mount Sotpetbneng but returned back fiilly drunk singing
a popular war song.
Written in a humorous but satiric mode, the author meaningfiilly
exposes the foolishness of superstitious belief. In his exposition, the author
once again proved the uncanny skill of his suggestive power through small
but meaning-packed details. These are his satiric reference to the officer as
'M sukmia\ It projects a fat swollen condition fi-om heavy drinking, thus
implying an insensitive nature. This detail effectively tied up with the
picture of a drunken officer returning back from the hill.
The exposition of the superstitious beliefs is also made through a brief
but remarkably suggestive portrait of the ritual performer. Firstly, it is the
ludicrous explanation of displeasing Lukhimai, the temparamental goddess
as the cause of the officer's illness. Hence the need to appease her by
performing rituals on top of Mount Sohpetbneng with a white cock and Smit
liquor as needed items. But these were enjoyed by both persons. This is an
act of sacrilege as according to the Khasis legend (Mawrie, The Essence,
1981) Mount Sohpetbneng is a place of sanctity where in olden times people
150
exchanged visits to God's dwelling place. Thus the author attacked the
deception of the self appointed performers who exploited the superstitious
people. Therefore the brief story again brought out the values of reason,
prudence and objective approach as desirable social values.
The last part presented a life-like comical picture of the drunken
officer and the old man stamping down the hill like soldiers, and singing the
popular war song, 'Bridge on the River Kwai'. The usage suggested is so
ridiculously funny that we could not but laughed in spite of the oddity of it
all. The message is the value of a humourous attitude in the face of the
incongruous and the undesirable with which we have to live with. In the
context of the story the ludicrous sight of the tipsy officer relieved the tiring
driver after the long boring wait.
Among the serious social issues raised, is Paul Lyndoh's critical
opinion of the social taboo of 'U Thlen'
a kind of evil spirit worship. The
belief holds promise of wealth and prosperity for those who met the Thlen's
demand for human blood. Therefore, the worship involves killing of human
beings. Because of its association with wealth, the rich often times, became
the victims of baseless allegations and are also looked upon as social
outcasts. They may even become the victims of mob fury as they may be
accused as culprits of unaccounted death. In projecting the stigma of social
taboo, the author appropriately selected an episode in which a small family
becomes the target. Kong Esi, a well-to-do widow with a small daughter was
accused of Thlen worshipping. One evening, Esi's daughter and the
151
neighbour's daughter, both went inside Kong Esi's house after playing
together for a while. Unfortunately, the little girl fell down and bled
profusely and when she did not return home immediately, the parents and
neighbours went to Kong Esi's house. With their biased attitude, the sight of
the bleeding girl fired their wrath and anger to acts of violence and
vandalisation. It was only the headman's intervention that saved the family.
But Kong Esi never recovered from this incident and died an untimely death,
leaving her daughter to fence for herself.
Firstly, the taboo is unraveled by suggesting doubt on a small family
like Kong Esi as Thlen's worshipper as it involves killing of people. Then
we are told, ''Hynrei don tang kawei kaba pyndiaw ia ka Wanda: kam don
wat tang iwei ruh I paralok. Kam sngewthuh balef (But there is only one
thing, which troubles Wanda: she did not have even one single friend. She
did not understand why) (Lyngdoh, p. 67). This highlights the mental and
emotional trauma suffered by the innocent girl through the biased attitude of
society. Further the focus on "the stamping feet of the searchers appeared so
loud that the house seemed about to collapse", the angry threats, the angry
shouts of "Come here you Thlen keeper" or "phiaw the sound of broken
glass" vividly conveys the terrifying blind anger of the crowd.
The plot and characters of the story revealed the author's strategy in
unfolding the situational circumstances leading to the night of terror. The
strategy is in using Milsy's parents, her brother, Kong Phlo as typed
characters representing the leaders of the mob. Through them he portrayed
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terrible reality still prevailing in Khasi society. A technique in plot
organisation, is the focus on the impact of the traditional belief at the
beginning of the story. This is the picture of the seriously sick mother. Her
sickness as subtly suggested has more to do with her broken spirit as
reflected in her refusal to eat.
To sum up, the story is significant for questioning of the unfounded
traditional beliefs. While it criticizes the biased attitude towards the rich, it
calls for serious soul-searching on the part of the Khasi society. It points to
social values of reason and objectivity and fellow feelings in social
relationship for well-being. A small tribal society as that of the Khasis
needs to foster these values if it is to survive. Lastly, the fact that such
terrible incidents still took place in recent past as reported in the local
paper, established beyond doubt the author's sense of social responsibility.
4.3.3 Political Values
The stories in this value category are different from those of other
stories. Their human value is one that deals with the life and survival of the
Khasis as a distinct tribe. The political aspect of such issues is discussed in
Rajat Kanti Das' tribal studies (1997). It highlights the importance of
survival strategies and territorial rights to the tribal community. As
mentioned earlier, the poems of Soso Tham and H. Elias express grave
concern on the loss of moral, social and cultural ethos as part of the Khasi
identity and survival. In this respect, S.J. Duncan's story ''UMen Mair (The
Old Gardener) also sensitizes the Khasis to the loss of their rich cultural
153
heritage personified by 'w kni' (the maternal uncle). This is a unique feature
of the matrilineal character of the Khasi society.
In this connection, the younger author, Paul Lyngdoh has displayed
considerable insight into other aspects of the identity and survival of the
Khasis. In his stories "17 Nongialam" (The Leader) and "Kito ki Sngi"
(Those were the Days), he highlights the danger of outside influx through
immigration endangering the Khasi territorial rights. In this connection,
Raj at Kanti Das has drawn attention to the tribals' "loss of land to the more
resourceful non-tribals" (1997:297). Paul Lyngdoh highlighted the similar
danger leading to the marginalisation of the Khasis within their own land.
The story ''U Nongialam" (The Leader) is about a Khasi village with a
simple uneventful life. But changes took place with the increasing number in
the non-tribal population. The villagers tolerated this until Binod a non-khasi
man, forcefully grabbed a prime plot of land. Rallying behind Donborlang,
the educated village youth, the villagers tried to recover the land. However,
Donborlang succumbed to Binod's offer of money. Thus the villagers lost
their land.
