All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any
information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes llc.
sparknotes is a registered trademark of SparkNotes llc.
This edition published by Spark Publishing
Spark Publishing
A Division of SparkNotes llc
120 Fifth Avenue, 8th Floor
New York, NY 10011
USA
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Copyright ©2005 by SparkNotes llc.
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Westward Expansion
(1807-1912)
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
general summary
2
SPARK
ARKNOTES
After the War of 1812 much of America's attention turned to exploration and settlement of its territory to the
West, which had been greatly enlarged by the Louisiana Purchase. Families of pioneers swept westward
and founded new communities throughout what is now the Midwest, and between 1816 and 1821, six new
states were admitted to the Union.
The land boom was fed by encouragement from the federal government and the actions of land speculators, who bought up large tracts of land in order to sell it in parcels to farmers at exorbitant prices. These
farmers did not mind high prices and high interest on loans due to the growing success of American agricultural products. Most western farmers became cash croppers who sometimes neglected subsistence farming
in order to focus on marketable commodities. Soon the farmers' dependence on distant markets caught up
with them, however, as the state bank system that had sprung up to support speculation collapsed, dragging
agricultural prices and land values down with it. Many western settlers suffered greatly during the Panic of
1819, but most survived and continued the conquest of the West.
A major aspect of the conquest of the West was the removal of the Indians who dwelled there. Under the
leadership of President Andrew Jackson, the Indians who remained East of the Mississippi were cruelly and
violently driven from their homes and concentrated in reservations in what is now Oklahoma. The US
Army crushed any resistance to removal. With the West cleared of this obstacle, westerners focused on
developing new methods of transporting their goods to market. The canal and railroad systems, which grew
up in the North, facilitated a much larger volume of trade and manufacturing while reducing costs a great
deal. Great cities sprang up throughout the North and Northwest, bolstered by the improvement in transportation.
After the Midwest had been substantially developed, the national focus turned toward the far west. The
territory of Texas, controlled by the Spanish, was settled by Americans, who eventually undertook the Texas
Rebellion in efforts to win independence. When the United States admitted Texas to the Union in 1845, the
Mexican government was outraged, and from 1846 to 1848, the two nation's squared off in the Mexican War.
With a resounding victory, the United States gained control of Texas, New Mexico, and California. The
Oregon territory was annexed in 1846 as well, and the US controlled the land all the way to the Pacific Ocean.
As the population of the West soared and the prospects of statehood for western territories appeared
clearer and clearer, the nation battled over the future of slavery in the West. This battle was one reason for
the Civil War, which slowed the acceleration of expansion. However, the last three decades of the nineteenth
century saw the return of accelerating expansion due to the successful struggle to contain the Plains Indians
in reservations, and the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869. By the early twentieth century,
the organization of the West was completed, and the United States consisted of all 48 contiguous states.
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
General Summary
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC.
graphical size. The Louisiana Purchase more than doubled the nation's size and opened up a little known
region to exploration and eventual settlement. Soon, explorers were returning from forays into the wilderness with stories of great stretches of beauty and fertile land. Some Americans ventured westward, but the
nation was largely consumed by its struggle to maintain its neutrality in the face of threats from Britain and
France. The War of 1812 settled this issue, leaving the United States free to pursue North American goals.
The nation turned its attention to the issue of expansion. The founding fathers had envisioned the United
States as a bastion of freedom that would cover territory reaching all the way across the North American
continent. Their descendents had not forgotten this desire, and encouraged expansion into western territories through laws and rhetoric.
The first wave of westward expansion accompanied the rise of manufacturing in New England and
increasing mobility throughout the nation. As settlers moved to what is now the Midwest, the national infrastructure grew up around them, connecting the nation's cities and towns through a system of roads, canals
and railroads. Accompanying the rise in new methods of transportation came progress in the fields of agriculture and medicine, as new machines were invented and new treatments for disease discovered. American
culture developed in the form of writing, acting, and painting, and American intellectuals gained worldwide
respect. Many painters and writers cited the American West as their inspiration, and the West began to symbolize the American identity: rough and rugged individualism willing to face new challenges.
However, expansion did not occur exclusively in an atmosphere of progress. The age of Jacksonian
Democracy saw the rise of political strife between the ruling Democrats and the opposition Whigs. As the
two-party system matured, political tension became clearly focused around the issue of slavery. As the West
gradually developed, the existing states were rapidly torn apart. Economic and social divisions became
accentuated and both North and South clung to their beliefs and customs.
In 1848, the Mexican Warconcluded, and the United States gained full control of the Texas, California
and New Mexico territories. As settlers poured into these regions, it was clear that the westward expansion
was closely linked to the future of slavery. North and South focused significant energy on pursuing their
political desires in regard to slavery in the settled territories of the West, and the famous Lincoln-Douglas
Debates had at their core the future of slavery in the West. Despite efforts at reconciliation, most notably the
Compromise of 1850, the Union was thrown into a civil war over the issue of slavery from 1861 to 1865, and
western expansion slowed due to the conflict.
After the Civil War and period of Reconstruction faded, expansion began again in the late 1800s. Now
western settlers were spurred onward by the development of the transcontinental railroad, a major byproduct of the period of industrialization that had begun in earnest. The expansion and immigration of the late
1800s merged with this industrialization to provoke the growth of American urban society. As the needs of
industrial workers became ever more important, the national political scene became dominated by the discrepancy in needs between America's rural and urban populations, as well as the needs of the new classes created by industrialization and the abolition of slavery. By the early twentieth century, the United States
consisted of 48 contiguous states stretching clear across the North American continent, and with its devastatinv defeat of the Spanish in 1898 had become a legitimate international power. US cities increasingly traded
with foreign markets and the nation became involved in international politics. The economic and political
evolution that had accompanied, and in part resulted from, westward expansion culminated with US
involvement in World War One.
Copyright 2005 by SparkNotes LLC.
3
SPARK
ARKNOTES
During the first quarter of the nineteenth century the United States grew drastically, in power and in geo-
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Context
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC.
Alamo
During the Texas Rebellion, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna's Mexican force of 4,000 troops laid siege to the
town of San Antonio, where 200 Texans resisted, retreating to an abandoned mission, the Alamo. After
inflicting over 1,500 casualties on Santa Anna's men, the defenders of the Alamo were wiped out on March
6, 1836. The Alamo became a symbol of the Texans' determination to win independence.
Compromise of 1850
The Compromise of 1850 was a major effort at quieting sectional conflict in pre-Civil War American
politics. In terms of expansion, its most important clauses were those admitting California to statehood as a
free state and dividing the remainder of the Mexican cession after the Mexican Warinto two sections, New
Mexico and Utah, neither of which would be subject to restrictions on slavery.
Dawes Severalty Act
Passed in 1887, the Dawes Act called for the breakup of the reservations and the treatment of Indians as
individuals rather than tribes. It provided for the distribution of 160 acres of farmland or 320 acres of
grazing land to any Indian who accepted the act's terms, who would then become a US citizen in 25 years.
The act was intended to help the Indians to integrate into white society, but in reality helped to create a class
of federally dependent Indians.
Donner Party
The exploits of the Donner Party exemplified the difficulties of the overland journey to the Far West. Led
astray by the erred advice of a guidebook, the Donner Party found itself snowbound in the Sierra Nevada
Mountains, and arrived at its destination in California only after turning to cannibalism.
Empresarios
In efforts to attract American settlers and trade to Texas during the 1820s, the Mexican government gave
large land grants to agents called empresarios in return for their efforts to encourage colonization.
Erie Canal
The first canal project of the 1820s, the 363-mile Erie Canal was completed in 1825, connecting Buffalo,
New York, on the Great Lakes, with Albany, on the Hudson River. The Erie Canal made cost effective
shipping possible via waterways from New York City to the West by way of the Great Lakes. The North
and Northwest were soon crisscrossed by an extensive canal system which greatly improved domestic
transportation and trade.
Ghost Dance
The Ghost Dance was seen as the final attempt of the Plains Indians to maintain their culture and land.
The prophet Wovoka convinced the Sioux that they could only save their land and return to dominance if
they performed the Ghost Dance. The dance soon became a reaffirmation of culture and a source of
inspiration to renew the struggle against US forces of expansion. This renewed inspiration, however, was
crushed before it could get off of the ground.
Copyright 2005 by SparkNotes LLC.
4
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Terms
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Important Terms, People, and
Events
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Mission
The mission was the main tool in Spanish and Mexican colonization of the Far West. Missions were
established all along the California coast and into the interior of Texas and New Mexico. The Franciscan
missionaries tried to convert the region's Indians, and built towns around their missions. By 1823, over
20,000 Indians had converted and were living in the missions of California.
Oregon Trail
Perhaps the most well known of the overland trails to the Far West, the Oregon trail led many settlers to
Oregon's Willamette Valley between 1840 and 1848 and was representative of the hardships of overland
travel.
Santa Fe Trail
Southwestern travelers more often than not used the Santa Fe Trail to move westward. The trail linked St.
Louis and Santa Fe, leading to the establishment of strong economic connections between the regions
surrounding the endpoints of the trail.
Trail of Tears
In 1835, federal agents persuaded a pro-removal Cherokee chief to sign the Treaty of New Echota, which
ceded all Cherokee land for $5.6 million and free transportation west. Most Cherokees rejected the treaty,
but resistance was futile. Between 1835 and 1838 bands of Cherokee Indians moved west of the Mississippi
along the so-called Trail of Tears. Between 2,000 and 4,000 of the 16,000 migrating Cherokees died. The
Trail of Tears became a symbol for the harsh treatment of the Indians at the hands of the federal
government.
Transcontinental Railroad
On May 10, 1869, the first transcontinental railroad was completed when the Union Pacific and Central
Pacific railroads joined their tracks at Promontory Point, Utah. The railroad rapidly affected the ease of
western settlement, shortening the journey from coast to coast, which took six to eight months by wagon, to
a mere one week's trip.
Wilmot Proviso
The Wilmot proviso was an amendment proposed to an appropriations bill regarding the West, which
proposed that slavery be prohibited in all of the Mexican cession other than Texas. The proviso passed the
House but stalled in the Senate, where it was the cause of further arguments between northern and
southern politicians.
Worcester v. Georgia
In the case of Worcester v. Georgia, Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Cherokees comprised a
"domestic dependent nation" within Georgia and thus deserved protection from harassment. However, the
vehemently anti-Indian Andrew Jackson refused to abide by the decision, sneering "John Marshall has made
his decision; now let him enforce it."
important terms, people, and events
5
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Manifest Destiny
Journalist John L. O'Sullivan coined the phrase "Manifest Destiny" in 1845. He wrote of "our manifest
destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of our continent which Providence has given us for the
development of the great experiment of liberty." Manifest Destiny referred to the belief of many Americans
that it was the nation's destiny and duty to expand and conquer the West in the name of God, nature,
civilization, and progress.
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Indian Removal Act
The Indian Removal Act, passed in 1830, granted President Andrew Jackson funds and authority to remove
the Indians by force if necessary. He pursued a determined effort to coerce the Indians into expulsion.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
George Armstrong Custer Custer, a Civil War hero, was dispatched to the hills of South Dakota in 1874.
When gold was discovered in the region, the federal government announced that Custer's forces
would hunt down all Sioux not in reservations after January 31, 1876. Many Sioux refused to comply,
and Custer began to mobilize his troops. At the battle of Little Bighorn, in June 1876, Custer unwisely
divided his troops, and a numerically superior force of Indians wiped out him and all of his men. This
battle, known as "Custer's Last Stand," convinced the army that the Sioux were a powerful force, after
which a war of attrition, rather than direct confrontation, was begun.
Robert Fulton Fulton is credited with the invention of the first effective steamboat, which he unveiled with
his business partner, Robert Livingston, in New York in 1807. The Steamboat revolutionized river
travel because it could move rapidly upstream, a feat no other type of watercraft could match.
Andrew Jackson Andrew Jackson was President of the United States from 1829 to 1837, and thus oversaw
much of the nation's expansion. Jackson's most prominent role in westward expansion was his
continuing struggle to eject the Indians East of the Mississippi from their lands to free up land for
American settlers. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 granted Jackson the funding and authority to
accomplish this goal, which he pursued determinedly throughout his presidency.
James K. Polk Polk was President of the United States from 1845 to 1849. He oversaw the annexation of
Oregon and of Texas, and is credited with beginning the Mexican War in earnest. Polk was a firm
believer in expansion and pursued his goals with vigor. However, many northerners saw him as an
agent of southern will, expanding the nation as part of a plan to extend slavery into the West.
John Tyler Tyler became President of the United States in 1841, when William Henry Harrison died after a
month in office. Tyler and his secretary of state, John Calhoun, a fierce advocate for slavery, tried by
dishonest and manipulative means to gain support for the annexation of Texas. The treaty they
presented to the Senate for annexation was voted down, but the issue of annexation had risen to the
fore of American politics.
Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna Santa Anna, the president of Mexico, organized a mass purge of Mexican
liberals from his government in 1834. This accomplished, he began to place restrictions on the
governments of the Mexican territories to the North. Fearing tyrannical rule, Stephen F. Austin and
other American settlers in Texas sparked the Texas Rebellion to win independence. Santa Anna was
captured during the rebellion and forced to sign a treaty giving Texas its independence, and was
shortly ousted from the Mexican government.
Events
Panic of 1819
The state banks that had risen up to financially support speculation and expansion had issued notes far in
excess of what they could realistically redeem. In reaction to this situation, the Bank of the United States
insisted that the state banks redeem all notes that had passed into the hands of the Bank of the US. In order
to pay the Bank of the US, the state banks had to demand payment of debts by the farmers of the Midwest.
The result was a vast restriction in the amount of circulating money, and a substantial cutback in the
amount of credit offered farmers and speculators, dramatically slowing the economy. The Panic of 1819
punctured the land rush and the agricultural boom that had been underway since 1815, and alerted farmers
to the need for more effective transportation to distant markets.
important terms, people, and events
6
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Stephen F. Austin The most successful of all Texan empresarios, Stephen Austin became an influential
political leader in Texas. He did not support independence at first, and his misgivings restrained any
major move towards independence among the Texan people. However, once he threw his support
behind the Texas Rebellion in 1835, it benefited greatly from his leadership and support.
SPARK
ARKNOTES
People
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
SPARK
ARKNOTES
important terms, people, and events
7
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Texas Rebellion
As the population of American settlers in Texas had grown, relations with the Mexican government had
steadily soured. When, in 1834, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna purged the liberals from the government and
began restricting the independence of the Mexican territories, many Texans decided it was time for a clean
break. Texan leaders met and declared independence, soon beginning a series of battles that culminated
with the April 1836 capture of Santa Anna himself. Though the Texans forced him to sign a treaty
declaring Texas independent, the Mexican government never officially recognized the treaty, and the status
of Texas remained in question, to be decided by the Mexican War.
Wounded Knee
After an excited Native American fired a rifle shot in a non-combat situation, US Army troops massacred
300 Indians, including seven children. The massacre was the symbolic final step in the war for the West,
and after Wounded Knee the Indians succumbed to the wishes of the federal government, resigning
themselves to reservation life.
Copyright 2005 by SparkNotes LLC.
8
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC.
SPARK
ARKNOTES
August 18, 1807: Robert Fulton and Robert Livingston Demonstrate the Speed of the Clermont
Fulton and Livingston demonstrate the power of the steamboat by traveling from New York City up the
Hudson River to Albany in 32 hours, a trip that would take a sailing sloop four days.
July 1821: Mexico Wins Independence from Spain
In the culmination of a long revolution, Mexico wins independence from Spain and takes control of the
territories of New Mexico and California.
October 26, 1825: The Erie Canal is Opened
Completing construction begun in 1817, the 363-mile canal connects Buffalo and Albany New York, which
then connects to New York City via the Hudson River. The Erie Canal links New York City to the Great
Lakes, and thus the West. This begins a period of rapid canal development in the North and Northwest,
revolutionizing domestic trade and transportation.
May 26, 1830: The Indian Removal Act is Passed
The Indian Removal Act grants President Andrew Jackson the funding and authority to remove the Indians
residing east of the Mississippi River, a goal he pursues with great zeal.
1832: Worcester v. Georgia
In the case of Worcester v. Georgia, Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Cherokees comprised a
"domestic dependent nation" within Georgia and thus deserved protection from harassment. However, the
vehemently anti-Indian Andrew Jackson refused to abide by the decision, sneering "John Marshall has made
his decision; now let him enforce it."
November 1835: The Texas Rebellion Begins
A group of Texan leaders convenes to draw up a provisional government and declare independence from
Mexico. Shortly after, fighting breaks out.
December 29, 1835: Treaty of New Echota is Signed
Federal agents persuaded a pro-removal Cherokee chief to sign the Treaty of New Echota, which ceded all
Cherokee land for $5.6 million and free transportation west. Most Cherokees rejected the treaty, but
resistance was futile. Between 1835 and 1838 bands of Cherokee Indians moved west of the Mississippi
along the so-called Trail of Tears. Between 2,000 and 4,000 of the 16,000 migrating Cherokees died.
March 6, 1836: The Alamo is Taken by Mexican Troops
Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna's Mexican force of 4,000 troops lays siege to the town of San Antonio, where
200 Texans resist, retreating to an abandoned mission, the Alamo. After inflicting over 1,500 casualties on
Santa Anna's men, the defenders of the Alamo are wiped out on March 6, 1836. The Alamo becomes a
symbol of the Texans' determination to win independence.
Spring 1844: John Tyler's Treaty Proposing the Annexation of Texas is Defeated in the Senate
Congressmen wary of inciting further sectional conflict defeat the treaty for annexation. However,
annexation becomes the major issue in the 1844 election.
February 1845: Congress Passes a Measure to Annex Texas
After James K. Polk becomes President of the United States in January, Congress passes a measure
approving annexation, trusting Polk to oversee Texas' admission more effectively than John Tyler would
have.
July 4, 1845
Five months after the United States Congress votes to annex Texas, a Texas convention votes to accept
annexation, despite the warning by the Mexican government that any agreement to join the United States
will be equivalent to a declaration of war.
December 29, 1845: Texas is Admitted to the Union
Texas is officially granted statehood and becomes the 28th state.
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Timeline
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
SPARK
ARKNOTES
timeline
9
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
May 9, 1846: Polk Receives Word that Mexican Forces Have Ambushed Two American Companies
Polk, waiting for Mexico to strike the first blow, hears of these attacks and declares the Mexican War begun.
He demands that Congress vote for appropriations to carry out the war.
November 1846: The Donner Party is Snowbound
Due to the erred advice of a guidebook, the Donner Party finds itself snowbound in the Sierra Nevada
Mountains, and arrives at its destination in California only after turning to cannibalism to survive.
January, 1848: Gold is Discovered in California
An American carpenter finds gold at the base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, sparking a gold rush which
brings tens of thousands of new settlers to California, establishing towns and cities, and accelerating the
drive toward statehood.
February 2, 1848: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is Signed
At the close of the Mexican War, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo cedes Texas, New Mexico, and
California to the United States, which now controls land stretching all the way across North America.
September 9, 1850: California is Admitted to the Union
Under the Compromise of 1850, engineered by Henry Clay, California is admitted to the Union as a free
state.
May 10, 1869: The First Transcontinental Railroad is Completed
The first transcontinental railroad is completed when the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads join
their tracks at Promontory Point, Utah. The railroad rapidly affects the ease of western settlement,
shortening the journey from coast to coast, which took six to eight months by wagon, to a mere one week's
trip.
June 1876: The Battle of Little Bighorn
Colonel George Armstrong Custer and his men are wiped out by Sioux forces while attempting to control
the Great Plains and confine all Indians to reservations. The battle symbolizes the strength of the Sioux
resistance, and the US Army is forced to pursue a long war of attrition, rather than go head to head with the
Sioux forces.
February 8, 1887: The Dawes Severalty Act is Passed
The Dawes Act calls for the breakup of the reservations and the treatment of Indians as individuals rather
than tribes. It provides for the distribution of 160 acres of farmland or 320 acres of grazing land to any
Indian who accepted the act's terms, who would then become a US citizen in 25 years. The act is intended
to help the Indians to integrate into white society, but in reality helps to create a class of federally dependent
Indians.
December 29, 1887: The Massacre at Wounded Knee
After an excited Native American fires a rifle shot, US Army troops massacre 300 Indians, including seven
children. The massacre is the symbolic final step in the war for the West, and after Wounded Knee the
Indians succumb to the wishes of the federal government, resigning themselves to reservation life.
February 14, 1912: Arizona is Admitted to the Union
Arizona, the last of the 48 contiguous United States, is admitted to the Union, completing the century-long
process of conquering and organizing the American West.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC.
Summary
The westward movement of the American population occurred in intermittent flurries of settlement. The
first began early in the nation's history, resulting in the statehood of Vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee, and
Ohio, all of which were admitted to the Union between 1791 and 1803. With the Louisiana Purchase the US
doubled in size, opening up new regions to exploration and settlement. Once the War of 1812 ended, expansion began in earnest. The government was eager to enlarge the Union, and, accordingly, six new states
joined the Union between 1816 and 1821: Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri.
Settlers of the west, called pioneers, usually migrated as families and settled along the rivers of the West in
order to facilitate trade. Pioneers often settled among others who hailed from the same areas of the East, or
shared similar customs or religion. For instance, Indiana was overwhelmingly populated by southern
migrants. As a result, many New Englanders chose not to settle there and instead moved on to Michigan,
which became primarily populated with former New England residents. Even before there were organized
cities and towns, there was a strong sense of cooperation and community in the West. Inhabitants met regularly to participate in sports and hold fairs, parties, and "hoedowns," or dances.
There was a measure of rivalry between East and West, which was ever-present in the minds of many
western settlers. Easterners thought westerners were primitive and uncouth, and westerners in turn chided
the East for its soft and luxurious lifestyle. The identity of the West grew up around the ideals of simplicity,
openness, and honesty. This identity was universally known throughout the settlements, and the westerners
strove to support it with actions, consistently trying to demonstrate their simplistic sophistication to easterners and the eastern press, which painted the west as the domain of the unintelligent and backwards.
The federal government encouraged western expansion throughout the early nineteenth century. Most
prominently, soldiers had been promised western lands in return for enlisting in the American army during
the War of 1812. A total of six million acres were dealt in this manner as "military bounties," and many soldiers moved west at their earliest convenience to find arable land for farming after the war's end in 1814.
Furthermore, in 1816, Congress authorized the appropriation of funds for the formerly postponed project of
construction of a National Road, which by 1838 reached Vandalis, Illinois, and was widely used as a connection to western lands.
Commentary
In 1806, Zebulon Pike journeyed into the Rockies of what is now southern Colorado and sighted the peak
now named for him. The Lewis and Clark explored laand in the Far West. Both of these expeditions
returned East with maps of the explored territory and stories that quickly became exaggerated into the legend of the West, which enticed many an easterner to risk the uncertain journey to the little known territory.
The first settlers of the West, who in settling opened the west up to further settlement, were entrepreneurial fur traders. In 1811, John Jacob Astor of New York, founded Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia River
in Oregon as a center for the fur trade. In the 1820s and 1830s, fur trading grew up all along the Missouri
river. Some white fur traders became legends in their own time for their astounding feats of bravery in surviving harsh conditions to gather and sell furs. These "mountain men" included Jedediah Smith, Kit Carlson, and Jim Beckwourth. All of them became intertwined in the legend of the West.
Ordinary settlers did not flock to the West in the hopes of finding adventure. The typical migrant sought
a greater measure of stability. Indeed, it was not until the spread of canals in the 1820s and 1830s, or railroads
in the 1860s, that settlers would even venture from the shores of the major rivers of the West. To most Americans, "the West" still referred to the area between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River.
Copyright 2005 by SparkNotes LLC.
10
SPARK
ARKNOTES
The Surge West
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Summary and Analysis
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Summary
Federal land policy governing the expansion westward proceeded without clear direction throughout the
late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. The Ordinance of 1785 initially laid out the orderly protocol by
which the western territories were to be settled and incorporated into townships. Under the ordinance, each
township was allotted 640 acres, in the expectation that no single farmer would be able to afford all 640 and
that groups of farmers from the same region in the East would join together to form western townships.
However, during the 1790s, the Federalist Party, in control of the national government, favored the sale of
large parcels of land to wealthy speculators who bought the parcels in anticipation of their rising value, and
then sold them in smaller pieces to farmers. To this end, the Federalists passed a law setting the minimum
individual purchase at 640 acres and the minimum price at two dollars per acre.
Thomas Jefferson quickly set about reversing this trend once the Republicans came to power. Jefferson
believed that small farmers should control the West. The Land Law of 1800 reduced the minimum individual purchase of land in the West to 320 acres. That minimum was slashed to 160 acres in 1804, and again in
1820 to 80 acres. By 1832, the minimum land purchase was set at 40 acres, and the minimum price per acre
had steadily fallen off to about a dollar per acre.
Despite these efforts, speculation remained an influential aspect of westward expansion. Agricultural
prices soared after 1815, and state banks were chartered for the express purpose of extending credit to speculators. The result was an explosion in speculation between 1815 and 1819. In 1819, sales of public land were
over 1000 percent of what they had been on average between 1811 and 1814. A principle obstacle to speculation was the presence of squatters, who had settled on western lands without purchasing them. Squatters
formed claims associations to oversee land auctions and prevent speculators from bidding up the price of
land. They further pressured Congress to grant them the right to buy land that they had already settled on
and improved at minimum price. Congress, mindful of the disadvantages of small farmers and squatters
due to speculation, responded by passing special "preemption" laws that allowed squatters to pay minimum
price for their land in some areas. Finally, in 1841, Congress passed a general preemption law.
