societies
Article
Rural Villagers’ Quality of Life Improvement by
Economic Self-Reliance Practices and Trust in the
Philosophy of Sufficiency Economy
Piyapong Janmaimool 1, * and Chaweewan Denpaiboon 2
1
2
*
Environmental Social Sciences Program, Department of Social Sciences and Humanities,
School of Liberal Arts, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thungkru,
Bangkok 10140, Thailand
Urban Environmental Planning and Development Program, Faculty of Architecture and Planning,
Thammasat University, Rangsit Campus, Pathumthani 12121, Thailand; [email protected]
Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +66-098-989-9559
Academic Editor: Gregor Wolbring
Received: 16 June 2016; Accepted: 17 August 2016; Published: 23 August 2016
Abstract: The concept of economic self-reliance, widely known by Thai people as the philosophy of
sufficiency economy, has been widely promoted in rural Thai societies. By practicing this philosophy,
it is expected that the citizens’ quality of life and local environments could be sustainably improved.
This study aims to explore the contribution of the community practices of the sufficiency economy
philosophy to rural villagers’ quality of life improvement, and to investigate potential factors that
determine the trust of villagers in the philosophy. With the purpose to propose strategies which could
enhance trust and promote villagers’ practices of the philosophy, the study investigated influences
of three relevant factors on trust towards the philosophy. Those factors included factors related to
cognitive-based trust, factors related to emotional-based trust, and factors related to demographic
characteristics. Questionnaire surveys and in-depth interviews with community leaders and local
villagers were conducted in the Ban Jamrung community, in Thailand’s Rayong Province. The results
of the statistical analysis revealed that the residents who applied the sufficiency economy philosophy
in their daily lives experienced a relatively better quality of life. Additionally, it was found that
trust in the philosophy could be predicted more by rational factors than by emotional factors.
These findings could be utilized to develop strategies to maintain and enhance the trust of the people
in the philosophy of sufficiency economy.
Keywords: community trust; social trust; the philosophy of sufficiency economy; Local sustainability
1. Introduction
Thanks largely to the third National Economic and Social Development Plan (1972–1976),
the industrial sector in Thailand has expanded rapidly during the past four decades. For instance,
an enormous number of Thai workers from the agricultural sector have increasingly moved into
the industrial and service sectors. Farmlands and farming skills that were once passed down from
generation to generation have been abandoned. Additionally, many farmlands have been sold to
business investors and utilized for other types of economic activities. Consequently, during Thailand’s
1997 financial crisis, many workers who had migrated to the cities were suddenly left unemployed [1],
but they could not return to the agricultural sector due to the lack of farmland. At the same time,
many existing rural farmers also suffered in response to the falling prices of agricultural commodities.
The situation finally gave rise to a serious problem of poverty in Thailand. King Bhumibol Adulyadej,
with his seemingly visionary awareness of the instability of the fast-growing economy, proposed to
the people of Thailand the philosophy of a “sufficiency economy” [2]. This philosophy emphasizes
Societies 2016, 6, 26; doi:10.3390/soc6030026
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economic development based on self-reliance, moderation, and awareness of unexpected, adverse
economic events [3]. Scholars have interpreted the meaning of the “sufficiency economy” in diverse
ways. In the Thai context, it refers to a guide for making appropriate decisions on the way to live and
to produce outcomes that contribute to the country’s economic development. People’s sustainable lives
and self-made ability to cope with future adverse consequences is the main goal of this philosophy.
In addition, the possible risks that might have an adverse impact on people’s lives must be minimized
as much as possible. In short, the sufficiency economy emphasizes the idea of moderate development
based on self-potential. For instance, in the case of agricultural production, the concept proposes the
idea of limited production, so as to protect the environment and conserve scarce natural resources.
The main purpose of production should be for individual and household consumption; any excess
produced is to be sold.
To eliminate possible risks, people should avoid extreme thoughts and actions related to their
living conditions and minimize their dependence on external resources [4]. People are suggested
to have moderate desires and to avoid excessive investments that might be risky. Similar to the
philosophy of a sufficiency economy, the concept of economic self-reliance [5] and the philosophy
of life [6] also address the significance of moderate development based on self-potential. Both the
philosophy of sufficiency economy and the concept of economic self-reliance emphasize development
based on self-potential in order to avoid the risks associated with changes in the global economy.
By following the principles of a sufficiency economy, it is expected that individuals’ quality of life
will improve, and people will have sufficient ability to cope with external shocks, such as the global
financial crisis of 2007–2009.
Ban Jamrung, in Rayong’s Klaeng district, is a community that has enthusiastically embraced
a variety of activities that follow the principles of a sufficiency economy. Amidst the rapid industrial
growth that has occurred in the Rayong Province, the external resources and labor market have been
unable to exercise effective control over the production process to ensure the quality of life for the local
workforce, who have, in turn, been greatly affected by adverse health conditions. Statistics from the
local hospital, Rayong Hospital, show that the number of patients diagnosed with cancer has increased
rapidly, from 1881 cases in 2004 to 4654 cases by 2008 [7]. The lack of efficient control over industrial
emissions has resulted in the local population’s exposure to accumulated toxic substances over a long
period of time.
The sufficiency lifestyle in the Ban Jamrung community, which focuses on the use of local resources
and knowledge-based career development, is based on modest goals. Most local villagers have their
own cropping lands, approximately ten rai per household or four acres, and have applied the principles
of a sufficiency economy to their daily lives in various ways. For instance, residents have engaged in
integrated farming practices or mixed farming practices, instead of the mono-cropping agricultural
system that can lead to environmental deterioration [8–10] and adverse impacts on human health [11].
By pursuing integrated farming, even though they do not make a great profit from the sale of their
agricultural commodities, they have faced low possible risks of adverse events, such as falling prices or
plant blight epidemics. Pursuing integrated farming practices has also contributed to the preservation
of ecological systems, leading to environmental sustainability in rural villages. At the community
level, to increase the community’s self-sufficiency, residents have established a spirit of collaboration
in order to cope with the consequences of unexpected events such as natural disasters, financial crises,
crime, and environmental pollution.
To successfully implement the philosophy of sufficiency economy in the Ban Jamrung community,
the residents’ trust in the philosophy has played a significant role. Trust is defined as an individual’s
confidence, an individual’s expectation of achieving an expected outcome [12]. In other words,
trust can be defined as an individual’s confidence that the statement, message, or actions of another
individual can be relied upon [13]. In the cases of community development and the improvement
of individuals’ quality of life, the residents’ trust in the philosophy of sufficiency economy can be
considered an important mechanism to encourage people to pay attention to the development under
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the existing capacity, and enable them to cope with unpredictable situations. The idea of the people
sharing trust also generates more community learning and cooperative development in a systematic
and sustainable way [12]. Moreover, social trust has the potential to contribute to a community’s
vision sharing and collaboration in social and economic development, environmental management,
and organizational development [14]. In the Ban Jamrung community, residents have comprehensively
applied the philosophy of sufficiency economy to their living both in the community and individual
levels. Their careers and daily lifestyles have been enhanced in the spirit of moderation. In this way,
most of the villagers still have a rural lifestyle while agriculture is the main occupation.