The story unfolds the gradual loss of Khasi lands to outside
immigrants putting their future in grave danger. The reasons are due to the
simple and complacent nature of the Khasis, their lack of vision and patriotic
feelings which contrasted with the cunning resourcefulness of ' U Mynder'
(the outsider). These facts are conveyed firstly by introducing Donborlang,
the village youngman as educated and working in a government job. Thus
154
the villagers' admired him as the natural leader. But they did nothing, so the
outsider settled comfortably.
The next part of the story presents the unscrupolous occupation of the
prime plot of land by Binod, the non-Khasi emigrant. His soft and kind
behaviour at the beginning exposes his deceptively cunning ploys. The
daring act immediately drew strong protests from the villagers. This
illustrates the need for organized political efforts to fight against such
menace. At this stage, the blow-hot, blow-cold tactics of Binod who
threatened to go to court or to inform the police about the incident, and who
later cajoled Donborlang, clearly brought out his cunning resourcefulness.
The end of the story revealed Donborlang as succumbing to the tactics of
Binod. In the character projections of Donborlang and Binod, the author
justifies the human significance of political awareness and patriotic feelings
in a changing social order if the Khasis are to survive. Further, the
exposition of the complacent attitude of the Khasis confirmed the prudential
values of practical-mindedness, unity and alertness for survival. Lastly, in
Donborland, the author emphasised the values of leadership. These are
clarity of vision, courage and freedom from self-interested, which are found
lacking in the Khasi society.
The next story ''Kito ki Sngi" (Those were the Days) is a sequence to
the story "f/ Nongialam" (The Leader). It narrates a regrettable situation
resulting from the increasing dominion of non-Khasis in Khasi land. The
passive and nonchalant attitude of the Khasis in not checking such
155
undesirable development is again emphasised. Added to this was their
indulgence in the evils of gambling as an easy way out. Presented through
Andrew, a foreign visitor who was bom and brought up in Shillong, the
author adds a lyrical note to his observation of the ugly and pathetic picture
of the moral degradation in Khasi society. In fact, Andrew serves as the
eyes of the author who is deeply concerned with the fate of his community.
The story also focusses on the theme of identity and survival
elucidated through changing pictures of different parts of Shillong. Firstly,
using imaginative treatment, the author visualized a picture of the charm and
beauty of Shillong seen from Andrew's boyhood memories. Against such
projections was the sight of Nongpoh, a roadside station on the way from
Guwahati to Shillong, which was full of non-Khasis. The small detail of an
old woman selling banana symbolically suggested the absence of moral and
emotional strength to contain such unchecked invasion. This so sharply
contrasted with the confident, warmth and laughing nature of the Khasis
familiar to Andrew, that it caused much pain and sadness to him.
But the actual picture is unfolded through Andew's visits to Tewduh'
the famous Khasi market in Shillong city. In this context, the author's
references to the increase number of non-Khasis manning the shops
projected the monopoly of the Khasis by the dominant non-tribals, a fact
also noted by Kanti Das in his tribal studies. This was emphasised by
signboards of 'Bara Bazaar, Shillong' on the shops. Though ignored by the
people, it tragically confirmed the hard hitting fact that 'lewduh' no longer
156
belongs to the Khasis. This was pathetically supported by the sight of young
girls and women selling their goods on the market lanes, while the outsiders
were comfortably accommodated inside the shops. The Khasi rice shops
wore a deserted look with few visitors. It indicated the loss of livelihood
resulting in increasing social evils of gambling. A focus on the slates
hanging in the shop, which announce the gambling 'teer' results certified to
this grim fact. Thus the outside influx not only affects the economic
prospects but also corroded the moral values of the Khasi community.
But against this bleak picture, were the picture of beauty spots, which
still retain the charm and pristine beauty of Shillong. Further the emphasis
on the confident, friendly and laughing nature of the Khasis also noted by
scholars like P. R. T. Gurdon (Rep. 1990) and Sujata Miri (1981) presents
the author's vision of hope. These have a sustaining power and silently urge
upon the Khasis to uphold and fight for their survival and identity. The
issues dealt with in the stories are burning social issues, which concern every
Khasi. Therefore the story achieved to rekindle patriotic feelings and
sensitise political awareness amongst Khasis for their survival.
4.3.4 Other Human Values
The stories also established their literary capacity in projecting diverse
human values evolving from diverse human attitudes and varied human
situations. These range from the personal, the religious, the humorous and
witty, the prudential, the strange and uncommon. We may consider them in
the light of stories manifesting these values.
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4.3.5 Personal Values
Among the projection of human values, the personal values, which
affect the happiness and conviction of an individual, are of special
importance. As projected in Chapter II, this aspect has been highlighted by
humanists like Abraham Maslow and Erick Fromm (1959). These include
individual traits such as serenity, kindness, knowledge, honesty, love,
unsefishness and goodness. Explaining different human capacities as part of
human nature Micheal Oakshott refers to human nature as:
An organisation of emotional and intellectual dispositions,
propensities, inclinations, aptitudes, tendencies, 'humors',
demeanours, proclivities.''^
In this connection, S. J. Duncan's stories ''U Khynmw" (The Youth)
and ''U Men MaW' (The Old Gardener) are in a way characterised by
personal values. These evolved from intense personal feelings and distinct
personal convictions. Similarly, Hughlet Warjri's ''Ka Jingbha ia ki Briew
Baroh'' (Goodness to all Men) and Wan Kharkrang's ''Ban Aiti na ka Bynta
Kiwer (To Sacrifice for Others) display strong personal convictions in their
character projection.
Compared to these, Paul Lyngdoh's story "ka Rong Jong ka
Jingkmen''' (The Colour of Joy) insightfully interprets the meaning of joy
from the personal viewpoint of Enfield, the main character of the story. The
episode relates to the experience of a high-ranking officer, who found his
daily office routine crippling and suffocating. This made him to rebel against
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his official obligations. On an important programme, he deliberately ignored
his duties and instead proceeded on a fishing trip. This trip rejuvenated his
dull life as he again experienced the simple joys of fishing.