Still, farmers suffered high prices and higher interest on credit at the hands of speculators, prompting
many to enter the agricultural commodities market and neglect, to an extent, subsistence farming.
Commentary
The land policy of the early expansion period was the clear result of political maneuvering. During the 1790s,
the Federalists knew expansion was inevitable, but feared that it would dilute their support center in the
Northeast. However, they saw that the West could be a great source of revenue. The plan under the Ordinance of 1785 was for groups of farmers to join together to purchase townships. This system threatened to
summary and analysis
11
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Land Policy and Speculation
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Before 1840, few ventured into the Far West. Knowing that the average migrant wanted stability and security, newspaper reports and pamphlets aimed at describing the West to easterners usually stressed the bountiful resources of the region over its perils and sometimes harsh conditions. A legislator from the Missouri
Territory wrote east in 1816 in efforts to encourage migration that in the territory of what is now the Midwest, "there neither is, nor, in the nature of things, can there ever be, any thing like poverty there. All is ease,
tranquility and comfort." This description demonstrates the desire on the part of the federal government
and the evolving western governments to encourage the settlement and development of the west, which they
thought could serve as a great bounty to the nation as a whole.
The rivalry between East and West was a result of the sharp contrast between western and eastern life.
Indeed, life in the west was rough, with only a sprinkling of elegance amid a vast sea of manual laborers and
dirty towns with few modern amenities. The exchange of insults between East and West had a profound
affect on western identity. Westerners prided themselves on their simple manners and were not only hostile
to the decadent East but also intolerant of other westerners who demonstrated pretensions to gentility. Anyone who acted as if they were above the masses was ostracized, and even a politician who rode to a public
meeting in a buggy instead of horseback lost votes.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Summary
After the War of 1812, the sharply rising prices of agricultural commodities pulled settlers westward to find
more arable land and become farmers. Between 1815 and 1819, commodity prices climbed steeply, driving
up land prices as well. Farmers took advantage of the extensive river system of the West, shipping wheat and
corn down the Ohio River to the Mississippi and then down the Mississippi to the port of New Orleans where
it was sold or shipped to distant ports. Due to the capabilities of the Eli Whitney's newly invented cotton gin,
farmers rushed to claim lands in the southwest, hoping to cash in on cotton. "Alabama fever" gripped the
South after the War of 1812, and settlers flowed into Alabama and Mississippi, driving land prices to unprecedented levels. By 1820, Mississippi and Alabama produced half of the nation's cotton. The United States'
total cotton output tripled between 1816 and 1826. Cotton continued to rise in value as the nation's primary
export, and by 1836, would make up two-thirds of all American exports in terms of value. High prices
tempted many former subsistence farmers to enter the market economy.
However, the agriculture and land boom collapsed temporarily in the Panic of 1819. The state banks that
had risen up to support speculation and expansion financially had long issued notes guaranteeing redemption for specie or gold. These notes had then been widely circulated as a method of exchange throughout the
West. The state banks governed the issuance of these notes very loosely, and thus issued notes far in excess of
what they could realistically redeem. In reaction to this situation, the Bank of the United States began to
insist that the state banks redeem all notes that had passed into the hands of the Bank of the US, branches of
which had been in the practice of redeeming the notes themselves and amassing large numbers of state bank
notes which they assumed would be redeemed by the state banks. In order to pay the Bank of the US, the
state banks had to demand payment of debts by the farmers of the Midwest. The result was a vast restriction
summary and analysis
12
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Western Economy: Boom and Panic
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
draw many in the Northeast to the West and would not maximize government profits. To solve this problem, the Federalists encouraged the purchase of land by wealthy speculators, who not only would drive up
prices, and thereby profits, but also would stem the flow of westward expansion from North and South.
The Republicans deeply disliked the Federalist policy. They chastised the Federalists for transferring the
public domain to the nation's people too slowly and not cheaply enough. They believed that the United
States, and especially the West, should belong to small farmers, who were the source of the nation's democratic purity. Jefferson had long imagined and spoke of an "empire of liberty" stretching across the entire
continent, and took steps toward that goal most notably with the Louisiana Purchase. He desired that the
American West be populated by small farmers, who would ensure democracy (and most likely support the
Republican Party).
Even as the federal government liberalized its land policy, speculators were always a step ahead. Long
before the minimum land parcel was set at 40 acres in 1832 speculators had been selling 40-acre packages to
farmers. Small farmers preferred these small lots because the land they purchased was almost always covered with dense forest. A landowner could clear no more than ten to twelve acres per year. Since most farmers had to take out loans to purchase new land, they shied away from the prospect of spending more than four
years simply clearing land until they could use all of it to grow cash crops and repay their loans, which
charged hefty interest. Few farmers bought more than 160 acres.
The speculative boom was accompanied by the growing availability of credit specifically for land speculation. The chartering of the Second Bank of the United States in 1816 led to the increasing amount of money
in circulation and to the chartering of many smaller state banks. In 1812, the circulation of all bank notes was
$45 million. By 1817, this number had grown to $100 million. More often than not, these new state banks
were chartered so that they could lend their own directors capital to invest in land speculation.
The land boom meant that farmers were forced into cash cropping in many cases. Unable to repay large
loans any other way, farmers who had ventured west expecting to find land for conservative subsistence
farming became entrepreneurs. Wanting land of their own, but forced to raise cash crops to take advantage
of rising agricultural prices, many over farmed their lands in efforts to repay their loans, and were forced to
move on to new western lands and repeat the pattern.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
The paralleling meteoric rises in agricultural prices and land values fed off of each other to define the character of the western economy. Despite the Republicans' efforts to create a West filled with small subsistence
farmers, high land prices and high-interest loans from state banks forced many settlers to focus on cash crops
and enter the agricultural market, with which few had previous experience.
Commercial agriculture exposed these inexperienced farmers to many new risks they had not counted on,
and had not been warned about by the speculators who had encouraged them to grow cash crops. Cash crops
such as wheat and corn were sold far from where they were grown, to strangers of whom the farmers had no
knowledge. The farmers had no control over these distant markets and their fickle fluctuations. Additionally, due to the inevitable time gap between the harvesting period and the sale of cash crops, farmers often
found themselves borrowing money to sustain their families during these periods of zero-income. These
short-term debts were often much larger than expected, and usually cut into long-term profits.
The West was very vulnerable to a crash like the Panic of 1819 because of the overextension of credit and
the heightened dependence on agricultural exports to repay loans. Even a slight decrease in foreign demand
for agricultural commodities would set off a downward spiral in which farmers could not pay their debts
and banks could not issue gold or specie to holders of their notes. The added decline in the value of land
capped off the severe restriction of capital in the economy. The biggest losers in the Panic of 1819 were the
speculators, who owned huge tracts of land that they had bought at exorbitant prices and now could not sell.
Land that had sold for up to $69 an acre dropped in value to only $2 an acre.
The Panic of 1819 had a profound effect on the American psyche. Many grew distrustful of banks, and
especially the Bank of the United States, which mtook the blame for beginning the economic collapse. Also,
the Panic accentuated the vulnerability of American agriculture and factories to foreign competition, leading to calls for protective economic policies. Though the Republicans in power generally objected to high
import duties, higher tariffs were passed in 1824 and 1828. Additionally, falling crop prices highlighted
farmers' dependence on cash crops and unstable agricultural markets. This provoked a search for more efficient methods of transportation to reach distant markets. If the cost of transportation could be cut, farmers
could keep a larger portion of the value of their crops as profit, easing the effects of variations in the markets.
Indian Removal
Summary
The Louisiana Purchase and the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812, effectively removed all foreign infringement on American territory in North America. This had the ancillary result of removing all
the protection that the region's Native Americans had received from foreign powers, most notably Britain.
Free to expand, American foreign policy throughout the nineteenth century worked to the disadvantage of
the Indians.
The Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles--whom whites referred to as the "Five
Civilized Tribes"--occupied sizable tracts of land in Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida.
Portions of these tribes had accepted the teachings of white missionaries and accepted Christianity, white
inventions, and even the concept of slavery. The Cherokee chief Sequoyah devised a written form of the
Cherokee language and the tribe published a newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix. While a significant number
of Indians ceded their lands to the US government, many resisted removal. Many of the "civilized" Indians
summary and analysis
13
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Commentary
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
in the amount of circulating money, and a substantial cutback in the amount of credit offered farmers and
speculators, dramatically slowing the economy.
The credit squeeze coincided with increased foreign production and thus falling export demand for US
crops. Agricultural prices, which had sparked the boom, dropped off sharply, bringing the value of land
down. Farmers could not afford to pay their debts, and since speculators could not collect payment for lands
they had sold, the value of land plummeted even further. Eventually, through maintained production, innovation, and economic measures by the federal government, prices stabilized and progress continued in settling the West, but at a slower rate than the boom of 1815 to 1819.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
The burst in enthusiasm for Indian removal under Jackson was just another step in the ongoing oppression
to which American Indians were subject from the beginning of white occupation of North America. During
the period following the Revolutionary War, the federal and state governments of the United States had
taken steps to remove Indians from the borders of western states. By the beginning of the nineteenth century,
the Indian population at large had dwindled, and the only Indians remaining inside the borders of the
United States lived in tight communities, very much separated from white society, despite the efforts of some
to integrate them into white American life. The Indians experienced fairly constant antagonism at the hands
of white settlers, but it was not until after the War of 1812 that the federal government took a fierce stance on
removal. The Louisiana Purchase and moderate success in the War of 1812 had removed the British, who
had been the Indians' primary advocates, from the American West, and sparked a new American nationalism, which centered on the desire to expand. The Indians were seen as an obstacle to this aggressive nationalism. The Government took steps to force the Indians from their homelands throughout the nation's territory
into a small, concentrated area of Indian reservations in what is now Oklahoma and southern Kansas.
Whites' demands for Native American lands peaked in the 1820s and 1830s. Under this pressure, the traditional policy of negotiating piecemeal treaties with individual factions and tribes was scrapped in favor of a
policy far less friendly to the Indians. Andrew Jackson embodied America's new militancy toward the
tribes. He realized that by the 1820s, the balance of power between the American settlers had shifted from
earlier years. The whites had grown stronger, and the Indians, having lost foreign support, weaker. Jackson
personally had led troops against the Creek Indians, and his victory at Horseshoe Bend in 1814 had convinced him that the Indians were much weaker than many assumed, and that they would crumble quickly
under the advance of western expansion. He decried the practice of negotiating treaties in favor of coercive
measures. His policies reflected both his disdain and racism toward the Indians and his somewhat less
vicious conviction that in the East the full- blooded Indians would be exploited by devious whites and selfserving mixed- bloods. Nowhere was Jackson's commitment to removal more strongly demonstrated than
in his reaction to the ruling in Worcester v. Georgia. He not only showed his unflinching support for Cherokee
summary and analysis
14
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Commentary
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
resisted knowing that they depended on interactions with whites for survival. Others, who had clung to their
ancient customs, were reluctant to abandon their ancestral lands. Many of the latter were full- blooded Indians, as opposed to the many mixed bloods produced from years of intermixing with whites. Full bloods were
often resentful of mixed bloods, who were more likely to give in to the wishes of the US government.
When Andrew Jackson became president in 1829, he quickly instituted a coercive removal policy. In
1830, the Indian Removal Act granted Jackson funds and authority to remove the Indians by force if necessary. The Georgia legislature passed a resolution stating that after 1830, Indians could not be parties to or
witnesses in court cases involving whites. Treaties signed in 1830 and 1832 had begun the removal of the
Chickasaws from Alabama and the Choctaws from Alabama. In 1836, the Georgia militia attacked Creeks
residing in the state. In that year, 15,000 Creeks were removed and forced west of the Mississippi. Between
1835 and 1840, the federal government spent 420 million on a war to eject the Seminoles from Florida.
The Cherokees attempted legal resistance to removal. In 1827, they declared themselves an independent
nation within Georgia, only to have the Georgia legislature pass laws giving it jurisdiction over the nation.
The Supreme Court ruled that the Cherokees were neither a state nor a nation. However, in Worcester v.
Georgia, Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Cherokees were a "domestic dependent nation" and were
thereby entitled to protection. This decision carried only minimal weight. Andrew Jackson reportedly
responded to the decision saying "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it." The Cherokee nation itself was divided between factions favoring and opposing removal. In 1835, federal agents persuaded a pro-removal chief to sign the Treaty of New Echota, which ceded all Cherokee land for $5.6 million
and free transportation west. Most Cherokees rejected the treaty, but resistance was futile. Between 1835
and 1838 bands of Cherokee Indians moved west of the Mississippi along the so-called Trail of Tears.