So as to maintain the trust of the people in the philosophy of sufficiency economy and to
understand how this trust can be built, the factors that determine the people’s trust in the philosophy of
sufficiency economy are investigated in this study. The exploratory model for the investigation contains
relevant factors that can potentially contribute to trust. Those factors include rational and emotional
factors, and factors related to the residents’ demographic characteristics. In addition, the paper also
presents how the community’s practice of sufficiency economy philosophy has contributed to local
sustainability, which in turn represents improvements to the residents’ quality of life.
2. Theoretical Context
2.1. The Philosophy of Sufficiency Economy and Moderation Concepts
The philosophy of sufficiency economy, initially developed and proposed in 1997 by King
Bhumibol Adulyadej, the king of Thailand and the world’s longest reigning monarch, provides
sustainable development guidance and education on the way of sustainably living for the Thai
people [15]. Panthasein [16] states that the philosophy of sufficient economy is related to Buddhist
economics, which emphasizes moderate development based on morality and knowledge. The main
goal of this philosophy is to enable the Thai people to adapt to economic crises and to cope with
critical challenges caused by rapid changes in the global economy [15,17]. The philosophy contains
three main interconnected principles [18]. The first principle is moderation, which means having
moderate desires or fostering no insatiable needs. The second principle is reasonableness in decisions
or due consideration. Namely, by practicing at an individual level, people must have an awareness
of any future negative impacts caused by their own actions. The last principle is self-immunity or
the capability to cope with adverse consequences caused by unpredicted events. This means that any
kind of development should be carried out based on one’s own capacity, and potential risks should
be ultimately minimized. To apply these three principles in daily living, knowledge and morality is
essential. Utilization of knowledge in all parts of working processes can enhance the effectiveness
of decision making and yield impressive outcomes. At the same time, adhering to the principles of
morality, such as honesty, patience and perseverance, can enhance self-immunity, and strengthen
collaboration and mutual assistance. Similar to the philosophy of sufficiency economy, the concept
of economic self-reliance also contains the same principles [5]. Both the philosophy of sufficiency
economy and the concept of economic self-reliance emphasize individuals’ ability to fulfill their needs
by avoiding external assistance. Both also highlight people’s capacity to cope with external shocks.
Moderation is the core principle of the sufficiency economy philosophy. Similarly, the philosophy
of life, initiated by Hamka [6], also addresses several aspects of moderation, including moderation in
individuals’ intentions, mindset, needs, happiness, wealth, fame, and position [19]. Moderation in
intention refers to individuals’ good intentions of doing something. For instance, if a person’s intent
is to earn a lot of money or to receive a promotion to a higher position without considering existing
potentials, it is not considered a moderate intention, but rather an excessive one [19].
Moderation in the mind plays a significant role in developing individuals’ self-assessment and
controlling their excessive thoughts. For instance, when individuals feel proud of their success in life,
such as being promoted to a higher position, they can lose their moderate mind; this can easily lead
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them to forget their weaknesses and place them in risky situations. If someone is moderate in the
mind, he or she will be less likely to engage in risky behaviors.
The moderation of needs deals with humans’ diverse and excessive demands. When people have
excessive demands and negative thoughts, they are prone to engaging in negative behaviors, such as
corruption or going into debt. Hamka suggests that a balance between individuals’ needs and their
existing capabilities to meet those needs should always be taken into consideration.
Hamka also addressed moderation in happiness. The way to achieve happiness is to understand
what true happiness is. Happiness is not always attained by earning a lot of money or being wealthy.
Rather, real happiness comes from the inside, such as by having good friends and family, or feeling
proud when helping others.
In the case of moderation when seeking wealth, Hamka highlights that humans should not
sacrifice their dignity, nation, or religion in pursuit of wealth. Moreover, humans should strive for
moderation in their reputations and positions, because having excessive demands related to one’s
reputation and position can potentially lead to negative actions, such as deception and corruption.
Individuals should realize that permanent reputations and positions will only be acquired through
good behavior [19].
We could say that the role of moderation in the sufficiency economy philosophy is the same as it is
in other aspects of moderation in the philosophy of life, particularly, moderation in intention, the mind,
needs, and happiness. On the other hand, moderation in wealth, reputation, and position are not
a focus in the sufficiency economy philosophy. Instead, the philosophy mainly focuses on economic
dimensions and the development of strategic ways to encourage people to meet their basic needs
through their own existing potential. However, both philosophies conclude that having excessive
intentions, thoughts, and needs could lead to negative behaviors and bring about risky circumstances.
The principles of sufficiency economy philosophy can be applied in all levels, ranging from
individual to national levels [15]. By practicing this philosophy at an individual level, individuals
would be expected to achieve a sustainably comfortable life together with sufficient self-immunity
to cope with unpredicted events. Khunthongjan and Onsibutra [20] reveal that the application of
sufficiency economy principles at an individual level could increase social values such as social
trust and community relations. Chalapati [21] reveals that poverty has been reduced in Thailand by
applying the sufficiency economy philosophy in governmental policies. This means that educational
development has been enormously supported by the governments, and local development based
on a bottom-up approach has been widely implemented. Similarly, Pruetipibultham [22] states that
the success of human resource development in Thailand was contributed by governmental policies
related to the principles of sufficiency economy. Additionally, it was also found that the natural
environment in communities where residents have enthusiastically practiced the sufficiency economy
activities are in good condition [23]. This is because pesticides and chemical fertilizers are not utilized
in any agricultural activities due to the people’s concern for the environmental quality as well as the
intention to reduce production costs. By applying the philosophy to agricultural activities, a quantity
of agricultural product is not targeted for sales or industrial supplies, but for household consumption.
2.2. Practices of Sufficiency Economy in Ban Jamrung Community, Rayong Province, Thailand
Many Thais have comprehensively implemented the sufficiency economy philosophy [22,24].
The Ban Jamrung community, located in Rayong Province, is one of many communities that has
eagerly taken the principles of a sufficiency economy into consideration to enhance its development.