The author's handling of the plot materials, again brought out his
craftsmanship in conveying his theme. This is appreciably shown in the
author's emphasis on the continuous 'khring-khring' sound of the telephone
in Enfield's house from 9 o'clock in the morning. This so disturbed his wife
that she decided not to answer the phone anymore. The situational
background meaningfully displays the busy life of an officer and thereby
underlines the curative values of peace and tranquility of nature. In the next
stage, through the use of flashback, the author captures the appeal and joys
of fishing, which Enfield experienced in his boyhood days. These were so in
tune with his innate love of nature that it became a sort of communion with
the River Umiam. This significantly revealed the author's rare insight into
man's sensibility to the joys of nature, shaping his attitude to life. Therefore,
in the expression of Enfield's resentment, the author achieves a unique
statement of personal values:
U dei u ophisar rangbah kein, bad u riew-dno-riewem, hynrei
kan pher aiu? Ban leit ophis mynstep, ka kali ka ap ha khmat
jingkhang. Lada u iaid kjat, kan shim por than bad um lah beh
shuh ba ka bun ka kam. Lada u pynkhein ia kine ki Jingkhum
teng-teng bad u iaid kjat, sa ki briew kin kren , "Wow ka
jingkhapnap ".
(He is the superior officer, and a well to do, respectable man,
but how does it matter? To go to office, a car waits at the door.
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If he goes on foot it will take time and he can't cope up with the
work. But if he goes against these impositions and sometimes
goes on foot, people will comment, "Oh what a miser".)
The above focuses on his attitude to the obligations binding on him.
These so pressurized Enfield's life that the office appeared as the
'suffocating prison'. Richard Abcarian and Marvin Klotz aptly describe such
a perplexing human situation when they referred to:
The implied struggle between people seeking a free rich
emotional life and the tj^annically ordering society that will
sacrifice their humanity to some ideal of social efficiency.
In the episode the author insightfully interprets the human value of joy
and exuberance
in Enfield's
asserting
his resistance
against
the
dehumanizing forces of work and obligations. The spontaneous feelings of
joy in his heart as that of a child the moment he stepped on the edge of
Umiam River; of how he felt rejuvenated in meeting with friends, testified
that his decision is worth his courage. Added to these joys the typical free
exchanges among fishermen show the camaderie among fishermen, which
Enfield treasured. This is when the fellow fisherman pulls his leg when he
fails to catch a fish:
Shi phi lokl Ba phin shu leit belt nabasa dohkha phim ym da
pynshitom ialade kwnne", u rkhiepashait de "To ho", u kren ia
iaid.
(l^eave it pal! Had you gone to the market, you need not put
yourself into so much trouble", he laughed heartily "Bye bye"
he called out).
160
But apart from such expressions, the deeply satisfying moment is yet
to be unfolded. Mr. Enfield suddenly noticed the movement of his reel. He
caught a small fish which would be just enough for one meal. But his joy
was complete. The author eloquently describes it by focusing on the
childlike reaction of joy (Lyngdoh, p.26) in Enfield's face: "Shdei u wait,
bad ki khmatjong u ki phyrnai da kajinghun mynsiem" (He grinned broadly
and his eyes glowed with deep joy).
The joy of such moments comes from savouring the special joys
personal to an individual person. It illustrates the moment of peaks defined
by the well-being theorist (Griffin, 1982:62) which may be experienced in
our day-to-day life. As these represent moments of happiness they make life
worthwhile and valuable. This is evident in the spirit of cheer and sense of
well-being in his planned anouncement to his wife: "see what I brought here,
if you think it's from the market then it's no" (Lyngdoh, p. 27). With this the
story comes to a close.
4.3.6 Religious Values
The nature of being human includes man's spiritual aspect. This finds
expression in the awareness of the divine as explained in Chapter II. John
Macmurray (1972: 63) is of the opinion that man's soul longs for
communion with God for spiritual peace and inner well-being. In addition to
this, human life is fraught with contradictions and negative forces referred to
by Fromm as the 'existential dichotonomies' (Fromm, 1971:41). The most
common of these are man's baser traits, his sickness and death. It is in this
161
human dilemma that Christian values such as faith and hope in God's mercy
could be understood. The spiritual values of an honest, God-fearing life,
God's eternal salvation through Jesus Christ, God's son, are important
Christian values inculcated among the Khasis by Foreign Christian
missionaries.^''
In the reflection of Christian values, significant references are found
in all selected authors. But two stories by S. J. Duncan and one story by
Hughlet Warjri may be called as Christian stories. These stories highlight
some of the Christian virtues full of joy, peace, faith, goodness and long
suffering emphasised by St. Paul. These are seen as part of the Christmas
message of hope, peace and good will to men. This is obvious from the titles
of Duncan's stories ''Ka Khana Kristmas 7" (A Christmas Story I) and ''Ka
Khana Kristmas IF (A Christmas Story II). In both stories the author
highlights the hope and joy that Christmas brings to people's lives by
dispelling their fear and doubt.
The first story is an episode of a seriously sick girl steadily worsening
everyday but who was healed on Christmas day. The story opens with a note
of joy and excitement of Christmas celebration. Against this setting, the
scene of a seriously sick Daplin together with the financial hardships of the
widowed mother heightens the atmosphere of gloom and hopelessness in the
family. These details highlighted the miraculous power of God's love and
hope through Christmas. It was expressed in the simple question of Daplin,
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"Mom, will I get well on Christmas" and the mother's faith when she
answered "Jesus loves you and will remember you during Christmas".
In addition to these values of hope and faith, the Christian values
such as the spirit of giving, of concern and of sympathy for the suffering are
also reflected in the story. These values are exemplified by Christ, God's
son, who gave his life to save men from the curse of sin. The focus of the
story on Aihun's sacrifice using her savings to buy presents for Daplin is an
important Christian virtue. It changed Daplin's home from sorrow to
happiness. Thus Daplin's announced, "I'll celebrate Christmas lying in bed".
Concerned for her friend, Aihun prayed a simple prayer of faith asking Jesus
to heal Daplin. At the end of the prayer, the sick Daplin could sit up. Then
they all sang and glorified God.