Between 2,000 and 4,000 of the 16,000 migrating Cherokees died.
The Northwestern Indians put up mild resistance to removal but met with a similar fate. Most notable
among the resistance was that of chief Black Hawk, who mounted significant resistance in both 1831 and
1832 in Illinois. In the end, federal troops crushed this rebellion and others, and between 1832 and 1837, the
US acquired nearly 190 million acres of northwestern land in return for about $70 million in gifts.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Summary
The Panic of 1819 alerted many to the need for more effective transportation of goods. Most rivers west of
the Appalachians ran north to south, so they could not connect western farmers with the eastern markets
where their goods were sold. The National Road was the primary connection between east and west, and it
advanced further west each year. In addition, between 1815 and 1825 seven northern states built toll roads, or
turnpikes. However, this did not solve the problem of transportation. Horse-drawn wagons had very limited capacity and roads were very expensive to maintain. Thus, interest turned toward the concept of water
transportation.
In 1807, Robert Fulton and Robert Livingston introduced the first steamboat, known as the Clermont, on
the Hudson River. Steamboats quickly caught on and became the preferred mode of water transportation.
Between 1817 and 1820 the number of steamboats in America jumped from 17 to 69, and by 1855, the number had reached 727. Before the advent of the steamboat, flatboats, sometimes little more than rafts, carried
goods down the Mississippi River. There, the boats were broken up and sold as firewood because they could
not make the trip back upstream. The return voyage was then made on foot or horseback. Keelboats, like
flatboats except in that they had a rudder, could make the return journey upstream, but progress was
extremely slow. Steamboats moved about four times as fast as keelboats upstream. The speed and versatility
of the steamboat, augmented by a number of important functional improvements made over the years,
established the steamboat an indispensable method of trade for all seasons.
As steamboats gained popularity, enthusiasm grew for the building of canals. In 1816, the US had only
100 miles of canals. However, the invention of the steamboat and the resources of the west convinced many
that canals were a necessary connection between the Mississippi-Ohio waterways with the Great Lakes, and
thereby the East. The first major canal project, the Erie Canal, spanned 363 miles and connected Buffalo and
Albany, New York. Through the Erie Canal, New York City was linked, by the Hudson River in the East,
and the Great Lakes in the West, all the way to Ohio. The growing canal system linked the major trading
and manufacturing centers of the nation. Shipping costs dropped dramatically. Average freight costs from
Buffalo to New York City fell from 19 cents per ton per mile in 1817 to 2 to 3 cents during the 1830s.
As the canal boom slowed in the late 1830s, the railroad boom kicked into gear. By 1840, about 3,000 miles
of track had been lain in America and investment in railroads had outstripped that in canals. The Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad, chartered in 1828, successfully competed with the Erie Canal for business. Massachusetts, unable to connect to the Erie Canal due to obstructing mountains, chartered the Boston and Worcester
Railroad in 1831 and the Western Railroad from Worcester to Albany in 1833. Railroads were faster,
cheaper, and had greater range than canals, but still grew only gradually at first.
The transportation revolution produced the rapid growth of towns and cities. In 1820, 6.1 percent of
Americans lived in places with populations of greater than 2,500 people, and only New York City and Philadelphia had more than 100,000 people. By 1860, however, nearly 20 percent of the population lived in places
of 2,500 or more, and New York City's population had climbed from 124,000 to 800,000. The West experienced dramatic changes as well. Before 1830, all of the major cities in the West were on main rivers. However, the canal system heightened the importance of lake cities such as Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, and
summary and analysis
15
SPARK
ARKNOTES
The Transportation Revolution and the Rise of Cities
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
removal, but also demonstrated the growing power of the presidency, clearly defying the will of the Supreme
Court without major consequence.
The case of the Cherokee nation is itself demonstrative of the struggle of the Indians of the 1820s. In
efforts to consolidate their collective identity and ancestral lands, both slipping away as whites increasingly
interacted with the tribe, the Cherokees founded a nation, in hopes of maintaining their culture and land. In
response, the federal government denied the tribe the strength provided by nationhood, and in a sign of complete disrespect, used trickery and force to expel the Indians to serve the greedy desires of the American settlers and the government that backed them. Armed with a new sense of national destiny, the federal
government took what it was beginning to believe was rightfully its own, with little regard to the consequences for the previous inhabitants.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Steamboats quickly became a symbol of the West. As such, westerners continuously sought to improve and
decorate the boats. In competition for passengers, they began to offer luxurious cabins and built ornate
lounges on board. The elegance of these steamboats served as a reassurance to westerners that they were not
the primitive backwoods hicks painted by the eastern press. However, most steamboat passengers did not
have access to this elegance. The onboard saloons were open only to those who had purchased expensive
cabin passage. Passengers who could afford only deck passage slept in dirty, crowded conditions on a cotton
bale if they could find one, on the floor if they could not.
All passengers experienced the dangers of steamboat travel. Fires were common because steamboats used
huge furnaces and often carried flammable cargo, such as oil or hay. Collisions also occurred frequently. In
one 1837 collision, several hundred Creek Indians were killed on the Mississippi while en route to reservations in the West. Debris under the water's surface often cracked the hulls of fast-moving ships as well. Further, because little was known about the reaction of metals under the stress of steam travel, boiler explosions
destroyed many a steamer and its passengers. One company carried passengers on a barge behind the steamboat expressly to avoid this common source of injury and death.
The canal system revolutionized American trade. Once thought of by Thomas Jefferson as "little short of
madness," by 1825, when the Erie Canal was completed, canals were hailed as the savior of American commerce. In a period of frequent insecurity, the Erie Canal was seen as a symbol of American ingenuity and
peaceful progress. The grid of canals spanning the North transformed the methods of commerce and manufacturing, and dramatically changed the fortunes of some towns. In 1836, 365,000 bushels of western wheat
entered the milling town of Rochester, New York and left as 369,000 barrels of flour bound for eastern markets. All of this was accomplished by shipment along the Erie Canal. The canal transformed Rochester
from a small village of a few hundred in 1817 to a thriving town of 9,000 by 1830.
Cities such as Baltimore and Boston, which lacked connections to the West through waterways, saw the
railroad as their opportunity to participate in western trade. The Western Railroad and the Baltimore and
Ohio Railroad proved very successful for Boston and Baltimore, respectively. However, railroads spread
slowly despite their advantages over canals. Until 1850, most railroads connected cities in the East rather
than East and West, and most carried more passengers than freight. The East was not connected to the Great
Lakes by rail until 1850. Many factors contributed to the slow growth of the railroads. Unlike canals that
had been built by state governments, railroads were often built by independent contractors. In order to minimize the cost of their initial investments, these contractors often used cost-cutting methods such as using
wooden rails covered by iron bars. As a result, American railroads were in constant need of repair, factoring
into their slow growth. In contrast, canals, once built, needed little maintenance. Also, large, bulky commodities were more cheaply shipped by canal, keeping canals in demand long after railroads were built.
The rise of cities had the effect of drawing increasing numbers into the already settled areas of the west,
since these settlers knew that jobs and shelter waited for them there. Canals and railroads not only carried
cargo, but also people, into the west. The growing population of cities contributed to the rise of manufacturing and industrialization, most notably in the North. Furthermore, the growth of cities created an entirely
new category of political issues revolving around life in the cities.
The Opening of the Far West
Summary
As late as 1840, when Americans talked about the West, they referred to the area between the Appalachian
Mountains and the Mississippi River, and perhaps a slight bit beyond. The areas of Texas, New Mexico, California, and Oregon were regarded as a vast, unknown, and shadowy region, even by the nations with claims
there. Spain, and after 1821, Mexico, claimed Texas, New Mexico, and California, and Oregon was jointly
summary and analysis
16
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Commentary
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Chicago. Between 1830 and 1840, the portion of westerners living along rivers dropped from 75 to 20 percent.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Traders posed little threat to the Mexican provinces of the Southwest. The Mexican people of California and
New Mexico depended heavily on American trade for manufactured goods, and the governments of both
territories relied on customs duties generated by the trade. Although relations were for the most part mutually beneficial, there was always potential for conflict between American and Mexican settlers. Spanish
speaking, Roman Catholic, and accustomed to a hierarchical society, the Mexicans presented a sharp contrast
to the Protestant, individualistic American settlers. At first, American traders and lone settlers conformed to
the life of the Hispanic settlers. However, as more and more Americans moved west, and separated communities began to spring up, the potential for conflict grew. Still, the economic ties between the two groups kept
them on mostly amiable terms, and the influx of American trade, capital, and know-how into the Far West
led to the beginnings of modernization.
No one factor led to the early settlement and organization of the Far West more than the establishment of
Spanish missions early in the nineteenth century. The Spanish mission was a tool for advancing political,
economic, and religious goals. The missions were staffed by Franciscan priests who were paid by the government to convert Native Americans and settle them on mission lands. The mission at once became a center
for trade from the East, oversaw the development of local government, and encouraged settlement of the
Indians on mission lands in order to create a thriving class of workers able to aid in the development of the
untamed West. Even as their direct impact waned due to "secularization" and the enmity of the Indians,
their influence over the permanent settlement of the West remains clear even today in the names of towns
and cities such as San Francisco and San Diego, scattered throughout the American West.
Mexican policy was partially responsible for the rise of conflict between the Indians and Hispanic settlers.
The secularization of the missions had resulted in some ranchers turning Indians into slave laborers. Many
Indian villages in California and New Mexico were the targets of frequent raids by settlers seeking domestic
servants. Hispanic settlers gave little thought to riding into an Indian village and absconding with Indian
women and children. Relations between the two groups grew progressively worse as time went by, and soon
the Indians saw the Mexican government as the bastion of evil.
summary and analysis
17
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Commentary
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
occupied by the United States and Great Britain. These areas had, for the most part, remained devoid of settlers throughout the expansion boom of the 1820s and 1830s.
Trappers and traders made the first forays into the Far West during the 1820s. Fur trappers in California
and Oregon traded cattle hides with eastern merchants for manufactured goods. The Rocky Mountains of
Colorado and Utah saw the rise of the beaver trapping industry. The British Hudson's Bay Company established a similar pattern of trade. Farther South, the Santa Fe Trail linked St. Louis and Santa Fe, establishing strong economic connections between the regions surrounding the endpoints of the trail. After the Panic
of 1819, merchants saddled with unsold goods loaded up wagons and traveled to Santa Fe where they traded
for mules and New Mexican silver. Mexico benefited from this trade, as many goods made their way to the
Mexican interior, and encouraged interaction with American traders. As a result, the Mexican silver peso
soon became the standard medium of exchange in Missouri.
During the 1820s and beyond, glowing reports of the Southwest led to a large influx of American settlers,
especially into Eastern Texas. Meanwhile, the Spanish, and later Mexican, government attempted to promote the settlement of California and New Mexico by Hispanic people, largely through the use of the mission. Missions were established all along the California coast and into the interior of Texas and New Mexico.
The missionaries tried to convert the region's Indians, and built towns around their missions. By 1823, over
20,000 Indians had converted and were living in the missions of California.
Due to Mexico's expenditure of time, energy, and funding on its successful fight for Independence in 1821,
the mission system installed by the Spanish declined during the late 1820s and 1830s. The Mexican government "secularized" the missions during the late 1820s and 1830s by giving their lands to government officials
and ranchers. Many Indians left the missions and returned to their tribes. During the 20s and 30s, these
tribes, in opposition to Mexican efforts at settlement, terrorized the Mexican frontier, stealing cattle and carrying off women and children. Apache and Comanche Indians attacked New Mexico and Texas, sweeping
southward into Mexico. They advanced within 150 miles of Mexico City before being turned back. This turmoil in the Southwest made the settlers and Mexican government helpless to stop the advances of American
settlers.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Summary
During the post 1815 cotton boom, settlers poured into Eastern Texas in search of farmland. After the Panic
of 1819, many indebted Americans fled to Texas to escape creditors. By 1823, about 3,000 Americans lived in
Texas. In 1824, the Mexican government, which owned Texas, began to actively encourage the American
colonization of Texas in order to promote trade and development. By 1830, about 7,000 Americans lived in
Texas, outnumbering Hispanic settlers two to one. The Mexican government gave large land grants to
agents, called empresarios, who contracted to travel East to recruit settlers. Many of these empresarios were
widely successful, and some, like Stephen F. Austin, the most successful of all, gained great influence both
with the Mexican government and the Texan settlers.
Some Americans were a source of trouble for the American government. Harlan Coffee, an infamous
American trader, provoked Indians to raid Mexican settlements to seize livestock for trade with Americans.