Previously, the villagers were engaged entirely in mono-cropping agriculture using synthetic inputs
such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Household incomes were mainly based on the sale
of agricultural commodities to the industrial sector and markets. However, during some years,
the villagers suffered as a result of falling prices, and during other years they battled plant blights,
which occur from time to time in mono cropping environments. Even worse, other years brought
natural disasters that completely destroyed their crops. As a result, their household incomes were
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unstable, and they felt insecure. The villagers decided to initiate the practices of a sufficiency economy
without any governmental support and have carried them out successfully. At the community level,
the villagers began practicing these principles by gathering and simultaneously learning to manage
their lives. They came together to pool their financial resources and establish a “Community’s Bank.”
In 1986, the community fund group was established, as well as a community shop, which is stocked
by villagers and sells daily consumption goods. Of the profits gained from the investment, 30% was
earmarked for the community’s activities. This movement corresponded with the government’s
policy to be “the center of market system learning.” The policy was aimed at encouraging residents
to learn how to manage their agricultural products. To manage the community bank as well as the
village shop, several meetings were organized and the community management system was formed.
In 1987, the community purposely established a fund for community development projects. Thus, a lot
of development activities could be effectively operated. At an individual level, the villagers also
changed the way they lived. Villagers stopped conducting a mono-agricultural system, and replaced it
with integrated farming policies in which chemical pesticides and fertilizers were not used because
of environmental concerns and the intention to reduce production costs. Though they gained less
financial profits, they were satisfied and happy with the outcomes. This is because they realized that
a plentiful environment is more valuable.
In 2006, the community received a trophy from Her Royal Highness Princess Maha Chakri
Sirindhorn in recognition of being a best practice community where the sufficiency economy
philosophy was practically applied for the development of the people’s well-being. The outcomes of the
community practices were widely recognized as an effective model for rural community development.
Thus, the community was promoted as a learning center for the practices of sufficiency economy
principles. After achieving success and public renown, the villagers continue to run their sufficiency
economy activities.
Today, the community comprises 44 working groups with members from the whole district.
A representative of each group is assigned to participate in monthly meetings in order to share and
discuss issues related to progressive outcomes as well as constraints in the development. Currently,
the issue of human resources for the future development of the community is much emphasized,
due to concerns about future development. Though realizing that community income and household
income might not be increasing as rapidly, and life might be less comfortable, villagers gain plenty of
happiness and satisfaction from the current conditions (based on the results of interviews; Chartchai,
September 2015).
2.3. Trust Concepts
The concept of trust has been applied in many research fields such as information technology
management [25], business management [25,26] as well as social sciences and humanities [27–29].
However, scholars in several fields define the concept of trust in the same way; namely, trust usually
occurs in situations where individuals or groups are in a situation of uncertainty, and share similar
risks [12,30–33]. Rousseau et al. [34] defines trust as individuals’ intention to accept vulnerability and
risks based on positive expectations of actions or behaviors of another. More simply, Rotter [13] defines
trust as an individual’s confidence that a statement, message, or actions of another individual can
be relied upon. Some other scholars also explain the meaning of trust in another way. For instance,
trust is created based on individuals’ perception of ability, loyalty, and sincerity. Abdul-Rahman and
Hailes [35] divide trust into four levels: no trust at all, no trust, trust, and more trust. At the highest
level, people who want to create trust do not have to prove any action since past outcomes clearly
show that such a person deserves trust.
Trust is an important factor that influences residents’ decision to perform sufficiency economy
activities that have the potential to bring about improvements in people’s quality of life. As stated
in many previous studies, trust in someone or something enables people to change their attitude,
behavior, and act in ways that can enable them to achieve their goals [36–38]. Moreover, the presence
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of trust can minimize contradiction and risk, and strengthen relationships between trustors and
trustees. In other words, many researchers address the fact that trust can be defined as a social
capital that can potentially contribute to cooperation between individuals [39–41]. In the field of
construction management, high-quality communication and effective performance can be achieved by
building trust [39,40].
2.4. Factors Contributing to Community Trust
Community trust is diversely affected by many factors: cognitional, relational, emotional, time,
spatial, intelligential, and experiential [38]. More simply, Lewis and Weigert [42] state that trust in daily
life is a combination of both emotionality and rationality. Similarly, McAllister [43] also categorizes
trust into two types: cognitive-based trust and affective-based trust. According to literature reviews,
factors that potentially influence trust among people in the philosophy of sufficiency economy can be
classified as follows;
Factors related to emotional-based trust: Emotional-based trust, sometimes called alternative-based
trust or relational trust, is confidence in an individual, group, or something based on emotionality
contributed by the level of empathy, care, and honesty [44]. Trust based on emotional perspective is
naturally subjective and can be solely generated based on feelings and emotions [45]. This type of
trust can be enhanced or destroyed based on the level of social interactions as well as experience [46].
As stated in previous studies, the degree of relationships among people who want to gain trust or
who want to create people’s trust in a particular manner takes a significant role [45,47]. Similarly,
Yaojun et al. [48] address the fact that people who have greater neighborly relations have a relatively
greater amount of social trust. In this study, individuals’ relationships with community leaders as
well as neighbors likely influence residents’ trust in the philosophy of sufficiency economy since both
community leaders and neighbors put a lot of effort into establishing community collaboration to
conduct sufficiency economy activities.
Factors related to cognitive-based trust: Cognitive-based trust, sometimes called system trust or
knowledge-based trust [49], is naturally created based on reasoning about knowledge and evidence.
It implies a willingness by individuals to rely on the capabilities and competence of others [50]. In the
case of building and strengthening public trust in objects and notions, such as trust in science and
technology, trust in regulation, and trust in information-sharing systems, many previous studies
revealed that factors related to cognitive-based trust were significant [30,51,52]. Those factors include
prior experience [53,54], perceived benefit from trusting and accepting a notion or system [30,51],
privacy concerns [52], and risk taking [12,51]. For instance, it was found that public perception of
the ability of the public service system to fulfill the needs of the public positively influenced public
trust [30]. In addition, the study conducted by Platt and Kardia [52] reveals that an individual’s privacy
concerns had a reverse correlation with public trust in the information-sharing system.
Factors related to demographics characteristics: Besides factors related to emotional-based and
cognitive-based trust, much of the literature also reveals factors related to demographic characteristics
possibly affecting public trust. Ben-Ner and Halldorsson [55], for instance, address the fact that the
environment in which the person lives might influence trust of people. In addition, Riedl and Javor [56]
reveal that trust of people can be explained only by biological factors such as genetics, hormones,
and characteristics of persons. A study carried out on public trust in gene technology reveals that
female respondents exhibited lower trust and perceived less benefit than male respondents [51].
3. Study Framework
The study framework was constructed in keeping with the findings from the literature review.
The study is divided into two parts. First, the study aims to explore the contribution of the community
practices of the sufficiency economy philosophy to rural villagers’ quality of life improvement.