The episode narrated with a note of sincerity significantly projects the
author's conviction of these Christian values for the suffering and the
hopeless. The miracle that took place is beyond man's understanding. It
defies reason, yet it conveys God's love for mankind. These facts confirm R.
S. Donnie's observation on Christian values that for those in hardships and
temptations, "their help is by no means negligible".^^ The theme of hope
again recurs in the author's story ''Ka Khana Kristmas IF (A Christmas
Story II). As highlighted by the analysis on social problems, Irbon displays
the virtues of long suffering faces a bleak future for her family after she
drove away her drunkard husband. But amidst her fears and anxiety, the
Christmas songs brought joy and cheer and with it hope. This was when
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Kyuin's headmaster and the students offered their voluntary help in digging
her fields.
On the Christmas theme, Hughlet Waijri presents the Christmas
message from the angle of God's love and goodness to all men. It presents a
Christmas story in which Mietshai, the only son of Kong Jeni was greatly
troubled by his mother's lack of love and concern for the poor and lowly.
This is reflected in her objection to his friendship with the poor family of
Kong Sian. Convicted by the good will message of Christmas, Mietshai
invited the family to their house, much to his mother's consternation.
However, through the strength of his Christian conviction, the mother
experienced a change of heart. This brought real joy to her and Mietshai as
together with Kong Sian's family, they celebrated Christmas.
The story, though a short one, displayed the author's skill in
organising the materials to heighten the Chistian message of goodness to all
men. As in the case of Lyngdoh's ''Map bad Klet (Forgive and Forget) the
story started at the end stage of the plot. Thus we are introduced to
Mietshai's emotional and mental conflict over the mother's proud attitude.
This was intensified by the Christmas songs "There's no room in the inn". It
symbolized the lack of love in the mother's proud heart. In this connection,
Mietshai's vivid mental image of God's son lying in the lowly and dirty
stable gave insight into the spiritual truth of God's unbounded love for man.
This is highlighted when Mietshai realized that it was from the stable that
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the greatest message - 'Peace on earth, goodness to all men' came. (Warjri,
p. 41).
The story then unfolded the Christian values of goodness in Mietshai.
He befriended the poor family of Kong Sian. This was in spite of the fact
that, "because of their poverty, most neighbours who are more well to do
seldom visit their house". In fact, the life style of his mother with her fine
dresses and a life of luxury was just the opposite to that of Kong Sian's. As
highlighted she was a proud, shallow and self centred woman who "has no
time to think for others". Her confrontation with Mietshai rendered with
exquisite dramatic touches fully revealed her nature:
"Ka iing kaba ngam ju sngewtynnad ba men left"... "Ka iing
kaba leh sih, ka iing kaba bthuh, ka iing kaba iongpring baroh
shirta. Kum ka iing kum ki briew ".
("A house which I do not like you to visit"... "a dirty house,
full of dirt always. Like the house, like the people.")
With these lines the author exposes the biased attitude of the rich and
the proud towards the poor. Its moral implication is clear to Mietshai when
he reasoned:
"Lada I kong Sian I iohsngew ia kine ki ktien I mei" u pyrkhat
"hato in ong kumno?... "Kajingduk kan nym ktah ia ki, hynrei
ka jingshah kren bein bad niew bein kan kham ktah ia ka
jingsngewjong ki".
165
(If Kong Sian hears mother's words", he thought "what would
she say?"... "Poverty will not affect them so much, but
people's insults will really hurt their feelings.)
The above demonstrates Mackenzie's observation on value that 'what
is really good, is not what is desired or chosen, but an object of rational
choice' (Mackenzie, 1929:102). It is this calm reasoning free from erratic
emotions which makes his act of goodness to Kong Sian's family to be of
intrinsic worth. In spite of his mother's anger, he invited them for Christmas.
As shown, the Christmas preparations such as cakes and decorations are
only 'means values' and not 'end values'. These could not give parmanent
joy for at the sight of the poor family, Kong Jeni's happiness disappeared.
She could not hide her anger, but her son held his ground. His moving
confrontation full of genuine feelings finally touched the mother's heart. She
experienced a change in her heart and with it the meaning of real peace and
joy.
The other authors also made significant references to Christian values.
These find expressions in the use of the Bible by the thief as a symbol of a
good Christian in Hughlet Warjri '^Sian hum ki BseirC (Be Clever as
Snakes); Tibon's church atendance in Paul Lyngdoh's ''Ah Blef (Oh God)
when she realised her wrongful life; or Karmel's inability to attend church
service due to pressing work in Wan Kharkrang ''Ban Aiti Namar Kiwei"
(To Sacrifice for Others). These reflect the impact of Christianity towards an
approved human life.
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4.3.6 Well Being Values
The values in this category include the values of wit and humour,
prudence and the value possibilities as manifested in the display of the
strange and the uncommon. These are of human significance as these sustain
man in the practical realities of day to day life. Further these enrich the
quality of human life and give depth and substance to his life as a human
being.
(a) Values of wit and humour
In Chapter II, we have referred to Spilbury's observation on the
contribution of humour to "ease and sweeten social intercourse, disarms
men's fears and aggressiveness" (Spilbury, 1974: 85). Highlighting these
facts, W. H. Hudson accounts the greatness of the novel not only on the
basis of "the tragic experiences" but as explained by him, "the comedy of
life is as full of the large and parmanent human interest as the tragedy".^°
Hence its tonic effect which relieves man of the strain of everyday life. From
the Khasi view, humour in the context of 'ka Biria rai' (wit and humour)
endows humour with moral implication. Its value is in exposing the
undesirable and the unacceptable through fun and laughter.
The analysis of the humorous stories reveals that life also manifests
the incongruities and oddities as well as the man's foibles and pettiness.
These contribute to the hassles and heart-bums which robs life of its
happiness. Humour comes to rescue by relaxing tensions and show them in
light vein. From the selected stories, it is evident that the Khasi short story
167
writers are fully aware of the possibilities of humour and laughter as literary
devices in sensitizing man to human values. However, to create a humorous
effect is not a mean task. Writing in the preface of his collection of short
stories "Ki Syntiew ha Ranab" (Flowers on the slope), Wan Kharkxang,
insightftilly observed as follows:
Ban pyntlor ummat briew u khulom um da donkam ban sei bor
than, hynrei ban ktikpynsmeit ia ki thied rkhie um hap lah ban
tyrsat ne bsuh kat ka ktien kaba u ioh khar kyrkieh hynrei un
hap ban peh sani bha ia ki ktien bad kyntien khnang ba ka
'shimaw san hynriew tylli ki sim ki hap'.