Violence erupted as early as 1826, when an American empresario, Haden Edwards, led a revolt against Mexican rule. However, Stephen Austin and other American settlers disapproved of the revolt, and without support, Edwards was crushed easily by Mexican forces. In 1830, Mexico closed Texas altogether to American
immigration and forbade the introduction of additional slaves to the territory. However, Mexico lacked the
power to enforce this decree. Between 1830 and 1834, the American population in Texas doubled. Finally, in
1834, the ban on immigration was lifted, and by 1835, over 1,000 Americans per month were entering Texas.
Meanwhile, the Mexican government grew increasingly unstable. In 1834, Mexican President Antonio
Lopez de Santa Anna ousted leading liberals from the Mexican government and began to place stern restrictions on the independent powers of the governments of the Mexican territories. His actions ignited a number of small rebellions throughout the West. Santa Anna's brutality in crushing early rebellions alarmed
Stephen Austin and other Americans. At first Austin wished to cooperate with Mexican liberals remaining
in power to restore greater independence for Texas, but did not advocate a movement for total independence. However, in 1834, after Santa Anna's sudden usurpation of complete power, Austin became convinced of the need for independence and the Texas Rebellion began in earnest. In late February 1836, Santa
Anna's force of 4,000 troops laid siege to the town of San Antonio, where 200 Texans resisted, retreating to an
abandoned mission called the Alamo. After inflicting over 1,500 casualties on Santa Anna's men, the defenders of the Alamo were wiped out on March 6, 1836. To add insult to injury, a short while later Mexicans massacred 350 Texan prisoners at Goliad.
Even before these events, Texan leaders had met and declared Texas independent. They chose Sam
Houston as their president, and Houston traveled East to gather recruits. In April 1836, Houston surprised
Santa Anna's troops on a prairie near the San Jacinto River. Shouting "remember the Alamo," Houston's 800
men broke through the Mexican lines and killed nearly two-thirds of Santa Anna's men in fifteen minutes,
taking Santa Anna himself as a prisoner. He was forced to sign a treaty recognizing Texas as independent.
Commentary
Texas was the natural target for early far western expansion due to its proximity to the settled Southwest and
because it was not buffered by mountains, as were New Mexico and California. Settlers from the southwestern states seeking farmland on which to grow cotton could venture into Texas relatively easily, with minimal
preparation compared to that needed for the long overland journey beyond the Rocky Mountains. Settlers
fearing the instability of life on the frontier knew that they could more easily return from Texas than from
any other western destination. In the 1820s, Americans found conditions in Texas to be much to their liking.
The Mexican government encouraged immigration and strove to ease the process for Americans, allowing
summary and analysis
18
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Texas
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Since the Mexican army refused to aid settlers on the frontier, the territory was under populated. In 1836,
New Mexico had 30,000 Hispanic settlers, but California had only 3,200, and Texas, only 4,000. These sparse,
unsupported settlements soon were overwhelmed by the arrival of American settlers. To the Americans
watching the development of what is now the Midwest, the Far West seemed the next wild frontier. Following stories of adventure and bountiful resources, Americans began to flow into the Southwest.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Summary
In 1840, California and New Mexico remained basically untouched by American settlers. Only a few hundred Americans lived in either territory, and most were scattered among the Mexican settlers. However, due
to the constant stream of favorable reports sent back east, the 1840s saw a dramatic increase in white American settlers in the Far West. Most California settlers headed for the Sacramento Valley, where they lived
apart from the Mexicans. Oregon drew many settlers from the Mississippi Valley with the promise of fertile
farmland. During the 1830s missionaries had moved into Oregon's Willamette Valley, and by 1840, there
were about 500 Americans there. To some, Oregon was even more attractive a destination than California
and New Mexico, and the 1840s saw rapid settlement there as well.
Settlers of the Far West faced a four-month journey across little-known territory in harsh conditions.
They prepared for the rigors of travel in jump- off towns like St. Joseph and Independence, Missouri, which
prospered from the growth of the outfitting industry. There, settlers purchased Conestoga wagons for the
journey and stocked up on supplies like food, weapons, and ammunition. Due to fictional stories about the
savage Indians that travelers would face along their way, travelers on the overland trails often overstocked
guns and ammunition at the expense of other more necessary items. Once they embarked, settlers faced
numerous challenges: oxen dying of thirst, overloaded wagons, and dysentery, among others. Trails were
poorly marked and hard to follow, and travelers often lost their way. Guidebooks attempted to advise travelers, but they were often unreliable. In 1846, the Donner Party set out from Illinois armed with one such
summary and analysis
19
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Settling California, New Mexico, and Oregon
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
them a great degree of freedom in choosing the location of settlements and the political organization as well.
This was a sharp contrast to the United States government, which throughout the settlement of the American West, had been ever present in the lives of the western settlers.
The major threat to peace between the American settlers and the Mexican government took the form of
devious and self-serving individuals such as Harlan Coffee, but even ordinary, law-abiding Americans presented a problem. Though they themselves were naturalized Mexican citizens, the Americans distrusted the
Mexican settlers for racist reasons, and complained often of disorganization and corruption in the Mexican
government. Mexican authorities, for their part, increasingly lamented their inability to regulate immigration in the vast Texas territory. In 1828, Mexican General Manuel Mier y Teran reported that the Americans
had established functioning farming communities even before the Mexican government was aware of their
presence in Texas. Mier y Teran killed himself four years later in despair over Mexico's inability to stem the
flow of American immigrants, who by then far outnumbered the Hispanic settlers and controlled the economy and identity of Texas.
The late 1820s and early 1830s saw the widening of the rift between the American settlers and the Mexican government. American allegiance steadily declined and there was frequent talk of rebellion and revolution, even calls for independence. Though most opposed revolts such as that led by Haden Edwards, many
began to question the Mexican government's ability to rule the Texas territory. When Mexico banned the
further importation of slaves to Texas, many Americans changed their views. The majority of early immigrants to Texas were cotton farmers, most of which used slaves extensively in their farming. They saw the
ban on the introduction of additional slaves as the act of a tyrannical government that was growing more and
more antagonistic each day. However, cooler heads, such as Stephen F. Austin's, prevailed, and revolt was
considered too drastic to be considered. The settlers innstead hoped for a compromise with the Mexican
government, under which Texas would remain loyal to Mexico economically and emotionally, but would
enjoy a measure of political independence, and open borders. This possibility was destroyed by Santa Anna's
actions of 1834, and Texas inhabitants believed he would only continue to restrict their freedom. As a result,
Texas leaders formed the framework of independent government and organized for independence, which
they strove for zealously. Though the military defeat of Santa Anna's troops was undeniable, and Santa
Anna himself signed the treaty that granted Texas its independence, the Mexican government never ratified
the treaty, and Texas, though the Texans considered it independent, would remain a source of controversy
for years to come.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Settlers flocked to the Far West for many reasons. They sought adventure, farmland, an escape from the constraints of civilization, and new starts. California was attractive because of its climate and the fact that the
Spanish and Mexicans had begun to organize the territory through the mission system. However, Oregon
proved far more attractive to many settlers. Discovered and explored by the British, Oregon was jointly
occupied by the British and Americans, who, though they had not yet settled the territory, had set the stage
for settlement by sending white missionaries and drawing maps. Oregon seemed more likely than California
to be annexed by the United States, thus settlers who desired stability and wanted to maintain a close link
with their home country chose Oregon over California, leading to its more rapid development. The Willamette Valley offered fertile farmland and the assured company of other American settlers, whereas the Sacramento Valley was less well known and put the white settlers in geographic proximity to the Mexican
settlers, who many Americans found distasteful.
It was not purely the uncertain promise of fertile land that provoked Americans to make the long journey
from the Midwest across the Rocky Mountains. Constant news sent east fueled the fire of expansion to a great
extent. Many of these reports simply stated the facts, that there was a vast amount of unclaimed land in the
far west, and that with a lot of hard work and a little luck, an American settler could be successful in farming.
However, the effect on the American psyche of elaborate fictions about the West cannot be underestimated.
During the 1840s the legend of the West began to unfold itself in earnest. One story told of a 250 year-old
man who lived in California who had to leave the bounteous region when he wanted to die. Other stories
told of feats of great daring and bravery on the part of western settlers, and advanced notions of geographical
wonders and trees that grew higher than the eye could see. These stories produced the desired effect of stimulating interest in the West, and on top of the factual promise of open land and a new beginning, convinced
many to undertake the perilous journey. Throughout the long process of settling the American West, the
legend of the West would grow and become a symbol of the rugged adventurousness of western settlers.
Despite the many reasons to migrate westward, the numbers that amassed in Oregon and California were
modest, and migration was concentrated between 1844 and 1848. Even so, small numbers had a large effect
on the Pacific coast. The British were unable to settle Oregon, and thus the concentration of Americans in
the Willamette Valley boded well for the prospect of American annexation. In California, the Mexican population was small and scattered. They had gradually lost their allegiance to the Mexican government as it
had gradually lost touch with them. This created a situation in which American settlers carried great clout
in the development of the settled regions, and in effect the American government many fiercely loyal agents
throughout the Southwest.
Foreign Policy in Texas and Oregon
Summary
The main issue that rose to the fore of pre-Civil War American politics as a result of westward expansion was
the possibility of the annexation of Texas. After the hero of the War of 1812, William Henry Harrison, died
one month into office, John Tyler became president in 1841. Tyler hoped to build a national following
summary and analysis
20
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Commentary
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
guidebook, which gave them such poor advice that the party found itself snowbound in the High Sierra. The
group finally reached its destination in California only after turning to cannibalism in order to survive.
There were many trails leading to the Far West. Southwestern travelers more often than not used the
Santa Fe Trail to move westward. Routes to the Northwest varied, but the Oregon Trail became the best
known and most often followed pathway to the northwest. Though it was commonly traveled, settlers still
faced difficult journeys westward. Travelers along these overland trails survived by cooperating with each
other in wagon trains. Though many brought a liberal spirit to the West, firmly entrenched traditions dictated the operations of the wagon trains. Women packed and unpacked the wagons, cooked, milked cows,
tended to children, and aided in childbirth. Men were responsible for yoking and unyoking the oxen, driving
the wagons, and making up hunting parties. Between 1840 and 1848, an estimated 11,500 followed the overland trails to Oregon, and nearly 3,000 reached California.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
The issue of annexation was tied tightly to the issue of slavery. Northerners feared that the annexation of
Texas was part of a Southern conspiracy to extend American territory southward into Mexico and South
America, thereby creating unlimited new slave states, while the north would be unable to expand similarly
due to the presence of British forces in Canada. Southerners saw annexation as a way to expand the nation's
cotton producing region and as a means to gain an additional two slave state votes in the Senate. Once in
office, Tyler and Calhoun did not disguise their appeals to the South for support for annexation. Calhoun
used reports that the British might pressure Mexico to recognize the independence of Texas in return for
abolishing slavery there to construct theories about how the British might use Texas and abolition as a way to
destroy the rice, sugar, and cotton growing industries in the US and gain monopolies in all three. Accompanying the treaty Calhoun and Tyler submitted to Congress was a letter from Calhoun explaining that slavery
was beneficial to blacks who otherwise would fall into "vice and pauperism." The political designs underlying these strategies were clear: use southern support to move annexation forward. However, the North and
wary southern congressmen held out for a more organized, practical approach to annexation, which Polk
provided.
As relations between Mexico and the United States soured, the issue of Texas drove the two nations
toward conflict. Mexico still hoped to regain control of Texas, or at least keep it free from American control.
Once the Americans controlled Texas, Mexicans shared the fears of the American North that the United
States would seize other Mexican provinces and perhaps even Mexico itself. The Mexicans feared that if this
happened, they would be treated much like southern slaves. Unfortunately for Mexico, Polk's election
roused enthusiasm for annexation beyond any previous level.
summary and analysis
21
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Commentary
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
through support for his foreign policy. In 1842, Tyler's secretary of state, Daniel Webster, negotiated a treaty
with Great Britain settling a long dispute over the boundary between Maine and Canada, to great public
approval. Tyler then moved on to the issue of annexation. Despite rampant differences of opinion between
the North and South, in 1843 Tyler began a propaganda campaign in favor of the annexation of Texas. Tyler
claimed that he had evidence that the British intended to seize the unstable territory from Mexico if the US
did not act quickly. In efforts to garner support for annexation in the South, he played upon fears that should
the British control Texas, they would outlaw slavery, sending cotton farmers back to southern states, and
hurting the southern economy.