Quality of life in this study refers to individuals’ satisfactions with their socio-economic conditions as
Societies 2016, 6, 26
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well as
satisfaction
after the
Societies
2016, 6, 26 with their living environment. The change in rural villagers’ quality of life
7 of 20
community practices of the sufficiency economy philosophy will be explored.
villagers’ the
quality
of life
afterto
theinvestigate
community determinants
practices of the sufficiency
philosophyof
will
be
Second,
study
aims
of trust ineconomy
the philosophy
sufficiency
explored.
economy. In accordance with the literature reviews, a study framework for this investigation was
Second, the study aims to investigate determinants of trust in the philosophy of sufficiency
created (see Figure 1). It presents relevant factors that potentially influence trust of people in the
economy. In accordance with the literature reviews, a study framework for this investigation was
philosophy
sufficiency
factors
arethat
divided
into three
groups:
createdof
(see
Figure 1).economy.
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relevant
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of people in the trust,
cognitive-based
trust,
and
demographics
characteristics.
For
factors
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to
emotional-based
philosophy of sufficiency economy. Those factors are divided into three groups: emotional-based trust,
the study
whether
a higher
level ofcharacteristics.
individual relationship
with community
leaders and
trust,investigates
cognitive-based
trust, and
demographics
For factors related
to emotional-based
trust, would
the study
investigates
whether
a higher
levelinofthe
individual
relationship
with community
neighbors
contribute
to higher
trust
of people
philosophy
of sufficiency
economy. This is
leaders
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would
contribute
to higher
trust of members
people in the
philosophy of sufficiency
because
community
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as well
as some
community
enthusiastically
support a wide
economy.
This
is
because
community
leaders
as
well
as
some
community
members
enthusiastically
range of sufficiency economy practices. Regarding our examination of factors related to cognitive-based
support a wide range of sufficiency economy practices. Regarding our examination of factors related
trust, six potential factors were selected: residents’ perception of environmental quality improvement;
to cognitive-based trust, six potential factors were selected: residents’ perception of environmental
perception
of household economic stability contributed by practices of the philosophy of sufficiency
quality improvement; perception of household economic stability contributed by practices of the
economy;
perception
of strengthened
local
cultures and
traditions; capability
to adapt
wisdom for
philosophy
of sufficiency
economy;
perception
of strengthened
local cultures
and local
traditions;
sufficiency
economy
activities;
obstacles
faced
by
residents
when
starting
sufficiency
economy
practices;
capability to adapt local wisdom for sufficiency economy activities; obstacles faced by residents
when starting
economy
practices;
and economy
problems practices.
faced by residents
duringthat
sufficiency
and problems
facedsufficiency
by residents
during
sufficiency
It is assumed
when people
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It isfollowing
assumed sufficiency
that when people
haveprinciples,
good experiences
in following
have good
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economy
trust can
easily besufficiency
maintained and
economy
principles,
trust facing
can easily
be maintained
and enhanced.
In contrast,
when facing
obstacles
enhanced.
In contrast,
when
obstacles
in the course
of conducting
sufficiency
economy
activities,
in the course of conducting sufficiency economy activities, people may have lower trust, or have no
people may have lower trust, or have no trust at all. Additionally, the relationship between residents’
trust at all. Additionally, the relationship between residents’ demographics characteristics and level
demographics
characteristics and level of trust were also examined. Those factors are gender, career,
of trust were also examined. Those factors are gender, career, educational level, periods of living in
educational
level, periods
of living
in the Differences
community,inand
level of income.
Differences
demographic
the community,
and level
of income.
demographic
characteristics
mightinpossibly
characteristics
mightlevel
possibly
cause
different level
of trust
in the sufficiency economy philosophy.
cause a different
of trust
in thea sufficiency
economy
philosophy.
Emotional
based trust
Level of relationship with community leaders
Level of relationship with neighbors
Residents’ perception of the environmental quality
improvement
Residents’ perception of household economic stability
Cognitive
based trust
Residents’ perception of strengthened local cultures
and traditions
Capability to adapt local wisdom for sufficiency
economy activities.
Obstacles faced by residents when starting the
practice
Level of trust in the
Philosophy of
Sufficiency
Economy
Problems faced by residents during the practices
Gender
Career
Demographic
characteristics
Educational level
Period of living in the community
Income
Figure 1. Study Framework.
Figure 1. Study Framework.
4. Data and Methods
4.1. Development of Variables and Measurement
To explore the contribution of the community practices of the sufficiency economy philosophy
to rural villagers’ quality of life improvement, the study employed both questionnaire surveys and
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in-depth interviews. For measuring quality of life improvement, the study developed five indicators;
including individual’s perception on environmental quality improvement, enhancement of community
relations, enhancement of relationship in family, enhancement of local cultures, and satisfaction with
adequate incomes for daily expenditures. By using the questionnaire surveys, the authors developed
a 4-point Likert-scale question ranging from 0 (worse than before practicing the philosophy) to 3
(significantly better than before practicing the philosophy). In addition, in-depth interviews with
community leaders and villagers were also conducted. The sampling groups were asked how issues
related to the quality of life have been changed since the practices of sufficiency economy philosophy.
To evaluate determinants of trust in the philosophy of sufficiency economy, two types of variables
are used: dependent and independent variables. Questionnaire sheets are used as a tool for data
collection. The types of factors, variables, and questions are presented in Table 1. The dependent
variable is level of trust in the philosophy of sufficiency economy. As stated by Earle et al. [12], trust is
an individual expectation of beneficial outcomes. In this study, community trust refers to the level of
individual expectations of outcomes generated from sufficiency economy practices. These expectations
are divided into three aspects: quality of life improvement, environmental quality improvement,
and improved social conditions. Based on the literature reviews [57,58], and in-depth-interviews with
local residents, the authors developed a 5-point Likert-scale question to measure the level of trust.
The 5-point rating scale ranged from 0 (no trust/no expectation at all) to 4 (high trust/very high
expectation). The data obtained from the questions will be added together and calculated as a mean
score representing a level of trust.
Table 1. Data collection.
Factors
Level of trust
Factors related to
emotional-based trust
Factors related to
cognitive-based trust
Variables
Residents’ expectation of beneficial
outcomes contributed by practices of
the sufficiency economy philosophy
Questions/Alternatives
Would your quality of life be enhanced when conducting
sufficiency economy activities?
Would your community environment be sustainably
improved when conducting sufficiency economy activities?
Would society become more livable when conducting
sufficiency economy activities?
Level of relationship with
community leaders
How frequently do you meet and have conversations with
the leader?
Level of relationship with neighbors
How many neighbors do you have?
Residents’ perception of the
environmental quality improvement
contributed by the practices of
sufficiency economy philosophy
Do you think that having applied the sufficiency economy
concept in daily life has yielded environmental
improvement in the community?
