Running head: IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS Irony without Borders: A Cross-Cultural Study
on Reactions Upon Ironic Advertising
Felipe Vieira de Azevedo Lopes
ANR 666252
Master's Thesis
Communication and Information Sciences
Specialization Business Communication and Digital Media
Faculty of Humanities
Tilburg University, Tilburg
Supervisor: Dr. A. Arts
Second Reader: Dr. J. Schilperoord
April 2015
IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Table of Contents
DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................................... 3 ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... 4 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 4 PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................................................................. 6 OUTLINE ............................................................................................................................................. 7 1. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ................................................................................................. 9 1.1 LIKEABILITY: A KEY FACTOR TO ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS ........................................................ 9 1.2 OPTIMAL INNOVATION ............................................................................................................................ 12 1.3 IRONY ......................................................................................................................................................... 15 1.4 VISUAL IRONY ........................................................................................................................................... 18 1.5 VISUAL IMAGES ......................................................................................................................................... 21 1.6 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR AND NATIONAL CULTURAL VALUES .............................................................. 23 2. RESEARCH QUESTION ............................................................................................................. 28 2.1 SOCIETAL RELEVANCE ............................................................................................................................ 29 2.2 SCIENTIFIC RELEVANCE .......................................................................................................................... 29 3. METHOD ...................................................................................................................................... 30 3.1 PARTICIPANTS ........................................................................................................................................... 30 3.2 MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................ 32 3.3 PROCEDURE ............................................................................................................................................... 32 4. RESULTS ...................................................................................................................................... 35 4.1 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................................. 35 4.2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ....................................................................................................................... 38 4.2.1 Mixed-­‐design ANOVA ..................................................................................................................... 39 4.2.2 T – Test ................................................................................................................................................ 42 5. DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................ 46 6. LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH .......................... 48 7. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 49 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................... 52 APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................................ 54 2 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my family and friends. A special feeling of gratitude to my mother, Ines and my sister, Danielle who supported me during hard times throughout all of my studies in this Master’s degree. With the support of my friends and family I found strengths in myself in order to pursue my dreams. Living in a foreign country, thousands of miles away from home was also a hard task this past year, and I have to thank my foreign friends and housemates for making easier my adaptation. I also dedicate this paper to my many friends and family who have supported me throughout the process. I will always appreciate all they have done, encouraging and motivating me, especially my friends Pedro, Reinaldo, Heloisa, Mariana and Gosia, as well as my close family members Eduardo, Dairce and Alice. A special acknowledgement to my thesis supervisor, Anja who helped me and dedicated her time in this entire process, motivating me to always do my best. Also Tilburg University for providing me the best infrastructure from the first day of school until the completion of my thesis. 3 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Abstract The purpose of this paper is to investigate the function of visual irony in the world of advertising. By analyzing the elements that compose visual irony, this study will try to determine if this relatively new concept can be appreciated. This paper examines variables that constitute irony, such as familiarity and unexpectancy. A cross-­‐cultural study will analyze whether affinity toward cultural values can contribute to a positive evaluation of ads that contain irony. Keywords: visual irony, ads, affinity, unexpectancy, familiarity Introduction In today’s globalized world, brands and products are becoming more and more homogeneous. A product that once may have been unique and revolutionary is now just another ordinary product that is accessible to most consumers. In this sea of predictability, products and services have roughly the same features, due to standardization and high competitiveness. In this new scenario, it has become necessary to make use of every possible way of getting the consumer’s attention by means other than the product itself. Forecast shows that global spending in advertising from all available media amounted to 545.23 billion U.S. dollars in 2014, with a growth predicted to reach over 667 billion U.S. dollars by 2018. Advertising has become an effective communication instrument that acts as a link between seller and consumer. Amongst new and innovative ways of promoting a product through 4 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
advertising, this study focuses on irony as a differential mechanism of making an ad stand out from the rest. Unlike other marketing mechanisms, irony is not a phenomenon restricted only to advertising. People are subject to irony from the second they wake up until the moment they go to sleep. Nevertheless, irony is not all black and white. It may be pleasant to some and at the same time offensive to others. Given that people can relate to an ironic situation, visual ironic ads opens up room for both perceptions; this is what this study attempts to unveil. 5 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Problem Statement The modern consumer is exposed to myriad information on a daily basis, with ads being one of many forms of information. According to its premises, advertising has the goal of persuading a consumer to buy what is being promoted, and the best way of doing so is by presenting the consumer with an ad that captures the attention. Ironic ads aim to surprise the viewer by presenting an unpredictable situation, or something that goes against the natural order of things. An ironic ad can be used to mock a competitor, make use of values, religion, social and economic inequality and so many other polemical issues that distort the orderly way that people are used to seeing things. The intrinsic characteristic of irony regards controversy; sometimes the object of irony might disapprove of it, while the impartial observer may enjoy it. Certainly, this opens up room for discussion over whether irony is likeable, and if so, what makes it likeable, and who is likely to enjoy it? Therefore, we find ourselves with the following problem statement: How is an ironic ad constituted and what are the effects of ironic ads on consumers? 