Tyler and his new secretary of state, John Calhoun secretly presented a treaty to the Senate in early 1844
that provided for the annexation of Texas. The treaty was defeated 35 to 16 in the Senate by those who sought
to avoid sectional conflict over the future of slavery in the West. However, the issue of annexation dominated
the election of 1844. James K. Polk ran as a Democrat, and Henry Clay ran as a Whig. Polk advocated
immediate annexation of Texas, thus gaining the support of the pro-annexation South. To accommodate
wary northerners, Polk adjusted his economic policy stance, and also convinced many that the addition of
Texas as a slave state would serve their interests by allowing the slaveholding South to expand westward
rather than pressing up against the border between North and South and thus instigating conflict. Clay and
the Whigs wavered on the issue of annexation, and never established a clear platform. Polk won the presidency, victorious by only 1.5 percent of the popular vote. While this was no mandate for annexation, Polk
and his cabinet quickly mobilized in efforts to bring the nation behind the goal of annexation.
Aside from Texas, Polk was faced with the issue of Oregon. He proposed that the British and Americans
divide the territory at the 49th parallel. The British had long desired a split, but had suggested the Columbia
River, far south of the 49th, as the point of division. Though the US had far more settlements in Oregon, the
British claimed that discovery and exploration made it theirs. In 1846, Polk and Congress notified the British
that they had terminated joint occupation of the territory, and that Britain could either go to war over all of
Oregon or negotiate a division. Britain chose the latter, and the division was set at the 49th parallel.
Just as the issue of annexing Oregon was being quietly settled, the issue of annexing Texas flared up. In
February 1845, both houses of Congress voted to annex Texas. The Mexican government, for its part, had
never officially recognized Texan independence, and declared that it would consider any agreement to join
the US an open act of war. Reassured by American agents, a Texas convention voted to accept annexation
despite Mexico's warnings, and was admitted to the US as a state in December 1845. In anticipation of conflict, Polk ordered troops under Zachary Taylor to the border of the disputed territory.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Summary
When the United States admitted Texas to the Union in 1845, the Mexican government was in such turmoil
that the nation's new leader would not even meet with the Americans; they were too weak even to negotiate
concessions. Both sides awaited the outbreak of violence. On May 9, 1846, President James K. Polk received
word that Mexican forces had ambushed two of General Zachary Taylor's companies along the Rio Grande.
He immediately demanded that Congress appropriate funds for war, proclaiming that the Mexicans had initiated a full- blown conflict. Somewhat reluctantly, Congress agreed, and the Mexican Warbegan.
The Mexican War lasted one and a half years, and ranged all throughout Texas, New Mexico, and California, and even into the Mexican interior. Mexican resistance was stubborn and benefited from greater
manpower than US forces, but ultimately proved futile. The US won an easy victory due to superior artillery
and leadership. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed February 2, 1848, ceded Texas, New Mexico, and
California to the US, completing American claims to land all the way across the continent. In return, the US
assumed all monetary claims of US citizens against the Mexican government and paid Mexico $15 million.
The West was now officially open and secure to Americans.
Despite patriotism engendered by the war, sectional conflict grew more dramatic between 1846 and 1848.
Not all of this was due to expansion. Polk created many enemies in the North through his lack of support for
tariffs and in the West for his failure to initiate internal improvement. However, expansion and the future of
slavery generated far greater conflict during the pre-Civil War era. Proslavery Democrats and antislavery
Whigs raged against one another in Congress and in the press over the future of slavery in the expanded
West.
Every solution to the problem of slavery created controversy. A Democratic congressman from Pennsylvania named David Wilmot introduced an amendment to an appropriations bill regarding the West known
as the Wilmot Proviso. The proviso stated that slavery should be outlawed in all territory other than Texas
ceded to the US by Mexico. Supported in the North, the proviso passed the House of Representatives but
stalled in the Senate. Southern Democrats responded violently to any suggestion that slavery be abridged
south of the line set by the Missouri Compromise: 36 degrees, 30 minutes latitude.
In the election of 1848, Zachary Taylor won the presidency as the Whig candidate. Both the Whigs and
the Democrats tried to skirt the issue of slavery, the Whigs presenting no clear platform, and the Democrats
endorsing the concept of popular sovereignty under which settlers would decide the issue of slavery for
themselves. Soon the expansion Westward grew at such a rapid pace that politicians could no longer afford
not to come up with a distinct decision regarding slavery. In January 1848, an American carpenter living at
the base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains discovered gold in California. Within months, a frantic gold rush
was in full swing. Overland immigrants to California totaled 400 in 1848, 25,000in 1849, and 44,000 in 1850.
summary and analysis
22
SPARK
ARKNOTES
The Mexican War and Political Aftermath
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Polk's election, and support for his expansionist actions while in office, exemplified the growing belief
that America's destiny was to expand through Texas and all the way to the Pacific Ocean. In 1845, John L.
O'Sullivan, a New York journalist, gave a name to this belief. He wrote of "our manifest Destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of our continent which Providence has given us for the development of the
great experiment of liberty." Proponents of Manifest Destiny often used such lofty language and often
invoked God and Nature to support expansion. Many Northern Whigs at first dismissed Manifest Destiny
as a cover for those who desired the expansion of slavery. However, most of those who expounded on the destiny of expansion were neither explicitly for nor against slavery. More important to them was the prospect of
opening the Pacific Ocean to trade, and preserving the agricultural nature of the US. Most expansionists
associated the industrialization accompanying early expansion with social stratification and class struggle.
The Democrats also saw support for their political ideology in Manifest Destiny. Where tariffs and banks
would tend to support the factory system, expansion would provide farmers with land and access to distant
markets. As Americans continued to become farmers, Democrats believed, the democratic foundations of
the Union would be preserved. Expansionists trusted that the technology of telegraphs and the railroad
would continue to make distance less and less of a concern, and encouraged all out expansion into the lands of
the West by settlement and annexation.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Commentary
Summary
As Far Western Expansion picked up, it became clear that just as before, the goals of American expansionists
conflicted with the needs of the Indians in the area of expansion. Many of the Plains tribes depended on the
buffalo for survival. Several tribes followed the buffalo migration, harvesting conservatively to fill tribal
needs. The Indians ate buffalo meat, used its hide for clothing and shelter. Sinews were used as bowstrings
and bones were used as tools and weapons. Buffalo fat was used as grease, hoofs used to make glue, and even
buffalo dung was used for fuel. By the 1870s, however, the buffalo population was on the decline. Non-Indians killed the buffalo for their pelts, to feed railroad construction crews, or even just for the pure sport of it.
Army commanders who operated in the West often attempted to drive the Indians off of desired lands by
killing the buffalo as a way to deprive the Indians of supplies. Between 1872 and 1875, only three years, hunters killed 9 million buffalo, most often taking the skin and leaving the carcass to rot in waste. By the 1880s
the Indian way of life was ruined and the way was cleared for American settlement of the Plains.
As early as the 1860s, the US government had abandoned its policy of treating much of the West as a large
Indian reserve, and introduced a system of small, separate tribal reservations, where the Indians were to be
concentrated. Some tribes peacefully accepted their fate, but other tribes, with a total population of over
summary and analysis
23
SPARK
ARKNOTES
The Plains Indians
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Polk saw in a Mexican War the opportunity to advance toward California and New Mexico and complete the
American sweep West. Reports from California suggested that the citizens there would accept American
rule. Many Whig members of Congress believed that Polk was escalating a small skirmish into a call for general war for the purpose of expansion and the extension of slavery into the West. However, remembering
that the Federalists had destroyed their party by opposing the War of 1812, many reluctantly went along
with Polk's demands for appropriations.
By the end of the Mexican War, the spirit of expansion was especially strong. Some in Congress decried
the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo because it did not cede all of Mexico to the US after the resounding US victory. Others, however, argued that the racial impurity of Mexican inhabitants would lead to calamity. Thus,
racism allowed Mexico to maintain its sovereignty.
As for the question of slavery in the West, which became the singular focus of US politics after the Mexican War, Polk believed that expansion would preserve the agricultural and democratic nature of the US, and
weaken tendencies toward centralized power. He believed these benefits to be the paramount goal of westward expansion, and believed they would be reaped whether the new territory was free or slave. He saw the
Missouri Compromise, which prohibited slavery in all land north of 36 degrees 30 minutes latitude, as a sufficient solution to the issue of slavery. Some antislavery Whigs vehemently disagreed, especially abolitionists
from New England and Ohio, opposed the extension of slavery into the territories on moral grounds. However, a more important challenge to the expansion of slavery came from northern Democrats who feared that
extending slavery into New Mexico and California would deter free laborers from settling there. They
argued that deterring migration to the West would intensify class struggle in the East. David Wilmot fell
into this second category. He was not an abolitionist, nor did he seek to split his party. He simply spoke for
the northern Democrats who had been led to believe that Texas would be the last slave state. Polk and his
cabinet had given the impression that Texas would be for the slaveholders and California and New Mexico
for free labor.
The issue of slavery in the territories raised some questions of Constitutionality. John Calhoun and his
followers asserted that since slaves were property, they should be protected in all areas by the Constitution,
meaning that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional and slaveholders could take their slaves anywhere they wished. Northerners, on the other side, cited the history of regulation of slavery by the federal
government and the wording of the Constitution, which gave Congress the power to "make all needful rules
and regulations respecting the territory or other property of the United States." Politicians searched for a
middle ground but more often than not found only morass and deadlock. The increasing expansion into the
territories of the West, largely due to the gold rush, made the search for compromise all the more frantic.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
The destruction of the buffalo herds demonstrates the blind greed and selfishness with which Americans
into the West without heeding or attempting to understand the lifestyle of the Plains Indians. In just a few
years, the massive herds of buffalo, which had sustained the Indians there for centuries, were reduced to a
sparse several thousand. Due to the dictates of Eastern fashion and the desire of entrepreneurial whites seeking to get rich quickly, the Indians' way of life was doomed forever. To add insult to injury, after destroying
their way of life, whites next lay claim to Indian lands, explaining to the tribes that they would be better off on
cramped reservations than pursuing their traditional lifestyle on the Plains. Whites believed strongly that
the land of the West was theirs to take, and the Indians fiercely rejected this notion.
Thus it is understandable that passions flared up on both sides of the conflict. The direct result of these
passions was the rise of guerilla warfare. During the period from the mid 1860s all the way through 1890,
both the Indians and the white forces committed many atrocities. In 1864 the Cheyennes and Arapahos of
southern Colorado sued for peace and made camp by Sand Creek to wait for a response. There they were
brutally slaughtered by the Colorado militia, which continued its onslaught, killing women and children,
even after the Indians had raised a white flag in surrender. In 1866, the Teton Sioux in Wyoming attacked
troops working on the construction of the Bozeman Trail (a road between Wyoming and Montana), killing
and mutilating the 80 soldiers at work. Events such as these led to the rise of bitter hatred between the two
contending groups, which continuously spilled over into brutality and violence as the prolonged conflict
went on.
Not all whites, however, were employed in the direct destruction of the Indians. Many took a more beneficent view of the Plains Indians, seeing it as their duty to Christianize and modernize the "savages" on the reservations. To this end, the Board of Indian Commissioners delegated the task of reform to Protestant
leaders. Though cloaked in goodwill, this effort served the more practical purpose of breaking the nomadic
summary and analysis
24
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Commentary
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
100,000, resisted. These tribes battled the US Army for control of the West. Early skirmishes and violent
massacres prompted the US government to set aside two large areas in 1867, one North of Nebraska, and one
south of Kansas, in which they hoped the nomadic tribes would finally settle. The government used the
threat of force to convince the tribes to comply, and at first, many did, signing treaties them relocated them to
these tracts.
However, many Indians refused to be confined to reservations. These tribes engaged in a constant battle
with non-Indians, raiding settlements and attacking troop installments throughout the late 1860s and 1870s.
The so-called Red River War posed American troops against Cheyennes in Kansas during a fierce winter
campaign in 1874. The Apaches in what is now Arizona and New Mexico fought a similar guerilla war
intermittently until 1886, when their leader, Geronimo, surrendered.
No instance of Indian resistance engendered more passion than the conflict between the Sioux and the US
Army in the northern Plains. The Indian agents in the Dakotas, Wyoming, and Montana had long tried in
vain to control the Sioux, many of who entered and left the reservations at will. The US Army responded in
1874 by sending a force under Colonel George Armstrong Custer into the hills of South Dakota. When gold
was discovered in the region, the federal government announced that Custer's forces would hunt down all
Sioux not in reservations after January 31, 1876. Many Sioux refused to comply, and Custer began to mobilize his troops. At the battle of Little Bighorn, in June 1876, Custer unwisely divided his troops, and a numerically superior force of Indians wiped out him and all of his men. After this crushing defeat, the army took a
different tack, harassing Sioux bands in a war of attrition. These tactics were generally successful against the
Sioux and throughout the West, and the Indians gradually lost the will to resist.