Residents’ perception of household
economic stability gained from the
practices of sufficiency economy
philosophy
Do you think that when conducting sufficiency economy
activities, you have earned adequate income for future use
in case you face unexpected events such illness, joblessness?
Do you think that having applied sufficiency economy
concept in daily life has contributed to adequate income for
daily expenditure?
Residents’ perception of strengthened
local cultures and traditions
contributed by the practices of
sufficiency economy philosophy.
Do you think that having applied the sufficiency economy
concept in daily life has supported local culture and
traditions? If so, how?
Capability to adapt local wisdom for
sufficiency economy activities.
Could you utilize local knowledge or local wisdom to
operate sufficiency economy activities?
Obstacles faced by residents when
starting the practice such as
insufficiency of budgets, lack of water
resources, and poor quality of soil
Did you face any obstacles when you changed your lifestyles
in accordance with self-sufficiency economy principles?
Problems faced by residents during
the practices such as plant disease or
low quality and quantity of products
Do you think that applying sufficiency economy concepts in
daily life could cause you some problems such as
agricultural farm epidemics, or lack of market for
agricultural goods?
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Table 1. Cont.
Factors
Characteristics of
residents
Variables
Questions/Alternatives
Gender
Please indicate your gender
Career
What is your career? Open-ended question
Educational level
What is your educational level?
Open-ended question
Periods of living in the community
How long have you lived in the community?
Open-ended question
Income
How much is your average income per month?
For independent variables, there are three types of variables such as variables relevant to
emotional-based trust, cognitive-based trust, and demographic characteristics. Factors related to
emotional-based trust: relationship with community leaders and relationship with neighbors were
the two variables examined. To measure the level of relationship between residents and community
leaders, the frequency of communication between these two groups is investigated. As shown in many
previous studies [59,60], the frequency of communication can reflect the level of relationship, and it was
found that communication impairment significantly caused poor relationships [61]. Respondents were
asked to identify how frequently they had conversations with community leaders. The rating scale of
communication frequency ranged from 0 “never have conversation with” to 4 “often have conversation
with.” For the measurement of residents’ relationship with their neighbors, the number of neighbors
with whom they always have conversations was examined. According to the review of previous
studies [62,63], it was found that the number of friends is a part of social capital, and is associated
with social relationship. To measure the level of relationship with neighbors, respondents were asked
to indicate an average number of friends, with whom they feel close. The rating scale ranged from
1 “less friends” to 5 “so many friends.”
Factors related to cognitive-based trust: six variables were examined for the residents’ relationship
with community trust (see Table 1). The authors developed questions for selected variable measurement
based on the results of interviews. To measure the residents’ perception of environmental quality
improvement, the respondents were asked their opinion on community environment improvement.
A 3-point Likert scale answer choice was derived. The rating scale ranged from 1 “no improvement”
to 3 “significant improvement.” In the case of residents’ perception of household economic stability,
residents were asked whether their incomes were sufficient for daily expenditure and for the future
demand. The rating scale answer choices ranged from 1 “worse than before” to 4 “significantly
better than before.” To measure residents’ perception of social environment improvements in the
community, respondents were asked to indicate the current condition of community social environment.
The answer choices were 1 “no change” and 2 “change.”
Besides perceptions of social, environmental, and householder economic improvement,
the capability of the residents to use local wisdom and resources for sufficiency economy practices,
obstacles to begin the practices, and problems surfacing during the practices were also investigated.
Authors also developed questions to measure these variables based on the result of primary field
surveys and interviews. To measure the capability of the respondents to utilize local wisdom and
resources for the practice, the respondents were asked to rate their degree of capability ranging from
1 “no capability’ to 4 “high capability.” To measure the respondents’ potential obstacles when starting
the practice, the respondents were asked to indicate the quantity of the obstacles they faced. The rating
scale of quantity ranged from 1 “many obstacles” to 3 “fewer obstacles.” Additionally, the respondents
were also asked to indicate whether they faced any problems during the practice of sufficiency economy
philosophy, and the answer choices were 1 “possible” and 2 “not possible.”
Factors related to demographic characteristics: five demographic characteristic variables were
selected to study. Those variables were gender, career, educational level, period of living in the
Societies 2016, 6, 26
10 of 20
community, and income level. To measure these variables, respondents were directly asked
10 of 20
to the variables.
Societies
2016, 6, 26related
questions
4.2. Dataand
Collection
Analysis
community,
income and
level.
To measure these variables, respondents were directly asked questions
related to the variables.
For the data collection, in-depth interviews with two community leaders and five community
members
wereandconducted
4.2. Data Collection
Analysis between September–December 2015. The Ban Jamrung community is
located in Thailand’s Rayong Province (See Figure 2). Currently, its total population is about 550
For the data collection, in-depth interviews with two community leaders and five community
people or 134 households (based on the results of the interview with the community leader;
members were conducted between September–December 2015. The Ban Jamrung community is
Chartchai, Jan 2015). The majority of villagers are agriculturalist, planting rubber trees, fruits, and
located in Thailand’s Rayong Province (See Figure 2). Currently, its total population is about
vegetables.
Some villagers
in of
service
sectors such
services
550local
people
or 134 households
(based participate
on the results
the interview
with as
thehomestay
community
leader; for tourists.
For theJan
questionnaire
surveys,of 124
community
members planting
who have
participated
in sufficiency
Chartchai,
2015). The majority
villagers
are agriculturalist,
rubber
trees, fruits,
activities
were
asked
to answer
a questionnaire
All services
data collected
were
andeconomy
local vegetables.
Some
villagers
participate
in service
sectors such assheet.
homestay
for
deliberatively
inspected surveys,
before the
tourists.
For the questionnaire
124analysis.
community members who have participated in sufficiency
economyAactivities
wereanalysis
asked to is
answer
sheet.widely
All data
collected
deliberatively
regression
one ofa questionnaire
the various tools
utilized
towere
create
a model to predict the
inspected
before
the
analysis.
influences of independent variables on a dependent variable. Many recent studies also performed
A regression
analysisto
is one
of the
various
tools widely
utilized
to [64–66].
create a model
predict to
theexamine the
regression
analyses
create
models
predicting
social
trust
In thisto study,
influences of independent variables on a dependent variable. Many recent studies also performed
relationship between potential predictive factors and community trust, a multiple regression
regression analyses to create models predicting social trust [64–66]. In this study, to examine the
analysis was performed by using a statistical package for the social sciences (spss-19). Finally, the
relationship between potential predictive factors and community trust, a multiple regression analysis
discussion on effective communication for trust enhancement in the philosophy of sufficiency
was performed by using a statistical package for the social sciences (spss-19). Finally, the discussion on
economy
is presented.
effective
communication
for trust enhancement in the philosophy of sufficiency economy is presented.