6 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Outline The main goal of this study is to better understand irony and how it is established in order to be used for advertising purposes. Foremost, this study is driven by the idea that irony can be applied as a branch of optimal innovation and can be appreciated by its interpreters in such a way as to generate likeability. Keeping in mind that the purpose of this study is to apply visual irony to advertising as a tool of persuasion, we will try to understand the elements of consumer behavior that we see as fitting to our study. In section 1.1, the importance of likeability as a persuasive resource for changing consumer behavior and purchase intention will be discussed. Once established that consumer behavior is in part conditioned by likeability towards an ad, the concept of Optimal Innovations (OI) will be presented. In section 1.2, we will explain what optimal innovation is and how it works to promote a high level of likeability. In section 1.3, irony will be discussed, particularly how irony is established, what are the elements that compose irony and what influences the perception and interpretation of irony. Focusing on visual irony in section 1.4, this paper will demonstrate that irony can be directly linked to OI, suggesting that irony can also have a positive effect on likeability. Since the emphasis of this study is visual irony, the semantics of semiotics will be approached in section 1.5. This paper will explain how images are interpreted by human beings, how the attribution of meaning to a sign works, 7 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
and what influences our mental processes (when ascribing a meaning to an image). After verifying that the positive interpretation of a sign is conditioned by cultural values, section 1.6 will explain how culture can affect our affinity towards an ad by changing consumer behavior. Then, with a broader lens, we will verify whether visual irony is likeable, given that likeability influences consumer attitude toward advertisements. In presenting the concept that culture has an influence on affinity, this paper will compare two different cultures to demonstrate whether or not affinity generates an optimal level of likeability. Chapter 2 will present and explain the research questions and chapter 3 will outline the chosen method of conducting the experiment. Both the participants and the design of the study will be taken into account in order to break ground for chapter 4, which will present the results obtained in a descriptive statistical analysis. Chapter 5 will discuss the results. Subsequently, chapter 6 will present new insights for future research and predict possible limitations to the experiment. Finally, the last chapter will close the study with conclusions and final comments on the results, in order to answer the research questions. 8 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
1. Theoretical background 1.1 Likeability: a key factor to advertising effectiveness This study will analyze visual irony as being a part of optimal innovations. Optimal innovation, a concept introduced by Giora et al. (2004), was proven to generate likeable responses from the viewer. By linking optimal innovation to the concept of irony, we intend to prove that visual irony can generate likability toward an image, and consequently toward an ad. Considering the premise that likeability renders positive feelings toward an advertisement to such an extent that it influences consumer behavior, it is possible to steer the present study in this direction. This will enable us to prove the importance of visual irony to the advertising world. Thus, by understanding irony, how it is established and how it is interpreted, we might be able to find the ideal use of this communication tool. Consequently, this will allow advertisers to produce the ideal level of likability in order to influence consumer behavior. In a study about purchase behavior of Indians in Kerala (region of India), Manimala and Mukunda (2004) found that young consumers are highly influenced by advertisements. In this Kerala experiment, over 73 percent of the respondents showed interest in purchasing the product from the ad that they assessed as likeable. Almost half of them not only bought the advertised product but also recommended it to a friend or relative. While the likeable ads stimulated curiosity and gave room for intellectual exploration, the main unlikeable aspects concerned overexposure, irritating presentations and lack of involvement with the product. Foremost, Manimala and Mukunda (2004) revealed that ads do not necessarily need to be believable in order to be liked; well-­‐liked ads are noticed 9 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
and remembered by the audience regardless of plausibility and they are associated with positive brand attitudes. The most liked ads are associated with positive brand attitude repetitions. Regarding the ways in which likeability can be measured, Aaker and Stayman (1990) determined that the likeability of an ad can be better defined when viewers are asked to describe the ads through attribution of adjectives. Another accepted method comprises the attitude toward the advertisement (Aad). Aad can be considered the equivalent of advertising likeability. The measurement of attitude comprises terms of affective and cognitive reactions. Such reactions can often be transposed to attitudes toward the brand, and therefore predict purchasing intention and consumer loyalty (MacKenzie & Lutz, 1989). Fishbein and Middlestadt (1995) suggest that cognitive beliefs influence the attitude towards advertisement to such an extent that it is possible to foresee consumer behavior and intentions. In addition to cognitive beliefs, emotion also builds attitude. Thus, emotion can be seen as a condition that influences consumer behavior (Morris et al. 2002). Biel and Bridgewater’s (1990) study reveals that likeable ads can be two times more effective than an average advert. Therefore, so-­‐called likeability becomes more effective due to the persuasive power that it contains. Biel and Bridgewater (1990) state, “when we like the advertising, we are more inclined to like the brand as well. It is just a form of traditional emotional conditioning” (p. 40). 10 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Since likeable ads have greater persuasion power than normal ads, likeable ads are more likely to stick in the consumer’s mind than normal ads. Fam and Waller (2006) posit that advertisements that consumers describe as likeable are given a greater mental processing effort. The positive affect that a likeable ad can generate will stick in the consumer’s mind when encoding, storing and retrieving the information related to the ad. The product’s nature as well as the characteristics of the advertisement influence persuasion through likeability. Biel and Bridgewater (1990) consider that persuasion attributed through likability can better be assembled when the product or service in question has a low effort process of decision-­‐making. The low effort can be ascribed to goods/services that are inherent to the consumer’s life, with low-­‐
involvement and fast-­‐moving characteristics. However, the identification of the attributes that make an ad likeable is still very broad. Several experiments and studies have been conducted throughout the years and there is no one perfect formula that can make an ad undoubtedly and generally likeable. Ang and Low (2000) analyzed the likeability of advertisements through dimensions of creativity (novelty, meaningfulness and emotion) measured by attitude towards brand and purchase intention. The ads with positive emotions, novelty and meaningfulness revealed a more favorable attitude and, consequently, a higher likeability. Also, results showed that novelty enhanced the ad’s effectiveness when compared to familiar ones. The next section will cover more of the relation between novelty, familiarity and likeability through optimal innovation. 11 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