(To move men to tears a writer does not need to exert his
power, but to tickle them to laughter, one has to call into his aid
all his wit and talent. A writer cannot pick up words from here,
but he has to carefully sieve his words and expression, so that
'with one stone five to six birds may fall'.^
Considering man's innate nature of being sympathetic and kind, the
trials and sufferings that he has to face, there's a great deal of truth in the
author's observation. Yet the value of wit and humour cannot be under
emphasised. For to be human, also implies the ability to be moved by the
happy and joyful side of life. In this context, the selected authors projected
two artistic visions through wit and humour. Firstly, they are fully human in
being affected by laughter. Secondly, they are fully aware that in practical
life, the petty, the incongruity, the odd and the undersirable co-exist with the
approved, the idealistic and the desirable. Humour and wit make these
unpleasant aspects tolerable.
168
Considered from the Khasi view of ''ka biria raV (wit and humour),
the authors attempt in correcting the disapproved. In S. J. Duncan and Wan
Kharkrang, the humorous stories are set to rectify social foibles and social
evils. In Hughlet Warjri and Paul Lyngdoh, the stories display a delight in
fiin and the joy of laughter. W. H. Hudson describes such effects as
'relieving us from the strains of practical life' by creating 'an effect that is
wholesome and tonic' (1983: 132).
In the first catergory, Duncan's story ''Ka Akor kaba Tani" (Politeness
Counts) exposes the foolishness of unreasonable politeness by depicting the
harassing experiences of u Kpa u Bor. The analysis of the story shows the
theme of Khasi polite behaviour with the polite address of 'Kpa u Bor' to the
first buyer. But soon the author exposes Kpa u Bor's lack of prudence, when
he was repeatedly outwitted by the greedy and unscrupulous buyers.
Realising his own foolishness, he held not only his ears, but also bit tongue
making him appears extremely fiinny. As the story progresses the
foolishness and clumsiness of Kpa u Bor drove him to the point of treading
on people's feelings. Thus he insulted Bah Horshon, a Khasi gentleman who
responded in a strongly offended note. With this the author presented
another humorous scene in the story. The comical presentation is when Kpa
u Bor ashamed of his rude words, quickly went inside the house, but as
explained by him it was not to hide because out of shame but just "to take a
drink of water" (Duncan, p. 59). The more fiinny part is the picture of his
surreptitious peeping, to see Bah Horshon checking the jeep, his eyes
becoming big when he saw Bah Horshon handed the money to his wife. But
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the last touch is when the blundering Kpa u Bor, smarting at the memory of
the raw deal from the greedy buyers, shouted "Son of a thief completely
forgetting the presense of Bah Horshon. At this his wife had to quickly
excuse his behaviour. Thus while enhancing the values of prudence and
common sense, the author invites us into the hilarious experience of flin and
laughter. With this we could fully appreciate the value of humour and its
wholesome effect in the light of the odd and the incongruous as personified
by Kpa u Bor.
The other story ""Nga Kyrteng u Skei, Sa Lei?'' (My Name's a Deer.
So What?") is a humorous treatment of the habit of gossiping, thereby
exhibits the power of humour to dispel hostility and hatred. Kong Sawon
who though at first nursed secret feelings of hatred towards Kong Ke, was
redeemed by her infectious sense of humour. This is in Sawon's humorous
narration of the grandmother's mispronouncement of the name of Ke's sister
'Esh' as 'E-i-t' which in Khasi means 'excreta'. Further in the
grandmother's rhythmic talk to the child Esh Duncan's special knack for wit
and humour is humorously presented as follows:
"Haba I iarain ia ka Esh - ha-ha-ha-i da pynshad artat halor
khohsiew, I ong, 'Ani, ka E-i-t i mei, ha-ha-ha-ka E-I-t
bhabriew, ka E-I-t iewbihjong nga, kynthun kynthun'
"}^
(When she coaxes Esh-ha-ha-ha- she dandled her on her lap,
saying 'oh, the mother's E-i-t, ha-ha-ha- the pretty E-i-t, my
sweet smelling E-i-t, kynthun, kynthun'
"
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The lines "my sweet smelling E-i-t' (excreta) dramatically rendered
our sense of wit that we could not but relish the author's cheeky sense of
humour. Indeed the humour of the scene is so dramatically vivid that it
realistically illustrates Spilbury's apt observation on its power "to disarm
'men's aggressiveness". The impression conveyed is that after their
uncontrollable laughter, Sawon was purged of all her hostility and hatred for
"tears came out for laughing too much". With these value projections,
Duncan has truly achieved the difficult task, which Wan Kharkrang
describes as "the task to tickle the sense of humour so that with one stone
five to six birds may fall". The scene made us laugh in the true mode of 'ka
biria mi'. In addition, the interesting character of Sawon in particular,
convinced us of the values of tolerance and reconciliation through cheer and
laughter.
The other story ''Bthei! Skeil" (Shoot! Deer!) achieves similar effects
by highlighting the embarrassing human foibles of bragging. It is exhibited
by Kolin the elder brother who boasted of his hunting feasts to Rolin, his
younger brother. But on their encounter with a deer, he completely lost his
nerve causing much laughter. In "Phim Ngeit? /." (Don't You Believe? I),
Bah Melo who underwent considerable hassles in the search for the snake
baby (half-human, half-snake) is also shown as most fimny and ridiculous.
But it is in the humorous and witty exchanges of uncle Lari and uncle Sami
in 'Thim Ngeit? F (Don't You Believe? I) that 'ka biria rai' (with and
humour) finds its delightfiil expression. The analysis projects the story as
sparkling with wit and humour. This is in Lari's story about a singing
171
monkey whose voice was louder than that of a man. But to Rison's question
"How does a monkey sings, uncle?" pat came the witty reply, "You think I
am a monkey to sing like one?" (Duncan, p. 125). Later to Sami's
confrontation that Lari did not even know a Huleng, Lari was not outwitted.