The Sioux became desperate in the late 1880s, and turned to the prophet Wovoka, who assured them that
they would return to their original dominance of the Plains if they performed the Ghost Dance. As the Ghost
Dance swept the Plains, Sioux Indians gathered in bands wearing Ghost Shirts and performing the ritual,
reaffirming their own culture. Indian officials and military authorities were suspicious of the movement and
attempted to arrest chief Sitting Bull, a Sioux war hero whose cabin had become the center of the movement.
In a skirmish outside the cabin, Sitting Bull was accidentally shot. Two weeks later, on December 29, 1890,
300 Indians were slaughtered by American troops at Wounded Knee. This massacre was the symbolic end to
Indian resistance; the Plains Indians were essentially conquered and moved into reservations throughout the
next decade.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Summary
When the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in 1848, the US contained fifteen free and fifteen slave
states. Controversy surrounded all of the proposed solutions to the problem of slavery in the territories.
Additionally, northerners railed against the legality of slavery in the District of Columbia, and southerners,
in turn, complained of northern failure to comply with the Fugitive Slave Law. All of these issues had to be
resolved if new states were to enter the Union.
Early in 1850, Henry Clay proposed a solution, known as the Compromise of 1850, to resolve these disputes. His proposal had six major points:
• The admission of California as a free state.
• The division of the remainder of the Mexican cession into two territories, New Mexico and Utah,
without restrictions on slavery in either.
• The settlement of a New Mexico-Texas border dispute in favor of New Mexico;
• An agreement that the federal government would assume Texas' debt.
• The continuation of slavery but abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia
• The institution of a more effective Fugitive Slave Law
He presented all of these proposals together in an omnibus bill. Though Congress rejected the bill, all of its
individual measures were passed.
summary and analysis
25
SPARK
ARKNOTES
The Transcontinental Railroad and the Admission of
Western States
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
tradition of the Indians and making them into permanent and productive members of the reservations.
Other attempts were made throughout the late 1800s to "save" the Indians. Richard H. Pratt founded the
Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania to equip Indians with the skills and culture necessary for integration
into white society. However, the school uprooted Indians from their homes and made no pretense of respecting Indian culture. This sort of cultural reeducation assaulted the Indian way of life as viciously as the hunters who had slaughtered the buffalo. The movement to "civilize" the Indians was infused with a sense of
cultural superiority. Pratt explained that that goal of the Carlisle School was to "kill the Indian and save the
man." Other humanitarians, genuinely concerned about the Indians, suggested that the best thing for them
would be to integrate the tribes into white society, instituting concepts like private property and making the
Indians less culturally distinct. These concerns were expressed in the 1887 Dawes Severalty Act. The Dawes
Act called for the breakup of the reservations and the treatment of Indians as individuals rather than tribes.
It provided for the distribution of 160 acres of farmland or 320 acres of grazing land to any Indian who
accepted the act's terms, who would then become US citizens in 25 years. While some Indians benefited from
the Dawes Act, still others became dependent upon federal aid.
After Indian resistance died out, many did try to adapt to non-Indian ways. Few succeeded completely,
and many were emotionally devastated at being forced to abandoned age-old traditions. On reservations, the
Plains Indians were almost totally dependent upon the federal government. Indian traditions, social organization, and modes of survival were broken down. By 1900, the Plains Indian population had fallen from
almost 250,000 to only slightly more than 100,000. However, the population began to stabilize and slowly rise
again, and the traditions of the Plains Indians were maintained as best they could be, considering the situation.
In the period following the Civil War non-Indian settlers pursued a strategy involving a mixture of
benevolence, coercion cloaked in legality, and blind violence to change the Indian lifestyle in the name of civilization and progress. Many white Americans felt only contempt toward the Indians, but others viewed
themselves as divinely chosen to uplift and Christianize the Indians. Both groups participated equally in the
destruction of the Native American culture, however, and the fate of the Indians continues to rest heavy on
the American conscience.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
The question of the future of slavery as new states were admitted to the Union was one that absorbed the
United States in the years leading up to the Civil War. The famous Lincoln-Douglas debates held this issue
at their core, and the South attempted secession partially as a response to its distaste for the way in which
expansion was unfolding. However, even the Civil War could not dampen the spirit of expansion for long,
and with the rise of the transcontinental railroad, migration was easier than ever before.
During the 1840s, when Americans were first settling the territories of Oregon and California, settlers
from the East coast endured a six to eight month journey in perilous conditions. After 1870, railroads made
the trip up to 20 times faster, and far less dangerous. Additionally, the transcontinental railroad assured insecure settlers that should they fail it would be relatively easy to return East, which many did.
The period of the late 19th century during which the railroads served as western landlords recreated the
scenario of the land rush of 1815 to 1819 to a great degree. Rather than speculators, railroad companies now
owned huge tracts of land in the West, which they sold to farmers for a profit. Much like the farmers of the
Midwest during the earlier land rush, farmers of the Far West were encouraged to try their hand at growing
cash crops in order to quickly repay the loans they had taken out to purchase their land. Cash crops, as
before, often proved profitable in the short-run. However, in the long run many farmers became dependent
on single crops and their markets, and thus were overly sensitive to market fluctuations.
The Homestead Act of 1862 added to the far western land rush. Now farmers who intended to stay on
their land for five years could purchase 160 acres for a meager registration fee of $10. The land they purchased this way was often worth up to and beyond one hundred times as much. Farmers often failed to reap
the full benefits intended by the Homestead Act. Unscrupulous speculators commonly sent agents West to
file false claims for the best locations. Additionally, in many areas, 160 acres was not enough land due to dry
conditions or geographical obstacles to farming. However, the federal government remained committed to
summary and analysis
26
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Commentary
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Still, the issue of the future of slavery remained far from settled, and the disagreement between North and
South eventually spawned the Civil War. As the national focus centered on the growing conflict, the conflict
itself, and, later, on the period of Reconstruction, expansion no longer monopolized Americans' attention.
Even so, expansion continued at a steady pace. Between September 1850, when California was admitted to
the union, and 1870, Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas, Nevada, and Nebraska were all admitted as states. Even
so, much of the territory in the West remained uninhabited and unorganized.
On May 10, 1869, at Promontory Point, Utah, the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroad companies
connected tracks extending from Sacramento, California to Omaha, Nebraska. The historic moment created the first transcontinental railroad, enabling travelers to go from coast to coast in a week's time, making
it markedly easier to travel west in search of land for settlement. By 1872, under the Pacific Railroad Act,
Congress awarded the railroads over 170 million acres in land grants. The railroads created bureaus and
sent agents to the East and to Europe to attract potential settlers on these lands. Portraying the West as a land
of limitless opportunity, the bureaus offered long-term loans and free transportation to the West. Between
1870 and 1900, not only did the railroads attract settlers from nearby states, but also brought 2.2 million foreign immigrants to the trans-Mississippi West. Desiring quick payment of loans, railroads encouraged these
settlers to grow and sell cash crops.
The Homestead Act, passed in 1862, offered 160 acres of land to anyone who would pay $10, live on the
land for five years, and cultivate and improve it. The Act encouraged many additional Americans and foreigners to move to the undeveloped West. Despite the romantic portrayals of the railroads, Western farmers
continued to face difficult conditions. Suffering a depression between 1873 and 1878, and facing the constant
threat of natural disaster, many returned East. Those who remained struggled to build homes and communities amid mosquito infestations and other harsh conditions. Farm settlements eventually became thriving
communities, with churches, schools, and markets, and farmers grew close with their neighbors. The towns
built opera houses and hotels and labored to bring modernization and sophistication to the West.
Once settlers had established permanent towns, many territories applied for statehood. Colorado joined
the Union in 1876, followed in 1889 by North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington. Wyoming
and Idaho were admitted the following year, and Utah was admitted in 1896. Oklahoma was admitted in
1907, followed by Arizona and New Mexico in 1912. The West was complete.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
SPARK
ARKNOTES
summary and analysis
27
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
encouraging migration, and added clauses to the Homestead Act that would allow for the expansion of farmers' land claims in certain situations. Thus encouraged, huge numbers of citizens moved west.
The high transiency rate in the West during the late 1800s was the result of frequent failure to adapt to the
new environment. Some areas experienced as much as an 80 percent turnover rate, due to the harsh conditions of western life and the attractiveness of speculation in other areas. However, some groups of settlers
remained committed to continuous landownership and worked together to survive. Cooperation was necessary in an environment where everyone was vulnerable to sudden disaster. Settlers helped each other in
times of need and formed strong communities that eventually translated into towns, cities, and states, as the
organization of the territories was completed. Those who made it through the difficult building years often
came to identify closely with the West. A distinctive western society emerged during the late 1800s as the last
of the contiguous United States gained their place in the Union.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC.
Not all Americans despised the Indians of the Great Plains. Describe the efforts of those who tried to help
the Indians. Did their efforts pay off?
Not all whites were employed in the active destruction of the Indians. Many took a more beneficent view of
the Plains Indians, seeing it as their duty to Christianize and modernize the "savages" on the reservations. To
this end, the Board of Indian Commissioners delegated the task of reform to Protestant leaders, who
manned the reservations. Though cloaked in goodwill, this effort served the more practical purpose of
breaking the nomadic tradition of the Indians and making them into permanent and productive members of
the reservations. Other attempts were made throughout the late 1800s to "save" the Indians. Richard H.
Pratt founded the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania to equip Indians with the skills and culture necessary for integration into white society. However, the school uprooted Indians from their homes and made no
pretense of respecting Indian culture. This sort of cultural reeducation assaulted the Indian way of life as
viciously as the hunters who had slaughtered the buffalo. The movement to "civilize" the Indians was
infused with a sense of cultural superiority. Pratt explained that that goal of the Carlisle School was to "kill
the Indian and save the man." Other humanitarians, genuinely concerned about the Indians, suggested that
the best thing for them would be to integrate the tribes into white society, instituting concepts like private
property and making the Indians less culturally distinct. These concerns were expressed in the 1887 Dawes
Severalty Act. The Dawes Act called for the breakup of the reservations and the treatment of Indians as individuals rather than tribes. It provided for the distribution of 160 acres of farmland or 320 acres of grazing
land to any Indian who accepted the act's terms, who would then become US citizens in 25 years. While some
Indians benefited from the Dawes Act, still others became dependent upon federal aid. In the end, both military aggression and humanitarian aid shared equally in the task of breaking the spirit of the Indian tribes.
How did federal land policy throughout the early years of expansion reflect the political ideology of the party
in power?
The land policy of the early expansion period was the clear result of political maneuvering. During the 1790s,
the Federalists knew expansion was inevitable, but feared that it would dilute their support center in the
Northeast. However, they saw that the West could be a great source of revenue. The plan under the Ordinance of 1785 aimed for groups of farmers to join together to purchase townships. This system threatened to
draw many in the Northeast to the West and would not maximize government profits. To solve this problem, the Federalists encouraged the purchase of land by wealthy speculators, who not only would drive up
prices, and thereby profits, but also would stem the flow of westward expansion from North and South. The
Republicans chastised the Federalists for transferring the public domain to the nation's people too slowly and
not cheaply enough. They believed that the United States, and especially the West should belong to small
farmers, who were the source of the nation's democratic purity. Thomas Jefferson had long imagined and
spoke of an "empire of liberty" which would stretch across the entire continent, and took steps toward that
goal most notably with the Louisiana Purchase. He desired that the American West be populated by small
farmers, who would ensure democracy (and most likely support the Republican Party). Thus once in power,
the Republicans acted quickly to place public lands in the hands of small farmers, decreasing the minimum
size of a land purchase and cutting the minimum price per acre as well.
Copyright 2005 by SparkNotes LLC.
28
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Study Questions
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Study & Essay
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
Essay Topics
How had Andrew Jackson become convinced of the necessity of Indian removal by 1829? Describe some of his
earlier experiences with the Indians and the ideology resulting from them.
What were some problems experienced by earlier western settler which were solved by the transportation
revolution and how were they solved?
Describe the attitude of the developed East toward the settlers of the West. How did this attitude and the rivalry it
spawned factor in the development of the identity of the West?
What was the role of legend in the settlement of the Far West?
What were the concept of Manifest Destiny's ideological origins? What part did the concept of Manifest Destiny
play in the push to settle the West?
Explain the significance of the case of Worcester v. Georgia, both in relation to the project of Indian expansion
and as it relates to the development of the federal government of the United States.