2. Study Area.
Figure 2.Figure
Study Area.
5. Findings
Discussions
5. Findings
andand
Discussions
5.1.5.1.
Characteristics
of Respondents
and theand
Practices
of Sufficiency
Economy Philosophy
Characteristics
of Respondents
the Practices
of Sufficiency
Economy in
Philosophy in Ban Jamrung
Ban Jamrung Community
Community
From a sample of 124 residents who were involved in sufficiency economy practices in Ban
a sample
of 124 Rayong
residents
who were
involved
in sufficiency
economy
in Ban
Jamrung From
community,
in Thailand’s
Province,
the number
of male
respondents was
higher practices
than
Jamrung
community,
in
Thailand’s
Rayong
Province,
the
number
of
male
respondents
was
higher
that of the female respondents, at 60.50% and 39.50%, respectively. Half of the respondents worked as
than that
the female
respondents,
at 60.50% were
and merchants
39.50%, respectively.
of the respondents
gardeners
whoof
owned
land, while
16% of the respondents
who sold dailyHalf
consumption
worked as gardeners who owned land, while 16% of the respondents were merchants who sold
daily consumption goods as well as food. The results of the questionnaire surveys also revealed that
the majority of the respondents finished only primary school, and 14.5% of the respondents received
Societies 2016, 6, 26
11 of 20
goods as well as food. The results of the questionnaire surveys also revealed that the majority of the
respondents finished only primary school, and 14.5% of the respondents received bachelor degrees.
Regarding rural communities in Thailand, the number of people who have gained undergraduate
degrees or higher degrees is relatively small. Similar to other developing countries, most people with
university degrees are involved in job in a city where greater income can be gained [67]. In the Ban
Jamrung community, it is possible that young adults who hold university degrees tended to return
to their home communities, and have their own career plan. In American rural communities, people
with university degrees often decide to return to rural communities because they can seek careers in
which their knowledge and experience can be applied [68]. This phenomenon might be similar to what
has happened in the Ban Jamrung community. Additionally, the results of the survey also showed
that most respondents have lived in the community for more than 40 years, or it can be stated that
most of them are local residents. The average income of the respondents was 12,739 baht per month,
or approximately US$356. This amount could be considered as a medium-income class, compared to
Thailand’s minimum monthly wage of 15,000 baht, or US$419 [69].
The results of the questionnaire surveys also revealed sufficiency economy activities mostly
conducted by the respondents (see Table 2). Almost 60% of respondents have conducted integrated
farming by planting various kinds of crops on their land. Those crops, such as rice, local vegetables,
and local fruits, were purposely planted for household consumption rather than to sell and supply to
industrial sectors. By practicing integrated farming, the environment could be potentially preserved
and become less polluted due to the decision of the residents not to use fertilizers or chemical pesticides.
Furthermore, the respondents’ lifestyles were also based on the use of local resources rather than
dependence on external resources. Almost 40% of the respondents also applied the principle of
sufficiency economy to their economic activities. They, for instance, decreased their consumption of
luxury goods, and tried to balance their expenditure and incomes.
Table 2. Sufficiency economy activities conducted by villagers in the Ban Jamrung community.
Having Conducted
Sufficiency Economy Activities
Doing integrated farming
Decreasing consumption of luxury goods
Balancing expenditures and incomes
Decreasing environmental degradation
Using local resources as a major source for living
Have not Conducted
N
%
N
%
74
50
48
31
62
59.7
40.3
38.6
25.0
50.0
50
74
76
93
62
40.3
59.7
61.3
75.0
50.0
N = 124.
5.2. Contribution of Sufficiency Economy Practices to Sustainability in a Rural Community
Considering the quality of life brought about by sufficiency economies in the economic, social,
and environmental dimensions, the authors developed five indicators to examine sustainability in
rural development (see Table 3). According to the results of the questionnaire, the respondents
reported a generally better quality of life once they began practicing sufficiency economy principles.
However, the scores given for each indicator varied. More than half of the respondents (56.45%),
for instance, perceived that their income and expenditure balance was slightly better than before the
change in agricultural focus, while 29.03% reported a significant improvement in their income and
expenditure balance.
During the in-depth interviews, one community leader stated, “By doing integrated farming,
we could not make a lot of financial profits; however, we have not suffered with plant disease
epidemics like we occasionally suffered before. Some years, we faced a natural disaster like drought.
Consequently, we cannot produce plenty of fruits, but we are still able to gain income from sale of
Societies 2016, 6, 26
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rubber. I could say that we gain quite a stable amount of income in each year.” Similarly, a villager
noted, “I could not make a lot of savings; however, I have never been in debt.”
Regarding community relations and relationships among family members, the results of the
questionnaire showed that both types of relationships had significantly and positively changed during
this period of time. Most of the respondents (75.81%) reported a significant change in community
relations, which they reported had become better than before. This significant change might have
resulted from changes in the respondents’ ways of thinking and living. Under the new plan, people
tend to work more cooperatively with their neighbors. Another villager commented, “Having more
times with family, I am very much happy. Previously, I was an officer in Bangkok city, where is far away
from here. Last three years, I decided to return here, and started conducting farming. Though gaining
less income, I have no problem at all. This is because living costs here are not as high as living
costs in Bangkok city, and I am able to reduce consumption of luxury goods.” Regarding villagers’
perceptions of their enhanced community relations, one community leader reported, “We have had
a frequent communication among each other since we started working together with sufficiency
economy projects in our community. Our community tried to be economic self-reliant and thus,
we have to collaboratively work together.” Similarly, another villager said, “Since I participated in
community projects, I have spent more times with neighbors. Thus, we have a frequent communication,
and become closer.” This is evidenced by the establishment of 40 community projects in which many
community members have become involved. These projects include the production of fish sauce,
community-based waste management, a soft-shelled turtle raising group, a cooperative community
store, and so on.
The results also reveal that practices associated with the sufficiency economy philosophy
contributed to the sustainability of communities’ environments. Almost 60% of the respondents
reported that environmental circumstances, such as their soil quality, water, air, and ecosystems,
had improved significantly. An elderly villager stated, “Last 20 years, our community faced
deterioration of soil quality due to excessive conduction of the mono-cropping agricultural system.
We had difficulty cropping local vegetables. Now, our community is well known as plentiful
environments for agricultural activities, and our local vegetables could attract many visitors.”
When it comes to the role of sufficiency economy practices in promoting local cultures and
traditions, half of the respondents indicated that the new economic approach significantly activated
and enhanced local cultures and traditions, while 22.58% reported that no change was prompted by
the new practices. One community leader commented, “We realized that happiness is not achieved
by gaining much money. Many people in this community, especially elderly people, really value
traditions and cultures of the community. We, therefore, established a Thai traditional folk music
group, and many elderly have participated in this group.”