His witty reply was just looking at Sami's face one would know without
going to the jungle (Sami being dark in complexion). To this Sami
accounted Lari's fright during the hunting trip so that he shot at a tree trunk.
What is being reflected in the humorous and witty exchanges is the Khasi's
mode of 'ka biria bang/a' a kind of humour, which B.L.Swer explains as of
entertaining nature. While not conveying moral values, the atmostphere of
cheer and laughter is significant for conveying the well-being values. In
brief it captures the Khasi's joyful attitude to life which to quote Sujata Miri
is one 'of joyousness, of an openhearted acceptance of life which regards the
universe as basically good" (Khasi World View, 1988:10).
The analysis of Wan Kharkrang's humorous stories are similar to
those of Duncan are of social criticism in nature. As in Duncan, the story
''Ha Ranab u Lum Sohpetbneng" (On the Slopes of Mount Sohpetbneng),
Kharkrang displays 'ka biria rai' (wit and humour) which, while sending us
to laughter, affects an insight into the ludicrousness of social taboos such as
the belief in evil spell. But the resemblance ends when it comes to the mode
of expression. This is on the basis that while Duncan's stories are goodnatured with a note of tolerance, the humour in Kharkrang is satiric and even
derisive and invective.
172
The humourous story by Hughlet Warjri is ''Ka Lanot u Khynnah
Bylld" (The Fate of a Labour Boy) narrates the funny experience of the
fickle-minded Thawlad who exchanged one purchased item after another. In
the process he landed himself in much embarassment and finally becoming
poorer by forty rupees.
The humour of the story is affected through a juxtaposition of
Thawlad's fickle nature along with the confident handhng of the non-Khasi
shopkeeper and the reacfion of Thawlad's family members to his purchased
items. Firstly, it was his sweater which the seller convinced him to be of
good quality, but found to be rather coarse by his mother. Next, the replaced
item turned out to be a lady's sweater. This was again exchanged for a
trouser. This being too small in the opinion of his sisters, Thawlad sold it at
a loss of forty rupees. Of importance in the selling transaction, is the
author's appreciafive tone as reflected in details of the non-Khasi man's
business tactics. The emphasis overtly suggests the author's opinion on
means or serviceable values displayed by the non-Khasis businessmen,
which the Khasis ought to emulate. In the last part, the mother was shown as
noting the wrong size of the sock, which the exasperated Thawlad presented
to his small brother. The mother, who never missed his foolish acts, reacted
by saying nothing more but simply turning back to her work. This so
effectively expressed Thawlad's embarassment and uneasiness that it
impacted us with an incredible sense of humour and laughter. What is
appealing in the episode, is the author's puckish sense of humour in
unfolding the comical hassles faced by the labour boy. This was done with
173
such ease that the story ranks as another deHghtful sample from the selected
authors. Furthermore, the laugh is at the parody of it all which the author
expressed through the title of the story as 'ka lanot' which when translated,
means 'tragedy'.
In Paul Lyngdoh's story ''Ki Jingpyrkhat / ' (Thoughts I) Bah Dwi, the
amicable husband had the offensive habit of arriving home late. Severely
scolded by his wife, he could not but oblige his friends, for they would pick
him up in their car. On one particular occasion, on noting the late hour on his
watch, he nervously reacted with ''ade-de-de" for he knew that on arriving
home, his wife will shatter his ears with hot words. The comical side was the
projection showing Bah Dwi's state of nervousness alternating with feelings
of defiance. This time around he was determined to reply back, his reason
was genuine for he had to attend to Bah David's party for his son's good
results. But yet while planning what to say to his wife, he suddenly found
himself on the steps of his house. The picture of the extremely nervous man,
at a loss of words, but not yet determine to be cowed down, is immensely
funny. He was shown to incoherently shout at the unsuspecting wife. This
was so ludicrously comical that we could vividly imagine the comical
situation. Added to this, is the image of the wife gaping and looking dazedly
at the husband as if he had gone insane. At this, the triumphant hen-pecked
husband with chest fiill drawn as an army chief returning from war, had the
last laugh at his quarrelsome wife. What the episode presents is the
incongruous side of man which is the source of friction in family life. But
174
through the author's humorous attitude, its value could be appreciated. As
illustrated, it diffuses tempers and thus smoothens day-to-day life.
In both the stories the authors affected the comic mode by a masterly
improvisation of humorous details. What we get is 'ka biria bangja'
(entertaining humour). Yet the authors' humorous treatment of the odd and
the ludicrous is such that we are impressednot only with humour, but with
values of cheer and laughter tolerance and good will.
(b) Prudential Values
As highlighted in Chapter II, the prudential significantly contributes to
man's practical day-to-day life. Hughlet Warjri conveys this theme by
selecting the title ''Sian Kum ki Bsieri" (Be Clever as Snakes) for one of his
story. The fact that the author focuses on this aspect, reflects the balanced
and realistic approach of the author in their interpretation of human values.
In the above story the place of prudence is presented through a three-part
plot structure. The importance of prudence is heightened by the false report
of sickness and poverty of Khraw who approached Bah Ksan's family for
help. Further, is the use of a typed report explaining Khraw's plight and the
details of Khraw being a Christian and his use of the Bible, serve to
effectively highlighted the extent of deception resorted to by the anti-social
elements. The middle part convincingly communicated the feelings of pity
and kindness of Bah Ksan for Khraw which turned out to be misplaced. The
story ended with the newspaper report of Khraw to be a thief This brought
out the human significance of prudence for people to deal with the complex
175
reality of life. Further, Mardor, the youngest daughter of the family was the
only one not impressed by Khraw's story. She kept herself informed by
reading the newspapers. This made her practical and alert. Compared to her
father and other members of the family, these qualities stood her in good
stead in the light of the increasing lies and deception in modem society.