1.2 Optimal Innovation In order to explain what Optimal Innovation is, some concepts need to be discussed. The level of knowledge (or the lack of it) of an ad’s interpreter is key to Optimal Innovation. Knowledge, or saliency, determines whether or not the interpreter can understand the innovation element. When presented with an optimal innovative image, if the viewer can automatically recognize the familiar image that was originally expected, and use this information to identify the novel element, then he will enjoy this process. Later on, we will see how this concept can be linked to visual irony. The main idea that Giora et al. (2004) provide is that when interpreting a scheme, there are three possible levels of salience that can ascribe a meaning to it. A meaning can be salient, less salient or non-­‐salient. If a meaning is salient, this means that it was coded in the mental lexicon due to cognitive factors or aspects of exposure such as familiarity and frequency. The less-­‐salient meaning can be coded but not as instantly or automatically as the previous level because it is less familiar, and less frequent. Finally, the non-­‐salient level refers to a meaning that is not coded, but novel. Giora et al. (2004) consider that for an innovation to be optimal it should involve a novel (either less-­‐salient or non-­‐salient) response to a given stimulus and at the same time a coded salient response that allows an automatic recovery, in order to make both responses tangible. This mechanism of communication can be created through incongruities of words, images or the combination of both, as long as it fulfills its premises. As seen in Giora et al. (2004), when both levels (i.e. saliency and novelty) are enabled, the response of the interpreter has the highest level of likeability. If one of the levels is not enabled, the response is less positive: 12 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
if the novel part of a scheme does not exist, then it is only familiar. If there is no salience/familiarity that the interpreter can turn to, the image is a pure innovation. To make the concept of optimal innovation more feasible, we have selected a Brazilian advertisement (see image 1) that can demonstrate the entities surrounding this mechanism of communication. The "Christ the Redeemer” is the familiar entity. The original image is the salient response, considering that it is a worldwide icon. The repositioning of the arms brings a novel aspect to the image in such a way that the adverting of a deodorant brand becomes suited to the scheme. Image 1 then, can be considered an Optimal Innovation to the extent that the scheme has allowed both the salient and the novel meaning to be triggered. The concept of optimal innovation, in other words, is to present something innovative and out of the ordinary while allowing the interpreter to solve the puzzle by turning to the salient/familiar meaning. He/she will solve it instinctively by comparing the images in his/her mind, which will generate a satisfying feeling of pleasure when the puzzle is figured out. Yet, if a stimulus is highly familiar and only salient, it will not produce a likeability level that is as high as the optimal innovation. Likewise, if the stimulus in question is a pure innovation, there will be no familiarity at all that the interpreter can turn to. In image 1, if the arms of the Christ were in the regular position, the image would not instigate the interpreter’s novel response. Also, if the image of something or someone that is not generally familiar were used, the action of covering the armpits would make no sense, since there is no established expectation of something with which we are not familiar. 13 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Giora et al. (2004) reported an example of Optimal Innovation: In 1997 David Reeb, an Israeli artist, created a series of works titled Let’s Have Another War, reflecting, what he considered to be, the intolerable ease and casualness with which Israelis wage wars. The exhibition included paintings showing Israeli tanks aiming at poor Palestinians’ homes. The phrase ‘let’s have another…’ is highly frequent and familiar, inviting some expected, mundane, positive completion. Its final ironic spin in this title is, therefore, innovative and startling. (p. 116) This surprising outcome of Reeb’s work shows us how Optimal Innovation and Irony can go hand in hand, with the novel meaning working as the unexpected outcome. The relation between irony and Optimal Innovation will be better explained further ahead. Image 1 14 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
1.3 Irony Irony is a phenomenon present in our everyday life and can be observed in many different situations. This timeless instrument of literature has its origins in ancient Greece, rooted in the comic character of Eiron, the underdog hero who used his cleverness to triumph over his stupid rival. Aristotle mentions Eironeia, which in his time was commonly employed to signify dissimulation, assumed ignorance. Yet, with time this concept has changed, as we will see further on. The contemporary use of irony is not limited to real-­‐life situations and literature. Nowadays it can also be seen in motion pictures, viral videos on the Internet, in advertisements and so many other tools that have a worldwide range. Irony, in its broadest sense, is a rhetorical device, literary technique, or event. It is characterized by an incongruity, or contrast, between the expectations of a situation and what actually occurs. Although there are different types of irony for different situations, the baseline concept remains the same. It is the language that states the opposite of the truth or drastically and obviously understates a factual connection. In Eric Partridge’s (1997) vision, irony consists in stating the contrary of what is meant. Jeudy (1996) sees irony as a linguistic phenomenon that is the only way to escape sluggishness and to dominate anger. It stems from a catastrophe of belief. It is not the same as bitterness: it is a sign of the community intelligence. It is a resort that people practice as a defense mechanism in everyday life, used as a means of circumventing the norms, playing with the institutions in order to give reason to what imposes as a necessity, or to accept a rationalization that is hard to believe. 15 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Jeudy (1996) also posits that ironic language produces the illusion of another reality and that is how people can understand the so-­‐called metaphors of a society. In that regard Scott (2004) exemplifies the use of irony in everyday situations to soften a bad outcome of an event through mockery; when someone says “nice weather, right?” while the rain is pouring outside, the rhetorical question provides a contrast between what is said and what is meant. Irony may arise from everyday situations, such as social inequality, sexual differences, traditional beliefs, history, weather, etc. This tool of communication can be considered a form of language that is not taught; it is a tacit knowledge that people acquire in time. We can find the irony phenomenon all over the world in every modern day society, as something gained through life experiences and rationalizing situations. Liberman (2009) sees that the comprehension of irony is universal: “Although cultures stereotypically differ in their affinity for irony, I've never heard or read that any group completely lacked the capacity to produce and understand it. (...). If sarcasm and irony are not universal, then are they considered just a cultural phenomenon? If so, how likely is it that so many different cultures could have developed it?” (p. 1). For the purposes of this study, the premise that irony is universally known is accepted so as to investigate whether it can be universally appreciated as well. Regarding irony as a tacit knowledge that can be interpreted through rationalization, Booth (1974) suggests a rather traditional rhetoric. When elaborating the steps in the ironic reconstruction, the reader is invited to reject 16 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