Table 3. Individuals’ perception of economic, social, and environmental improvements.
Degree of Change (n/%)
Issues Related to Sustainability
Improvement of Environmental Quality
Enhancement of Community Relations
Enhancement of Relationship in Family
Enhancement of Local Cultures
Adequate Incomes for Daily Expenditures
Significantly Better
Better
Same
Worse Than Before
74 (59.68%)
94 (75.81%)
73 (58.87%)
65 (52.42%)
36 (29.03%)
36 (29.03%)
18 (14.52%)
40 (32.26%)
28 (22.58%)
70 (56.45%)
10 (8.06%)
10 (8.06%)
11 (8.87%)
28 (22.58%)
18 (14.52%)
4 (3.23%)
2 (1.61%)
0 (0.00%)
3 (2.42%)
0 (0.00%)
N = 124.
In sum, even though the incomes of the residents have not increased very much compared to
other aspects of local sustainability, most of them are satisfied with the social and environmental
improvements, particularly the enhancement of community relations that has resulted from their
participation in sustainable community development.
Societies 2016, 6, 26
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5.3. Determinants of Trust towards the Philosophy of Sufficiency Economy
Table 4 shows the average trust scores reported by 124 respondents who have practiced sufficiency
economy activities, and presents descriptive statistics of potential predictors. Not surprisingly,
respondents reported high trust in the philosophy of sufficiency economy. Most of them also exhibited
close relationships with community leaders and good relationships with their neighbors. It was also
found that most of the respondents reported facing problems during the practices of sufficiency
economy activities, and 45.20% of respondents reported experiencing moderate obstacles when setting
out to conduct sufficiency economy. Regarding the capability of respondents to adapt to local wisdom
when practicing sufficiency economy activities, the score was also high.
Table 4. Average trust scores and descriptive statistics of potential predictors.
Mean ± SD
N (%)
Correlation with CT
Community Trust (CT)
3.69 ± 0.49
-
1.00
Relationship with community leaders
3.26 ± 0.82
-
0.25
Relationship with neighbors
4.89 ± 0.31
-
0.17
Variables
Community
Trust (CT)
Emotional-based
trust factors
Perception of the environmental quality improvement
No improvement
Partially improved
Significantly improved
-
Cognitive-based
trust factors
0.21
Perception of household financial security
2.96 ± 0.73
-
0.60
Perception of balance between incomes
and expenditure
3.19 ± 0.65
-
0.21
29 (23.40%)
95 (76.60%)
0.37
-
0.33
Perception of enhanced local cultures and traditions
No enhancement
Enhancement
Capability to adapt local wisdom for
sufficiency economy activities
Demographic
characteristics
8 (6.45%)
34 (28.33%)
82 (66.13%)
3.28 ± 0.76
Obstacles faced by residents when starting the practices
Many
Moderate
Less
-
4 (3.20%)
56 (45.20%)
64 (51.60%)
Problems faced by residents during the practices
Have
Not have
-
28 (22.60%)
96 (77.40%)
0.44
Gender
Male
Female
-
75 (60.50%)
49 (39.50%)
0.13
Career
Gardener
Merchant
Teacher
Laborer
Officer
-
66 (53.20%)
20 (16.10%)
6 (4.80%)
25 (20.20%)
7 (5.60%)
Educational level
Primary School
Junior High School
Senior High School
Bachelor Degree
-
65(52.40%)
28(22.60%)
13(10.50%)
18(14.50%)
Period of time in the community
10–20 years
21–30 years
31–40 years
more than 40 years
-
15 (12.10%)
17 (13.70%)
19 (15.30%)
73 (58.90%)
-
12,739 ± 9121
Income
N = 124.
0.22
−0.19
0.18
0.41
0.11
Societies 2016, 6, 26
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Table 5. Summary of regression analysis for variables predicting community trust.
Liner Regression Test
Variables
Emotional-based trust factors
Relationship with community leaders
Relationship with neighbors
Cognitive-based trust factors
Perception of the environmental quality improvement
Perception of household financial security
Perception of balance between incomes and expenditure
Perception of enhanced local cultures and traditions
Capability to adapt local wisdom for sufficiency economy activities
Obstacles faced by residents when starting the practice
Problems faced by residents during the practices
Demographic characteristics
Gender
Career
Educational level
Period of time in the community
Income
R2
Adjust R2
F
0.670
0.62.80
15.841
Note:* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
B
SE B
β
t
VIF
0.094
0.122
0.045
0.160
0.165
0.075
2.388 *
0.761
2.065
3.484
−0.120
0.257
−0.108
−0.079
0.101
0.127
0.518
0.111
0.057
0.051
0.083
0.036
0.057
0.080
−0.093
0.376
−0.143
0.068
0.276
0.144
0.438
−1.085
4.495 **
−1.765
-0.950
2.793 **
0.906
6.513 **
2.420
2.448
2.532
1.638
1.334
1.408
1.496
−0.220
0.029
0.050
0.230
8.090 × 10 −6
0.094
0.028
0.032
0.040
0.000
−0.217
0.081
0.133
0.502
0.141
−2.344 *
1.034
1.894
5.774 **
1.777
2.843
2.048
1.625
2.505
2.073
Societies 2016, 6, 26
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Table 5 shows the results of the multiple regression analysis of individuals’ trust in the philosophy
of sufficiency economy. The predictors were the eleventh indices, while the criterion variable was
the level of individuals’ trust in the philosophy of sufficiency economy. The result indicated that
the relationship of individuals with community leaders, perceptions of household financial security,
the capability of individuals to adapt to local wisdom for sufficiency economy activities, problems
faced by residents during the practices of sufficiency economy, and periods of time in the community,
were positively correlated with a degree of trust. They were also statistically significant, accounting for
67% of variance in predicting the trust of people in the philosophy of sufficiency economy (p < 0.001,
F(14,109) = 15.841). Respondents who exhibited higher scores using these variables tended to have
a higher degree of trust in the philosophy of sufficiency economy.
Based on the findings, both factors related to emotional-based trust and cognitive-based trust
could be used to predict individuals’ trust in the philosophy of sufficiency economy. This finding is
related to the findings of Lewis and Weigert [42], McAllister [43], and Taylor-Gooby [70]. However,
according to the results of multiple regression analysis, it was found that rational factors, such as
perception of household financial security, capability to adapt local wisdom for sufficiency economy
activities, and problems faced by residents during the practices, were more influential. Similar to the
findings presented by Taylor-Gooby [70], the results of this study imply that trust of people in the
philosophy is based much more on rational deliberation or evidence-based judgement. The experiences
and problems people face play a significant role in predicting their degree of trust. People who
experienced better household financial security and who faced fewer problems while engaged in
sufficiency economy activities tended to report higher levels of trust in the philosophy. According to
the results of the villagers’ interviews, most were, at one time, in debt, either to a bank or a loan shark,
because of the need for massive investments in their mono-cropping farms. They were trying to make
the greatest profits possible from their farm work, in order to afford various luxury goods, such as
vehicles, mobile phones, new outfits, and so on. However, they did not realize the possible risks
associated with the instability of community agricultural prices or the risks of natural disasters and
plant blight. Consequently, some villagers went bankrupt. One villager recalled, “In 2004, I was in debt
with a loan shark about 600,000 baht, or US $17,270. Unluckily, it was drought that year. I could not
make much money from the sale of durians, and could not pay back the loan. My family suffered a lot.