(c) The value possibilities of the Strange and the Uncommon
In addition to these value reflections, the authors have also manifested
an awareness of the value of life's possibilities. This is associated with the
appeal of the adventurous and the uncommon. This is seen in the authors'
emphasis on the element of plot thereby highlighting the value possibilities
in the human situations. In the story "Bthei! SkeiV (Shoot Deer!), while
exposing the bragging nature of Kolin, the eldest brother, Duncan
imaginatively projects the joy and thrill of hunting. This is in conveying
Rolin's sense of adventure and excitement in the deer-hunting trip. Rendered
with a realistic touch, it creates an atmosphere of adventure and suspense
allowing Rolin to have the adventurous experience of hunting. In ''Ki
Dienjat u Khla" (The Footprints of a Tiger), Warjri captures the heartstopping fear which gripped Raji during his face-to-face encounter with a
tigress in the forest.
The above two stories projected the uncommon experiences which
are valuable in themselves. These appeal to man's innate nature which
Abraham Maslow referred to as the ability "to be curious" (Maslow 1959:
131). In the episodes the authors appreciated the enriching effect of such
176
experiences on the life of man. At the end of the stories, the impression
conveyed is that after the thrills and heart-stopping encounters with wild
animals, the lives of Duncan's Colin and Raji's have been enriched. Hence
the unusual experiences are of value to them.
The analysis projected the selected stories as reflecting not only human
values of sympathy and kindness in the moral and altruistic sense, but also
the human significance of varied value implications evolving from diverse
human nature and human situations. While these illustrate different types of
values, their manifestation in facets and nuances of values conveniently fit
the multifaceted nature of human life.
4.4 Summary
The apparent meaning of the story could be easily understood, but of
significance is its underlying meaning which the author tries to convey.
Hence the purpose of textual analysis. The accepted literary aspects are
character, plot and narrative styles and techniques. However, the projection
of modes and patterns of presentation also convey significant value
implication. In addition, are the emphasis on man's inner reality and values
associated with the varieties of human life. Hence the recommendation for a
creative approach to analysis.
Therefore, the Chapter analysed the selected stories under the moral
and ethical, the social, political and the traditional, the personal and
religious, and also the well-being values without losing sight of life's
possibilities and the values of the age. Further, the cultural ethos and the
177
social changes influencing the lives of the Khasis are within the analytical
purview. The analysis while reflecting different types of human values under
different categories, are also found to significantly highlight value
implication in facets and nuances as manifested in the negative context, the
degrees existing in value expression and the relative nature of value. To this
is added the expression of the values of the age in which the authors wrote
their stories.
In summing up, it is evident that the selected short stories have
reflected on the multifaceted nature of human values to the fullest possible
extent. Viewed against the scholarly opinions, human values as evolving
from the "man's constructive possibilities" are illustrated. This is firstly in
man's nature of being kind and sympathetic which in John Macmurray's
words led to an 'emotional knowledge' of the reality of values. It also
evolves from man's reasoning, which Erich Fromm viewed as the
'instrument of truth". Displayed in different situations these revealed the
intrinsic truth and universal nature of moral and altruistic values. These are
found embodied in the traditional context as well. Furthermore, the stories
also reflected on types of values other than moral values, as evolving in
different narrated situations. To these are added the value possibilities of the
strange and the uncommon. Thus the stories reflected the multifaceted nature
of human values, thereby fiillfilling the objectives of the study.
178
End Notes
1.
Schorer, Mark. "Introduction". The Story: A Critical Anthology. By
Mark Schorer. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1967, p. 5.
2.
Guy De Maupassant as quoted in J.W. Beach. The Twentieth Century
Novel: Studies in Techniques. New Delhi, Kalyani, [Rep] 1994, p.
123.
3.
Knickerbocker, K. L. and Reninger. H. Willard Interpreting
Literature. New York, Holt and Winston. 1965, p. 17.
4.
Ibid.
5.
Mcmahan, Susan, Day and Funk, Robert. The Study of Literature.
New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 1993, p. 57.
6.
Watt, Ian. The Rise of the English Novel London, Chatto and Windus,
1967, p. 11.
7.
Sten, H. W. Na Kiwei bad Nalade bad ki Snap ka Novel. Shillong, D.
Mawroh, 1991, p. 14.
8.
Swer, B. L. ""Ka Literature: Ka Bor ha ka Imlang ka Sahlang" in Ki
SngiJongNgi. Comp. H. W. Sten. Shillong, H. W. Sten, 1994, p. 86.
9.
Scholes, Robert "The Elements of Fiction" in Elements of Literature
Eds. Robert Scholes, Nancy. R. Comley, Carl H. Klaus and Michael
Silverman. Delhi, OUP, 1991, p. 126.
10.
Waterman, Author. "The Short Story of Conrad Aiken". Short Story
Fiction. Vol. 18. 1981, p. 20.
179
11.
Gullason, Thomas. "The Creative Reader of Short Fiction" in The
World of Short Fiction. Eds. Thomas Gullason and Leonard Casper
New York, Harper and Row, 1971, pp. 6-12.
12.
Knickerbocker et al, op. cit., p. 28.
13.
Tham, Soso. "Symboh Ksiar" in Ki Sngi Barim ki Hynniew Trep.
Shillong, U Primrose Gatphoh, 1974, p. 3.
14.
Elias, H. "Ka Duitara" in Ka Pansngait-Ksiar ki Saw Atom. Shillong,
Don Bosco, [Rep] 2001, p. 50.
15.
Duncan, S. J. Phuit! ka Sabuit!: Bad Kiwei Kiwei de ki Khana.
Shillong, The Author, [Rep] 1974. (Future references will be under
Duncan).
16.
Warjri, Hughlet. Ka NongKylliang. Shillong, Mrs. Synjup Warjri,
1985. (Future references will be under Warjri).
17.
Kharkrang, Wan. Shihali ki Khana. Shillong, The Author, 1986.
(Future references will be under Kharkrang),
18.
Lyngdoh, Paul. Shithiar ki Khana. Shillong, Paul Lyngdoh Pub, 1989.
(Future references will be under Lyngdoh).
19.
Thiroux, Jacques. Ethics. Theory and Practice. California, Glencoe,
1977, pp. 3-4.
20.
Roubickez, Paul. Ethical Values in the Age of Scienc. London,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1969, p. 6.
21.
Thiroux, op. cit., p.3.
22.
Dewey, John. The Theory of Morality, New Delhi, Wiley Eastern,
1967, p. 3.