the literal or surface meaning because he/she becomes aware of certain inconsistencies. These are suggested by incongruities either in what is read or between what is read and what is known. Irony then, in order to be established, requires comprehension by the interpreter. It can be seen as a dynamic between writer and reader. The process of giving meaning to the ironic excerpts depends on the interpretation of the reader, whose role is to decipher and reject the surface meaning. By doing so, the viewer reconstructs and unveils a real meaning that is more than just what is explicitly stated. The task for the interpreter, then, is relatively easy: if he/she is a competent reader, then the irony will be interpreted correctly. Since the goal of this paper is to apply irony to advertising, how irony is established in pictorial schemes will be explored. 17 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
1.4 Visual Irony By applying the “echoic mention” theory of irony to photography, Scott (2004) demonstrates how an image can present one thing and yet mean another. When an unexpected element is introduced into an image, the juxtaposition between elements that causes an incongruity makes us aware of the preconceptions of how we expect things to be. Visual irony is based on the conflict between how we expect/how we are used to see things, and how they are presented. Besides the incongruities between expectation and reality, Scott (2004) also understands that the obliviousness of the subject that suffers the irony has to be present in order to be complete. While the starring character within the image is unaware of the irony, the viewer is fully aware of it. According to Scott (2004), the juxtaposition in visual irony can be either word-­‐based or wordless. The word-­‐based uses a text or statement merged into the image. The incongruity between the picture and the text within it configures the irony. Then, the meaning represents the contrary of the words and vice-­‐
versa. The echoic mention of irony is easily captured in a word-­‐based irony, since the text provides us with expectations of what is to be echoed, and when the remainder of the image does not match the expected echo, the incongruity becomes clear. Wordless irony uses two different symbols in order to produce incongruity. The premise of echoing remains the same. Instead of the text evoking the remainder of the image, one fragment of the image evokes the totality of the scheme. The familiar and expected portion of the image is then undermined by the opposing part of the image that denies our predicted associations. However, there is a thin line between wordless and word-­‐based 18 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
irony. Scott (2004) argues that even a figure/symbol that does not use words can still be considered a semiotic sign and consequently quasi-­‐linguistic. For the purposes of this study, visual irony shall be considered as being a branch of optimal innovation. The elements of optimal innovation (familiarity and novelty) then can be applied to visual irony. The familiarity works just like the expected meaning in visual irony; it is the preconception that we have when seeing an image. The introduction of a novel element works as the unexpected situation that gives another meaning to the scheme. Returning to image 1, the familiarity of the original image of the Christ can be considered as the expected meaning, or how we are used to seeing it. The novel element is the repositioning of the Christ’s arms that flouts our expectations and causes the incongruity. The relation between visual irony and optimal innovation can be better explained through Image 2. When we see the “fitness” sign, the preconception/familiar notion that we have of a fitness gym is that people attend it in order to work out and cease with sedentariness. Hence, the expectation of a gym, in our minds, is that of a place that discourages laziness, by promoting exercising. The unexpected, which can be transposed to novelty, is the complete opposite of our expectations: the presence of an escalator at the entrance displays the opposite of what a fitness gym stands for, promoting a conflict between the expectations of a situation and what actually occurs. The novel meaning is opposite to what “fitness” represents. The visual irony in image 2 is established by the placement of the escalators, which work as a novel baseline and give another meaning to the scheme. If the image was of a regular gym, with stairs as the only access point, it would be just a familiar image and there would be no incongruity, and no irony. 19 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Similarly, if the novel/unexpected baseline (i.e. escalators) were to be placed in a shopping mall as an access point to a food court, the novel tool would not contradict our expectations, and the irony would also not be configured. In this particular case, the irony was brought about by the addition of a strange element to the picture. There are many other ways to constitute visual irony, for example by altering a known visual element through hyperbole, contrast, repositioning, addition, subtraction, reversal and so on. In the end all kinds of incongruity have the same purpose of bringing the unexpected into a scheme in order to capture the viewer’s attention. Image 2 20 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
1.5 Visual Images Since this study approaches visual irony, there is a need to better understand how the recognition and establishment of an image is assembled. When presented with a visual sign that conveys irony, the viewer is required to associate and interpret it. This semiotic process of recognition of images/signs has to do with the general reconstruction that goes on inside the mind of the interpreter. By understanding the parameters to which an individual resorts when deciphering a visual sign, we can better understand this process. This will help to identify which elements have a more effective appeal when promoting an idea, product, or service using visual irony. Santaella and Nöth (1998) explain visual images as a part of two domains. The first domain is that of images as visual representations: drawings, paintings, engravings, photographs and motion pictures. Such images within this domain are material objects, signs that represent our visual environment. The second is the immaterial domain of images within our mind: fantasies, imaginations, schemes, models, and mental representations. These domains do not exist separately. It is not possible for images to exist with visual meanings that were not originated from a mental process by the person who decoded it. Likewise, there are no mental images that have no origin in the concrete visual world. This mental and visual unification finds and embodies itself through the sign. Rodrigues (2001) suggests that an image is built based upon the way in which the public decodes the evoked signs. Within advertising, the sign can be aroused either by a brand, its product, customer services, social endeavors, the well-­‐being of the environment, education and so on. The image created by a 21 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
product/brand in an ad stems from impressions of the ad and related associations. The result of this meaning-­‐making can either be positive, neutral or negative. The creation of a meaning whether it is positive, negative or neutral, depends on the interpreter’s personal experiences, beliefs, political preferences, community traditions, and sociocultural values (Rodrigues, 2001). The positive reaction generated by a sign relies on the degree to which the interpreter has affinity with the values that this sign represents. This affinity toward depicted values happens when processing the sign in an automatic and involuntary way. Having seen that the interpretation of the sign (e.g. ad) relies on the environment into which an individual is inserted, we will now approach how environmental and cultural differences can affect consumer behavior. 22 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