I decided to sell a part of farmlands for paying back the loan, and started over doing cropping farms
again. I applied the concept of sufficiency economy as a guild of living. Of course, I could not make
money as much as I used to make some years in the part. However, I have never been in debt again
due to having a stable income and the reduction of demands in luxury goods.” Another villager shared,
“In my case, the way to release from the debt was avoiding making more debt. I can produce my own
food without buying much from the market, so my daily expenditure was reduced. Thus, I can make
some savings from the sale of rubber; I could pay back the debt. Even though it took very long time,
I finally release from the debt.”
The present study’s regression analysis demonstrated that people who had a higher capability
of adapting local wisdom to the practices of the sufficiency economy also tended to have higher
levels of trust in the notion. One community leader reported, “Our local wisdom is very important to
the practices of sufficiency economy. We will develop activities and products that we are confident
and have potential to do. Our wisdom, such as fish sauce making, integrated farming, and a lot of
perceived foods making.” This local knowledge enables people to generate various kinds of activities
and products that benefit both themselves, as individuals, and the community as a whole.
A factor related to affective-based trust, however, also shows its significance to trust. As stated
by Nicholson et al. [47] and Zur et al. [45], factors related to affective-based trust also play a crucial
role in generating and maintaining trust, particularly in uncertainty situations in which individuals
are facing high risks. This study revealed that an individual’s relationship with community leaders
was significantly related to degrees of trust. Namely, people who had stronger relationships with
community leaders, tended to have relatively higher trust towards the philosophy of sufficiency
Societies 2016, 6, 26
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economy. This finding corresponds to the study carried out by Pixley [71] and Yaojun et al. [48],
who addressed the relationship between social relations and trust. In this study, though the variable
related to social relations had less significance than other predictors, it is essential to consider when
creating strategies to maintain and enhance trust. As proposed by Lahno [72], trusting attitudes should
be developed based on both cognitive and affective judgments.
Besides factors related to cognitive-based trust and emotional-based trust, this study also revealed
that male respondents relatively exhibited higher trust than did female. It could be explained that
according to the Thai local society, most of male population usually has the full responsibility to
take care of the family. Male populations, therefore, hold much power to make decisions on family
matters. In this way, male populations might be more interested to understand the principles of
sufficiency economy, and try to seek advantages of the sufficiency economy practices to the family.
In addition, it was also found that people who spent a longer period of time living in the community
exhibited relatively higher trust in the philosophy. It could be explained that people who spent
longer periods of time in the community might possess a better understanding of local wisdom that
could be used to perform sufficiency economy activities. In addition, they might also feel connected
with their surrounding environments, and have concerns with the existence of local environments.
By practicing sufficiency economy activities, it is believed that local environments could be sustainably
conserved. In this way, people who spent longer periods in the community possibly had more trust in
the philosophy of sufficiency economy than people who spent shorter periods.
5.4. Implications for Development of Strategies to Maintain and Enhance Trust of People in the Philosophy of
Sufficiency Economy
According to the results of this study, strategies to maintain and enhance trust in the philosophy
of sufficiency economy can be proposed. The results revealed that the existence of trust in the
philosophy of sufficiency economy is due to people’s experiences with improved economic security
of their family as well as the capability to adapt local wisdom to performing sufficiency economy
activities. In this way, to generate and maintain the trust of people, it could be suggested that
promoting a better understanding of local wisdom and integration of that wisdom in practices of the
philosophy of sufficiency economy potentially enhance trust, and encourage community practices.
That local wisdom incorporates such knowledge as ways to conduct integrated farming, bio-fertilizer
production, and agricultural product processing. In addition, the results of this study also show that
trust contributed to people’s relationship with community leaders who enthusiastically promoted the
practices of sufficiency economy philosophy. In this way, the role of community leaders is significant,
and building and strengthening relationship between community leaders and residents can also
generate and enhance the trust of the people. In addition, this study identified the factor that might
lessen the trust of people. That factor is people’s experiences with problems that surface during the
practices of sufficiency economy activities. Those problems include plant disease or low quality and
quantity of agricultural products. To prevent the occurrence of these problems and their adverse
consequences, relevant knowledge and preventative measures should be established to ensure that
once these problems occur, their negative impacts can be effectively eliminated. This can maintain and
enhance trust of people in the philosophy.
6. Conclusions
This study explored how community practices of the philosophy of sufficiency economy
contributed to local sustainability presented as improvements to household financial security, social
situations, and environmental conditions from the perception of the residents. The result of the survey
revealed that people have experienced improvements in all aspects of their lives. Though, compared
to other aspects related to local sustainability, significant improvements to household financial balance
between income and expenditure were reported less by the respondents, social and environmental
conditions were significantly improved. In addition, the examination of factors that determine trust of
Societies 2016, 6, 26
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people in the philosophy of sufficiency economy revealed that rational factors were more powerful than
emotional factors, and people who had spent longer periods of time in the community also exhibited
higher trust. These findings contributed to the development of strategies to maintain and enhance trust
of people in the philosophy of sufficiency economy. Public communication of local wisdoms and their
adaptation to sufficiency economy activities should be established. The role of community leaders and
their relationship with residents is also important to maintain trust. Thus, communication strategies to
strengthen the relationship between community leaders and residents should be emphasized. Finally,
the study suggests that potential risks emerging from community practices of the sufficiency economy
philosophy should be identified and eliminated through the establishment of mitigation measures.
This is because it was found that trust between individuals could be lessened depending on their
experiences with problems that surface during the practices of sufficiency economy activities.
Acknowledgments: This study was supported by the School of Liberal Arts and Research, Innovation and
Partnerships Office, King Mongkut’s University of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand. The authors would like to
acknowledge all local residents from Ban Jamrung communities in Rayong Province, Thailand for the supports
and participation in the study.
Author Contributions: Chaweewan Denpaiboon and Piyapong Janmaimool conceived the idea of the study,
carried out data collection and data analysis. Chaweewan Denpaiboon supervised data collection and data
analysis. Both authors drafted the manuscript, read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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