180
23.
Blum, L. A. Friendship, Altruism, and Morality Lond, Routledge &
Kegan, 1980,p. 84.
24.
Owen Rowie. ''Ka Jingsngew" in S. J. Duncan Phuit! Ka Sabuit! Bad
Kiwei Kiwei de ki Khana. Shillong, The Author, 1974.
25.
Duncan, op. cit., p.65.
26.
Ibid, p. 72.
27.
Griffin, James. Well Being. Oxford, Claredon Press, 1986, p. 23.
28.
Duncan, op. cit., p.79.
29.
Kharkrang, op. cit., p.27.
30.
Ibid., p. 29.
31.
Ibid., p. 34.
32.
Rymbai, R. T. Ban Pynieng la ka Rasong. Shillong, Mrs. Wittibon
Hynniewta, 1995, p. 75.
53.
Abcarian, Richard and Klotz, Marvin. Literature and the Human
Experience. New York, St. Martin Press, 1990, p. 4.
34.
Sib Charan Roy. Ka Niam ki Khasi: Ka Niam Tip-Blei, Tip-Brieu
Shillong, Ri Khasi Press, [Rep] 1990, p. 40.
35.
Warjri, op. cit., p.21.
36.
Kharkrang, op. cit., p.26.
37.
Stone, Wilfred, Nancy Huddleston Packer and Robert Hoopes. Eds.
The Short Story. New York, Mcgraw-Hill, 1976, p. 9.
38.
Berry, R.S. Ki Jingsneng Tymmen Shaphang ka Akor Khasi ha ki
Rukom Phawar. Pt. 1 Verses 8 & 9 Shillong, the Author [Rep], 1963.
39.
Lyngdoh, op. cit., p.3
40.
Ibid., p. 4.
181
41.
Stack, George. L. Kierkegaard's Existentialism. Alabama, Alabama
Univ. Press, 1977, p. 107.
42.
Duncan, op. cit., p. 111.
43.
Ibid., p. 112.
44.
Hartmann, Nicolai. Ethics. Vol.1. Moral Phenomena. Trans. Stanton
Coit. London, George Allen. 1967, p. 41.
45.
Duncan, op.cit., p. 121.
46.
Proverb, 27:4.
47.
Tillich, Paul. "Discussions by Paul Tillich" in The Ranges of Ethics,
by Harold H. Titus and Morris T. Keeton. Comp. New Delhi,
Affiliated East-West Press, 1966, p. 36.
48.
Gurdon, P. R.T. The Khasis, Delhi, LLP, [Rep] 1990, pp. 4-5.
49.
Duncan, S. J. "My Shillong" in Shillong Centenary. Shillong: The
Shillong Centenary Committee, 1976, p. 40.
50.
Kharlukhi, B. R. "Christianity and Social Changes in Khasi Hills" in
The
Shillong
Centenary.
Shillong,
The
Shillong
Centenary
Committee, 1976, pp. 23-26.
51.
Kharmih, Justman '"Ki Jingjia ha Shillong'\ Ka Pansara. Vol. IX.
July. 1989, pp. 2 & 23-26.
52.
Dkhar, E. W. ''Balei! Balei! Balef'l Ka Syngkhong Jingtip - 2 Sept.
1989, p. 18.
53.
Duncan, op.cit., p. 153.
54.
Rynjah, Sweetymon. Tyngkai la ki Symbai. Shillong, the Author,
1995,pp.23-25.
55.
Warjri, op. cit., p.66.
182
56.
Dryden, John as quoted in Scott-James, R. A. The Making of
Literature. London, Seeker & Warburg, [Rep], 1970, p. 41.
57.
Duncan, op. cit., p. 153.
58.
Ibid.
59.
Ibid., p. 17H.
60.
Fromm, Erick. "Value, Psychology, and Human Existence" in New
Knowledge of Human Values Ed. Abraham Maslow. New York,
Harper & Row, 1959, pp. 154-156.
61.
Lyngdoh, R. S. Ka History ka Thoh ka Tar. Bynta 11 Naduh 1888
Haduh 1970. l^'^Qd. Shillong, Miss K. M. Lyngdoh, 1993, p. 136.
62.
Duncan, op. cit., p.53.
63.
Sawian, Bijoya.Trans. "About the Author and His Work" in Ka
Jingsneng Tymmen (The Instructions of the Elders^. Shillong, Bijoya
Sawian, 1995.
64.
Duncan, op. cit, p. 104.
65.
Tham, So So. "Ka Ing I Mei" in Ki Sngi Barim u Hynniew Trep. l"'^
Shillong, Primrose Gatphoh, 1960, p.30.
66.
Ibid., p.3l.
67.
Duncan, op. cit., p. 104.
68.
Paden, William. Ed. "Introduction" in The Short Story, Shape and
Substance. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1971, p. 15.
69.
Rymbai, R. T. "Introduction" in Bijoya Sawian's translation, Ka
Jingsneng Tymmen (The Instructions of the Elders). Shillong, Bijoya
Sawian, 1995.
70.
Luke 15:11-32.
183
71.
Bars, E. Khasi-English Dictionary Shillong, Don Bosco, 1973, p.579.
72.
Costa, G. Ka Riti Ki Laiphew Syiem, Ka Bynta Ka Ba-Ar. Shillong:
Don Bosco Press, [Rep] 1999, p. 150.
73.
"Thang im ia ki Shi Kurim" UNongsain Hima. 4. Mar, 1999:1.
74.
Oakshott, Michael. On Human Conduct. Lond, Clarendon Press,
1975, p. 93.
75.
Lyngdoh, op. cit., p. 25.
76.
Abcarian et al, op. cit., 1220.
77.
Lyngdoh, op. cit., p. 26.
78.
Shullai, G. Ki Missionary ki la Wan bad ki la Leit Phai Noh, Shillong,
The Author, 1991.
79.
Donnie, R. S. Roles and Values. London, Methuen, 1971 p. 20.
80.
Warjri, op. cit., p. 41.
81.
Ibid.
82.
Hudson, W. Han. Introduction to the Study of Literature. New Delhi,
Kalyani, [Rep] 1983, p. 132.
83.
Duncan, op. cit.