1.6 Consumer behavior and national cultural values According to Hoyer et al. (2013), consumer behavior does not limit itself to an individual buying tangible goods. It includes the consumer’s use of services, their activities, such as watching movies with famous actors and reading books by renowned authors, their experiences and their decisions, such as which politician to vote for. “Whether” and “why” we make those choices represent something about who we are, what we value and what we believe. The cultural environment in which we find ourselves has an influence on our motivations, how we process information and how we make decisions. Hoyer et al. (2013) sees that our expected behavior, norms, and ideas are conditioned by cultural values that characterize a society. Consumers are more motivated to attend to and process information when they find it relevant to their values, which are defined as abstract beliefs that guide what people regard as important or good (Hoyer et al., 2013). Thus, if one sees a certain product/service as something of importance, one is prone to be motivated to engage in behaviors that are consistent with this value. This system that influences perception and the pursuit of complying with these values is dictated by cultural norms that include beliefs, traditional practices, historical heritage and other stereotypes in accordance with social validation within a community. The role that local cultural values have on the advertising world has been undermined by Levitt (1984) by the proposition of a homogeneous marketing. Levitt (1984) popularized the term “globalization” and considered that one of its consequences was the uprising of global and multinational brands that promote standardization. The concept of the market (product, price, promotion) as 23 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
homogeneous does not take into consideration cultural identities. Promoting this standardization is an attempt to undermine the unique characteristics of a culture/region. Nevertheless, as much as globalization and innovative technologies have brought the world together, it does not mean that countries are becoming cultureless. Hofstede and Usunier (1999) posit that the system that composes national cultural value is rather resilient and stable. The identity of a culture is a timeless element that survives from generation to generation. The best example is that the countries within the Roman Empire still carry values from that domain, while regions that did not have contact with the Romans do not share their cultural heritage and characteristics. From an advertising perspective, Hoyer et al. (2013) consider that there are three main dimensions rooted in cultural values that characterize differences in advertising through the world: individualism vs. collectivism, horizontal vs. vertical orientation, and masculinity vs. femininity. This was inspired by Hofstede (1983) and Shavitt et al. (2006). Considering Hoyer et al.’s (2013) statement that “the ways in which cultures differ can affect how consumers think and behave” (p. 341), we selected two countries (i.e. Brazil and the Netherlands) that differ in those value dimensions in order to understand if those cultural values are in fact reflected in the affinity level and consequently the likeability of an advertisement. Individualism vs. Collectivism This dimension concerns the level of independence of the members of a society. Members of individualistic nations have concerns mainly about themselves and their closer relatives, while countries that have a low score on 24 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
individualism take into consideration the well-­‐being of the group/community (Hofstede, 1983). Individualist societies have their self-­‐image defined in terms of “I”, while collectivist societies consider the “we” involving a determinate group by protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. Marketers may apply this distinction to the way in which they depict consumers in ads for each culture – as individuals or as members of a group. Citizens in The Netherlands are considered to be highly individualistic, which means that Dutch people are expected to take care of themselves and their close family circle only. According to Hofstede (1983), the work relationship is based on mutual advantages between employer and employee, where meritocracy is the base of those working relationships and statuses. Professional growth is based on ability and talent, instead of on influence or wealth, in order to assure that everyone is equal and that the best professional will be rewarded. Brazil, on the other hand, is a collectivist society. Its citizens have a strong bond and look after each other. This mutual cooperativeness is not limited to the close relative circle, but also includes neighbors, coworkers, close friends and groups of interest. This collectivism is expressed to the extent that Brazilians are highly active in politics, concerned with safety, economy, unemployment rates and most of the issues that affect the country as a whole. Another aspect of this society is that Brazilians consider it important to be loyal and have lasting relationships. This more personal relationship schema can benefit those with higher interpersonal and communication skills in spite of others with better competencies. 25 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Horizontal vs. Vertical Consumers from cultures with a horizontal orientation value equality, by empowerment (i.e. power is equally divided) either in organizations within the working environment or socially speaking, whereas consumers from cultures with a vertical orientation put more emphasis on hierarchy (i.e. power is equal to status and the chain of power is established in an unbalanced way, with few people on the high command). Hoyer et al. (2013) state that “this distinction is especially important to marketers of status-­‐symbol products that will appeal to consumers influenced by vertical orientation” (p. 341). For these reasons, Dutch citizens are expected to be: independent and accept hierarchy only for convenience and only within the working environment. Everyone has equal rights, both in the professional and personal atmospheres. Companies have also adopted a style of management that embraces empowerment. Brazilians are deeply influenced by hierarchy and they deal more commonly with inequalities. The companies usually reflect a pyramid scheme where there are few decision-­‐making professionals. The power and responsibility is left to the formal figure of only one boss. In social life, hierarchy is also present once both status of power and the elderly figure are highly respected. Masculinity vs. Femininity Masculine cultures have consumers who tend to be more aggressive and competitive; the individuals of such a society consider that the only way to success is being the winner. A feminine culture believes that success is based on 26 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
having quality of life (Hofstede, 1983). Consumers of a masculine culture tend to better relate themselves to advertising that uses aggressive content. Individuals in the Netherlands aim to have a balanced life, between social and professional parameters. They normally do not pursue success at all cost, as the quality of life is more appreciated. Brazilian culture is rather masculine and sexist, and women are objectified and have a lower status within the society, both in the professional and social environments. Brazilians seek success at all cost, and being number two in any aspect of life equals failure. Ideally, if an ad manages to depict one of the previous mentioned values in accordance with the culture that better relates with it, then the consumers will have affinity toward the ad. The result is a positive attitude toward the product due to a relationship feeling between consumer and product. Once the consumer can identify him/herself with the ad, this positive feeling will be reassigned to the promoted product of that specific brand. The notion that consumer behavior can vary based on affinity towards cultural values can be noticed in real advertising cases. Kotler (1986) exposes one case of failure due to misplaced focus of advertising. When entering the Mexican market, a North American toothpaste brand promoted scientific proof in their ads in order to highlight the advantages of their toothpaste. However, the ad failed in reaching Mexicans because they do not value scientific evidences, even if the decay prevention was a proven benefit of the toothpaste. Taking this premise, the following section will demonstrate that the degree to which affinity is triggered when an individual faces an ad depends on cultural values. According to what we have seen, these values play a major role in the behavior of the consumer. Therefore, if a certain culture is prone to having 27 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