It is often said that the settlers of the trans-Mississippi West formed tighter community bonds than did Eastern
inhabitants. What is the evidence in support of this statement, and what conditions of the West produced
this result?
study & essay
29
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
The issue of annexation was tied tightly to the issue of slavery. Northerners feared that the annexation of
Texas was part of a Southern conspiracy to extend American territory southward into Mexico and South
America, creating unlimited new slave states, while the north would be unable to expand similarly due to the
presence of British forces in Canada. Southerners saw annexation as a way to expand the nation's cotton producing region, and as a slave state, an additional two votes in the Senate in favor of the common needs of the
slaveholding South. Once in office, Tyler and his secretary of state, John Calhoun did not disguise their
appeals to the South for support for annexation. Calhoun used reports that the British might pressure Mexico to recognize the independence of Texas in return for abolishing slavery there to construct theories on how
the British might use Texas and abolition as a way to destroy the rice, sugar, and cotton growing industries in
the US and gain monopolies in all three. Accompanying the treaty Calhoun and Tyler submitted to Congress
was a letter from Calhoun explaining that slavery was beneficial to blacks who otherwise would fall into "vice
and pauperism." The political designs underlying these strategies were clear: use southern support to move
annexation forward. Not until James K. Polk became president did the North feel confident that expansion
would proceed conservatively and that that federal government would take the desires of both North and
South into account. Unfortunately, even then the issue of slavery in the West would continue to tear the
nation apart, dragging it toward civil war.
SPARK
ARKNOTES
How did the issue of expansion, beginning with the annexation of Texas, become inexorably linked with
slavery during John Tyler's presidency?
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
1.
Which of the following time periods corresponds to the first major flurry of expansion and the
admission of new states?
A.
1763 - 1776
B.
1791 - 1803
C.
1843 - 1857
D.
All of the above
2.
The earliest settlers of what is now the Midwest generally settled along which of the following?
A.
Oceans
B.
Lakes
C.
Rivers
D.
Canals
3.
Which of the following groups were given land by the federal government?
A.
Soldiers in the War of 1812
B.
Railroad companies
C.
Homesteaders who paid a small registration fee
D. All of the above
4.
Which of the following groups made up the majority of the earliest settlers in the West?
A.
Fur traders
B.
Southerners whose lands had been destroyed during the Civil War
C.
Criminals escaping justice
D.
Former militiamen
5.
Which of the following best describes the image of the East that most westerners held in the 1820s?
A.
Underdeveloped
B.
Decadent
C.
Dirty
D.
Un-American
6.
Which of the following groups benefited most form Federalist land policy?
A.
Small farmers
B.
Merchants
C.
Speculators
D. Slave traders
7.
Which of the following groups presented opposition to land speculators during the 1810s and 1820s?
A.
Squatters
B.
Federalists
C.
Bankers
D.
None of the above
review & resources
30
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Review Test
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Review & Resources
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
9.
In 1820, what percentage of the nation's cotton was produced in Alabama and Mississippi?
A.
100%
B.
66%
C.
50%
D.
25%
10.
Which of the following were reasons for the Panic of 1819?
A.
The Bank of the US demanded redemption of its state bank notes
B.
Foreign demand for American crops dropped off
C.
The state banks demanded that small farmers pay off their loans
D.
All of the above
11.
Which of the following was a main result of high land prices?
A.
Speculation
B.
Commercial farming
C.
Neither A nor B
D.
Both A and B
12.
Which of the following groups was hurt the most by the Panic of 1819?
A.
Speculators
B.
Small farmers
C.
Banks
D.
They were all hurt equally
13.
Which of the following was a result of the Panic of 1819?
A.
Distrust of banks
B.
A search for more efficient transportation
C.
Higher tariffs
D.
All of the above
14.
Which of the following tribes was not a member of what the Americans called the Five Civilized
Tribes?
A.
The Creeks
B.
The Cherokees
C.
The Seminoles
D.
The Sioux
15.
Which of the following played the largest role in the poor treatment of the Indians?
A.
Henry Clay
B.
James K. Polk
C.
George Armstrong Custer
D.
Andrew Jackson
16.
The effect of the ruling in Worcester v. Georgia was _______.
A.
The acceptance of the Cherokee Bill of Rights
B.
The immediate removal of all Cherokees from Georgia
C.
The passage of legislature protecting the Cherokees from lersssment
D.
Nothing. There was no effect on policy
review & resources
31
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Most farmers who purchased land in the West grew _______.
A.
Wheat
B.
Lonely
C.
Cash crops
D. Peanuts
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
8.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
18.
Which current state most closely approximates the area which the Indians from east of the
Mississippi were forced into by removal?
A.
South Dakota
B.
Iowa
C.
Oklahoma
D.
Utah
19.
What was a main reason that roads were an inefficient method of shipping cargo for trade?
A.
The presence of bandits in the forests surrounding the roads which passed through
uninhabited areas
B.
The high cost of maintaining them
C.
The difficulty of constructing them around geographic obstacles
D.
All of the above
20.
Which of the following would have taken the longest to float up the Mississippi?
A.
A keelboat
B.
A sloop
C.
A flatboat
D.
A steamboat
21.
Which of the following eastern cities were two of the first to be connected to the West through
railroads?
A.
Albany and Richmond
B.
Charleston and Philadelphia
C.
Providence and New York City
D.
Baltimore and Boston
22.
What proportion of United States citizens lived in places with a population of 2,500 or more by 1860?
A.
5%
B.
20%
C.
40%
D.
65%
23.
Whish of the following is a main reason that railroads grew quickly during the 1830s and 1840s?
A.
The objection to industrialization presented by agrarian Democrats
B.
The poor quality of construction and high maintenance costs
C.
The shortage of workers due to western migration
D.
All of the above
24.
When was the Santa Fe Trail first utilized?
A.
During the 1815 to 1819 cotton boom
B.
After the Panic of 1819
C.
After Mexico authorized colonization of New Mexico in 1828
D.
During the gold rush of 1849
review & resources
32
SPARK
ARKNOTES
How much did the US pay for the 190 million acres of land it gained from Indian removal between
1832 and 1837?
A.
$0
B.
$70 million
C.
$200 million
D.
$400 million
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
17.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
26.
Which of the following best describes the sentiments of the Mexican government toward the
extension of American settlement and trade into the Mexican territories during the 1830s?
A.
It distrusted the Americans' motives
B.
It was indifferent to the movements of the Americans
C.
It welcomed American settlement and trade
D.
It was militantly against the intrusion of Americans
27.
Which of the following was a cause for Indian hostility toward the Mexican settlers after the
dissolution of the mission system?
A.
Ranchers used Indians as slave laborers
B.
Hispanic settlers stole livestock from the Indians
C.
Both A and B
D.
Neither A nor B
28.
How did Stephen F. Austin first become influential in the development of Texas?
A.
As the leader of a failed revolt in 1826
B.
As the author of the Texas Constitution
C.
As a famous adventurer
D.
As an empresario
29.
In what year did Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna purge his government of liberal leaders?
A. 1830
B.
1834
C.
1845
D.
1848
30.
When did Mexico recognize Texan independence, which the Texas Rebellion had claimed as its
ultimate goal?
A.
1830
B.
1836
C.
1848
D.
Never
31.
What was the biggest complaint American settlers registered about the Mexican government in the
period of settlement before 1830?
A.
The Mexican government was hostile to immigrants
B.
The Mexican government regulated the location and manner of settlement too strictly
C.
The Mexican government was disorganized and corrupt
D.
The Mexican government strongly supported abolitionism
32.
Where did the majority of early settlers in California live?
A.
San Francisco
B.
San Diego
C.
Los Angeles
D.
Sacramento
review & resources
33
SPARK
ARKNOTES
What was the purpose of the mission system?
A.
To establish forts to protect Mexican settlers from attacks from the western Indians
B.
To police the American settlement of the West
C.
To convert the western Indians and settle them on mission lands
D. To come up with lists of saint's names which would sound good as the names of towns
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
25.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
34.
Which of the following items did travelers to the Far West often overstock?
A.
Clothing
B.
Guns
C.
Food
D.
Oxen
35.
What was the primary reason for the failure of the Donner Party?
A.
A sudden storm
B.
Indian attacks
C.
A poor guidebook
D.
Physical disability
36.
Which of the following was a reason that some settlers chose to settle in Oregon rather than
California?
A.
Oregon was more likely to be annexed by the United States
B.
Oregon had a more comfortable climate
C.
Oregon was famous because of Lewis and Clark
D.
None of the above
37.
Which of the following was the cornerstone of John Tyler's campaign for the annexation of Texas?
A.
An appeal to the idea of manifest destiny
B.
Stories of great amounts of oil in Texas
C.
An appeal to humanitarians to "save" the people of Texas
D.
The rumor that Britain would annex Texas if the US did not
38.
What was the main reason that John Tyler's annexation treaty failed in the Senate?
A.
Southern senators opposed expansion
B.
Northern senators opposed expansion
C.
Both southern and northern senators feared sectional conflict
D.
Effective filibustering
39.
Where was Oregon finally divided between the US and Great Britain?
A. 36 degrees 30 minutes latitude
B.
49 degrees latitude
C.
54 degrees 40 minutes latitude
D.
64 degrees latitude
40.
Which of the following best describes the sentiments of most proponents of Manifest Destiny?
A.
They were for slavery in the West
B.
They were against slavery in the West
C.
They were indifferent to slavery in the West
D.
Manifest Destiny did not become prominent until after the issue of slavery in the United
States was decided
review & resources
34
SPARK
ARKNOTES
In 1848, which of the following territories contained more American settlers?
A.
Oregon
B.
California
C.
Both had a nearly equal number of settlers
D.
It is unknown even approximately how many settlers lived in either territory
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
33.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
42.
The Wilmot Proviso favored the interests of which region of the US?
A.
The South
B.
The West
C.
The Midwest
D.
The North
43.
Which of the following was a main argument against the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo presented in
Congress?
A.
It was beneficial to slavery
B.
It did not achieve the cession of all of Mexico
C.
It left the question of Texas unresolved
D.
It stalled the California gold rush
44.
Which part of the buffalo, unused by the Native Americans, littered the Great Plains?
A.
Dung
B.
Horns
C.
Hooves
D.
None of the above
45.
When did the Indians finally cease resistance to life in reservations?
A.
1870
B.
1880
C.
1890
D.
1900
46.
Colonel George Armstrong Custer is best known for which of the following?
A.
Defeat at Little Bighorn
B.
Victory at Wounded Knee
C.
Killing Sitting Bull
D.
Inventing the Ghost Dance
47.
Which of the following was not a clause in the Compromise of 1850?
A.
California was admitted to the Union as a free state
B.
A more effective Fugitive Slave law was passed
C.
The slave trade was outlawed in New Mexico and Utah, but slavery continued
D.
The federal government would assume Texas' debt
48.
How much did settlers pay in order to receive 160 acres under the Homestead Act?
A.
$0
B.
$10
C.
$160
D.
$200
49.
Which of the following developments is the railroad credited with provoking?
A.
Vast immigration from foreign nations to the American West
B.
A second boom in the number of cash croppers
C.
The settlement of new areas between the Mississippi and the west coast
D.
All of the above
review & resources
35
SPARK
ARKNOTES
Why did the US win the Mexican War so easily?
A.
They were fighting on their home soil
B.
Mexico had less manpower than the US
C.
The US had superior artillery and leadership
D.
All of the above
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
41.
Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.
50.
Further Reading
Barstow, Charles L. The Westward Movement. New York: The Century Co., 1912.
Billington, Ray A. The Far Western Frontier: 1830 - 1860. New York: Harper and Row, 1956.
Clark, Dan Elbert. The West in American History. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1937.
Coman, Katherine. Economic Beginnings of the Far West: How We Won The Land Beyond the Mississippi.
New York: The Macmillan Co., 1912.
Drago, Harry S. Roads to Empire: The Dramatic Conquest of the American West. New York: Dodd, Mead,
and Co., 1968.
McCaleb,Walter F. The Conquest of the West. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1947.
Paxon, Frederic L. History of the American Frontier: 1763 - 1893. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1924.
Woestemeyer, Ina F. The Westward Movement: A Book of Readings on Our Changing Frontiers. New York: D.
Appleton - Century Company, Inc., 1939.
review & resources
36
SPARK
ARKNOTES
answer key:
1: b; 2: c; 3: d; 4: a; 5: b; 6: c; 7: a; 8: c; 9: c; 10: d; 11: d; 12: a; 13: d; 14: d; 15: d; 16: d; 17: b; 18: c; 19:
b; 20: c; 21: d; 22: b; 23: b; 24: b; 25: c; 26: c; 27: c; 28: d; 29: b; 30: d; 31: c; 32: d; 33: a; 34: b; 35: c;
36: a; 37: d; 38: c; 39: b; 40: c; 41: c; 42: d; 43: b; 44: d; 45: c; 46: a; 47: c; 48: b; 49: d; 50: b
W W W. S PA R K N O T E S . C O M
Which of the following was one shortcoming of the Homestead Act?
A.
It made land in the West more expensive than it would have been at market price
B.
160 acres was often not enough land for a farmer
C.
It distributed only undesirable land
D.
The land given by the act was often remote from lines of transportation and other settlers