affinity towards an ad that explores one of those values, the likability level will be higher, thus giving the ad a better chance of persuading the consumer into becoming a loyal customer. 2. Research question Assuming that visual irony is a branch of optimal innovations, this study accepts that expected and unexpected outcome is to visual irony the same as familiarity and novelty is to optimal innovation. Within the scope of optimal innovations, it was proved that when familiarity and novelty are enabled, likeability rates are high. This paper will try to unveil whether the elements of visual irony (expected and unexpected outcome) also need to be triggered in order to generate likeability. In order to determine whether those elements are vital, we will manipulate images that are only familiar, in comparison with images that are familiar and unexpected. From this broader lens of visual irony comes the first research question: Are advertisements with visual irony more likeable than regular ads? Using the premise that visual irony can be appreciated, we introduce another element that can have a positive affect towards likeability: affinity. Bearing in mind that cultural values determine the way in which we give meaning to images, and have influence on the affinity toward an ad, we will prove whether or not the three dimensions of cultural values have an effect on likeability. In order to measure whether affinity has an important role in terms of likeability, we will measure if different cultures can have different levels of affinity toward ads that pertain to cultural values. By manipulating ads that 28 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
convey aspects of the Brazilian culture, we will compare if Brazilian people and Dutch people can have heterogeneous reactions in terms of affinity, and most importantly in terms of likeability. That leads to the second research question: Does affinity toward cultural values influence the likeability of irony-­‐
based advertisements? 2.1 Societal Relevance Making use of irony, for whatever purpose, can always be controversial. There is a thin line between irony that is comic and irony that is tragic. The recent terrorist attack performed by extremists in Paris against cartoonists from Charlie Hebdo shows us in a radical way how different cultures might have serious acceptance issues when cultural values are played with within ironic sketches. This study aims to unveil how irony is interpreted and if cultural values contribute to how positively or negatively a visually ironic scheme will be interpreted. The focus of the study entails irony used for marketing purposes, but the societal part of this study still remains since irony is not limited only to advertising. People face irony daily, whether it is through social interactions, personal experiences or in the social media, and the questions proposed in this paper can be considered a simple reaction to how our society interprets irony generally in the “real world”. 2.2 Scientific relevance This study is scientifically relevant because once the proposed research questions are answered, the importance and effectiveness of visual irony applied to advertising will become clear. By using the findings of Giora et al (2004) as they pertain to the concept of optimal innovations, allied with the concept of 29 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
visual irony in photography proposed by Scott (2004), this study aims to generate new findings to give room for discussion and shed a new light on the matter through a new perspective. 3. Method This chapter will explain how the present study was conducted, including the criteria applied throughout the development and implementation of the experiment. Section 4.1 will provide information about the participants. Section 4.2 will explain the materials that were used to run this experiment. Section 4.3 will specify and describe the procedure of each step in the execution of the study. 3.1 Participants For the development of this study, it was previously determined that the number of participants should be of a total of 100 people, wherein half of this number should be composed of people with a Dutch nationality and the other half should be composed of people with a Brazilian nationality. The participants were randomly selected, with the only conditions for participating in the study being that participants are over the age of 16 years and be a citizen from either one of those countries. The study was conducted both online and offline. To better know the participants, a few personal questions were asked during the questionnaire. The participant’s gender, age group, school level and nationality were enquired. The age group separated the participants by the ranges of 16 to 24, 25 to 34, 35 to 44, 45 to 54, 55 to 65 and 66 years or older. The school levels were categorized according to the highest completed education level, as: middle school, high school, undergraduate school and graduate school. 30 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
The data collected from amongst the Brazilian participants of the study showed us that 42% (21) of this group was composed of females, while 58% (29) was composed of males. The Dutch participants were composed of 50% (25) females, while males represented the other half (25). Age and school level are presented below in the graphics 1 and 2: Age Group 70% 60% 50% 40% Brazil 30% Netherlands 20% 10% 0% 16-­‐24 25-­‐34 35-­‐44 45-­‐54 55-­‐64 65+ Graphic 1 School Level 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Brazil Netherlands Middle School High School Undergraduate School Graphic 2 Graduate School 31 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
3.2 Materials The study was implemented through questionnaires distributed randomly to both Brazilian and Dutch participants. Neither the objective nor specific details of the study were revealed to the participants. Every participant evaluated 9 different advertisements by answering questions that dealt with familiarity, unexpectancy, affinity and likeability (see Appendix). The follow-­‐up questions to each image were identical. All respondents evaluated the same ads in the exact same order. The answers were based on level of agreement toward a statement, measured by use of 7-­‐point Likert scales ranging from (1) Strongly Disagree to (7) Strongly Agree. 3.3 Procedure After answering the personal questions, the participants were asked to observe advertisements and answer questions regarding the images. This study was performed within subjects, with all participants being exposed to the same conditions. All of the 9 print ads had the same follow-­‐up questions, distributed in a patterned order. The follow-­‐up questions were developed in order to measure four variables: Familiarity, Unexpectancy, Affinity and Likeability. Each variable consisted of 4 questions, resulting on 16 questions per each ad. The order of those 16 questions was the same for all of the 9 ads. A SPSS test was conducted to measure the Cronbach’s alpha, in order to measure the internal consistency estimate of reliability of test scores. The familiarity variable (α = .866), the unexpectancy variable (α = .701), the affinity variable (α = .839) and the likeability variable (α = .789) all presented a good 32 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
internal consistency. In other words, the proposed variables were composed by questions that measured a single unidimensional construct. Concerning the displayed ads, we chose products and services with a low effort process of decision-­‐making given that Biel and Bridgewater (1990) consider that the persuasion attributed through likability can better be assembled when the object of the ad has a low effort process of decision-­‐making. The 9 presented ads can be classified by sectioning them into 3 different types, proportionally. The first set of images entails 3 regular advertisements. These ads objectively presented the product in question without use of irony and without evoking cultural dimensions. The product/services depicted in this section advertised for: Peanuts, mail delivery service and soft drinks. For a better understanding, see Image 3. Image 3 -­‐ Example of a regular ad The second set consists of 3 advertisements with visual irony. For comparing purposes, the promoted products in this condition were the same as the products advertised in the regular ads condition. Differentially, the ads 33 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
promoted the product by using visual irony, without evoking any cultural dimensions. For a better understanding, see Image 4. Image 4 -­‐ Example of an ironic ad The third set of images was composed of 3 irony-­‐based advertisements that promoted 3 different products. Each one of these ads evoked a different dimension of cultural value, depicting the values of the Brazilian culture (masculinity, verticality and collectivism). The chosen advertised products were: a newspaper, alcoholic beverages and an automobile. For a better understanding, see Image 5. Image 5 -­‐ Example of a culture-­‐ironic ad 34 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
4. Results 4.1 Overview This chapter consists of the results of the experiment. In the first stage, the overall and country-­‐specific results will be presented. The data will be shown in order to make clear the following section of descriptive statistical analysis. Both SPSS and Microsoft Excel were the chosen software for interpreting the data. In Graphic 3, it is possible to see how the entirety of the participants from the study behaved. Each condition shows different patterns concerning the results for each variable covered in the survey. The first point that can be easily spotted is the familiarity variable, which presented consistent scores throughout all the different situations of images, thus demonstrating a good and full understanding of the ads presented, regardless of whether the depicted content was ironic or regular. The unexpectancy variable was low in the regular ad condition, as expected since the ads had no irony content. In the ironic ad and the culture-­‐
ironic ad conditions, the unexpectancy was considerably higher, considering the ironic characteristics of the advertisements used in these conditions. The affinity variable was in a constant increase according to the conditions’ order, and so was the likeability mean. 35 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Overall Means 7,00 6,00 5,00 4,00 Regular 3,00 Ironic 2,00 Culture-­‐ironic 1,00 0,00 Familiarity Unexpectancy Aftinity Likeability Graphic 3 Comparing the responses by country, it becomes possible to notice that the main difference between those cultures relies on the affinity and likeability variables, enabling us to answer the second research question. Graphics 4 to 7 present the means for each variable, separated by country. Just by looking at the means, one can make assumptions based on the results, applying them in order to answer the research questions. The ironic advertisements were proven to be more likeable than the regular ads. While regular ads had a high familiarity score, and medium to low results concerning the other variables, the two ironic conditions proven to be likeable by the respondents who had a good to average score on the unexpectancy and affinity variables. When comparing by country, it was possible to spot differences that stood out more in the affinity and likeability variables, in the culture-­‐ironic condition. These differences are the means of solidifying this paper’s theory that cultural values affect the affinity level of a consumer regarding an ad, thus reflecting the likeability toward an ad. It was no surprise that the Brazilians had higher affinity 36 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
concerning culture-­‐ironic ads, since the cultural value expressed had Brazilian features. This contributed to the likeability score, which proved to be proportional to the affinity variable. Concerning the Dutch respondents, such proportionality can also be spotted, but inversely. Both affinity and likeability were higher for ironic ads condition, while on culture-­‐ironic condition they presented a lower score. Familiarity Means 7,00 6,00 5,00 4,00 Brazil 3,00 Netherlands 2,00 1,00 0,00 Regular Ads Ironic Ads Culture-­‐Ironic Ads Graphic 4 Unexpectancy Means 7,00 6,00 5,00 4,00 Brazil 3,00 Netherlands 2,00 1,00 0,00 Regular Ads Ironic Ads Culture-­‐Ironic Ads Graphic 5 37 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
AfXinity Means 6,00 5,00 4,00 3,00 Brazil 2,00 Netherlands 1,00 0,00 Regular Ads Ironic Ads Culture-­‐Ironic Ads Graphic 6 Likeability Means 7,00 6,00 5,00 4,00 Brazil 3,00 Netherlands 2,00 1,00 0,00 Regular Ads Ironic Ads Culture-­‐Ironic Ads Graphic 7 4.2 Descriptive Statistics Even though it is possible to answer the research questions by comparing the different means, since the study is based on a sample that does not represent the totality of these two different populations, we cannot state undoubtedly that our answers illustrate reality with 100% confidence. In order to solidify our 38 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
findings and validate our theory, we applied a mixed-­‐design ANOVA and student’s T test. 4.2.1 Mixed-­‐design ANOVA Since this study’s design splits on two factors (i.e. within-­‐subjects and between-­‐subjects), this section will cover the results of a mixed ANOVA analysis. This analysis will take in consideration the selected dependent variables (i.e. familiarity, unexpectany, affinity and likeability) rated over three conditions (i.e. regular ads, ironic ads and culture-­‐ironic ads, within-­‐subjects factor ad-­‐type) by the respondents that were assigned into two groups separated by nationality (i.e. Brazilian and Dutch, between-­‐subjects factor nationality). Familiarity Mauchly's Test of Sphericity indicated that the assumption of sphericity had been violated, χ2 (2) = 7.92, p = .019, therefore degrees of freedom were corrected using Huynh-­‐Feldt estimates of sphericity (ε = 0.96). There was a significant main effect of the type of ad being rated F (1.91, 187.01) = 35.36, p < .001. This effect means that the scores on familiarity for the three different types of ad significantly differed. There was a significant Type of ad x Nationality interaction, F (1.91, 187.01) = 6.75, p = .002. This effect means that familiarity scores for the three different types of ad significantly differed between Brazilian and Dutch respondents. Additionally, There was a significant main effect of nationality, F (1, 98) = 15.76, p < .001. This effect tells us that if we ignore all other variables, Dutch participants' ratings were significantly different to Brazilians'. 39 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Posthoc analyses using Tukey’s HSD indicated that familiarity was significantly higher for regular ads than for ironic ads (p = .039) and culture-­‐
ironic ads (p < .001). Familiarity for culture-­‐ironic ads proved to be significantly lower than for ironic ads (p < .001) Unexpectancy Mauchly's Test of Sphericity indicated that the assumption of sphericity had been violated, χ2 (2) = 16.33, p < .001, therefore degrees of freedom were corrected using Huynh-­‐Feldt estimates of sphericity (ε = 0.89). There was a significant main effect of the type of ad being rated F (1.78, 174.25) = 343.43, p < .001. This effect means that the scores on unexpectancy for the three different types of ad significantly differed. There was a significant Type of ad x Nationality interaction, F (1.78, 174.25) = 4.63, p = .014. This effect means that unexpectancy scores for the three different types of ad significantly differed between Brazilian and Dutch respondents. Additionally, there was a significant main effect of nationality, F (1, 98) = 32.31, p < .001. This effect tells us that if we ignore all other variables, Dutch participants' ratings were significantly different to Brazilians'. Posthoc analyses using Tukey’s HSD indicated that unexpectancy was significantly lower for regular ads than for ironic ads (p < .001) and culture-­‐
ironic ads (p < .001). Unexpectancy for ironic ads proved to be significantly higher than for culture-­‐ironic ads (p < .001). Affinity Mauchly's Test of Sphericity indicated that the assumption of sphericity had not been violated, χ2 (2) = 2.534, p = .282. There was a significant main effect 40 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
of the type of ad being rated F (2, 196) = 95.60, p < .001. This effect means that the scores on affinity for the three different types of ad significantly differed. There was a significant Type of ad x Nationality interaction, F (2, 196) = 96.53, p < .001. This effect means that affinity scores for the three different types of ad significantly differed between Brazilian and Dutch respondents. Additionally, there was a significant main effect of nationality, F (1, 98) = 31.71, p < .001. This effect tells us that if we ignore all other variables, Dutch participants' ratings were significantly different to Brazilians'. Posthoc analyses using Tukey’s HSD indicated that affinity was significantly lower for regular ads than for ironic ads (p < .001) and culture-­‐
ironic ads (p < .001). Affinity for culture-­‐ironic ads proved to be significantly higher than for ironic ads (p = .001). Likeability Mauchly's Test of Sphericity indicated that the assumption of sphericity had been violated, χ2 (2) = 10.18, p = .006, therefore degrees of freedom were corrected using Huynh-­‐Feldt estimates of sphericity (ε = 0.94). There was a significant main effect of the type of ad being rated F (1.87, 183.29) = 278.79, p < .001. This effect means that the scores on likeability for the three different types of ad significantly differed. There was a significant Type of ad x Nationality interaction, F (1.87, 183.29) = 30.48, p < .001. This effect means that likeability scores for the three different types of ad significantly differed between Brazilian and Dutch respondents. Additionally, There was a significant main effect of nationality, F (1, 98) = 68.78, p < .001. This effect tells us that if we 41 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
ignore all other variables, Dutch participants' ratings were significantly different to Brazilians'. Posthoc analyses using Tukey’s HSD indicated that likeability was significantly lower for regular ads than for ironic ads (p < .001) and culture-­‐
ironic ads (p < .001). Yet, likeability did not differ significantly between ironic and culture-­‐Ironic ads (p = .571). 4.2.2 T – Test The previous mixed ANOVA analyses proved that there are significant differences within the types of ad as well as between the groups of nationality. Furthermore, the posthoc revealed which repeated measures (i.e. type of ad) were significantly different between one another, wherein nationalities were not differentiated. In order to objectively answer our research questions, we will take the posthoc analysis further, thoroughly examining the significant differences that have an impact on the research questions, by conducting an additional student’s t-­‐test. Part one First, we take into consideration our first research question: “Are advertisements with visual irony more likeable than regular ads?” We can observe the means’ differences in table 1, and indeed the mean score of likeability of ironic ads was considerably higher than the mean score of likeability of the regular ads. A paired-­‐samples t-­‐test was conducted to compare likeability average scores of two different conditions: regular ads and ironic ads. There was a significant difference in the likeability scores for regular ads (M = 3.72, SD = 1.52) and ironic ads (M = 5.42, SD = 1,45); t (198) = 8.09, p < .001. 42 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
These results suggest that ironic advertisements indeed are more appreciated than regular advertisements. In order to have a complete view and better answer to our research question, the difference between the means was also calculated through another paired-­‐samples t-­‐test. Examining the Brazilian respondents’ means (see Table 2), we tested whether the difference between likeability of regular ads is statistically significant from likeability of ironic ads. There was a difference between the scores for regular ads (M = 4.12, SD = 1.40) and ironic ads (M = 5.39, SD = 1.43); t (98) = 4.46, p < .001. These results suggest that Brazilian people consider ironic advertisements more likeable than regular advertisements. Another paired-­‐samples t-­‐test was conducted, this time focusing on the perspective of the Dutch people (see table 2). There was a difference in the likeability scores for regular ads (M = 3.31, SD = 1.53) and ironic ads (M =5.45, SD = 1.47); t (98) = 7.12, p < .001. These results suggest that Dutch people like ironic advertisements more than regular advertisements. From these calculations, we discovered that both Brazilian and Dutch people have a higher likeability toward ironic advertisements. Nevertheless, we still need to explore whether the difference between those two cultures is significant. Does one culture have a likeability score significantly higher than the other, or can we assume that both have a similar response when it comes to ironic publicity? In order to answer this question, we conducted an independent-­‐
samples t-­‐test. There was no significant difference in the likeability scores between Brazilian people (M = 5.39, SD =1.43) and Dutch people (M = 5.45, SD = 1.47); t (98)= 0.21, p = 0.83. These results suggest that both Brazilian and Dutch people have a homogeneous reaction toward ironic advertisement. Also, the 43 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
discovery that ironic ads are likeable and understood regardless of geographic differences contributes to theories that see irony as a worldwide phenomenon. Part two In order to answer our second research question, we performed another series of descriptive analysis tests in consideration of the question: “does affinity toward cultural values influence the likeability of irony-­‐based advertisements?” Taking into account the results gathered from the culture-­‐ironic ads we conducted a t-­‐test in order to analyze whether the difference between the means was significant, and what this difference can tell us about the perception of distinctive cultures toward ironic ads. In other words, will there be a substantial difference in likeability of ironic ads pertaining to Brazilian values amongst the Brazilians when compared with the Dutch respondents? An independent-­‐samples t-­‐test was conducted to compare likeability average scores for the condition of culture-­‐ironic ads between Brazilian and Dutch participants. There was a difference in the likeability scores for Brazilian people (M = 5.97, SD = 1.18) and Dutch people (M = 4.78, SD = 1.58) condition; t (98) = 4.28, p < .001. These results suggest that the Brazilian participants indeed 44 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
liked more of the Brazilian culture-­‐ironic ads when compared to the Dutch people. Such difference can be considered high and is not by coincidence; the results can be extrapolated to the whole population. This finding showed that the likeability was considerably higher for the Brazilians, but what about the affinity? Did Brazilian and Dutch participants have similar affinity towards the Brazilian ironic ads? According to our independent-­‐
samples t-­‐test there was a significant difference in the scores of affinity when the Brazilian (M = 5.71, SD = 1.46) and Dutch (M = 3.97, SD = 1.70) were exposed to the culture-­‐ironic ads; t (98) = 5.49, p < .001. These results show us that Brazilian people have a considerably higher affinity toward the culture-­‐ironic ads than Dutch people. This finding contributes to our theory that culture has a direct effect on affinity and depends on local value dimensions that for some countries might be irrelevant (in this case The Netherlands), while for other countries of importance (in this case Brazil). Looking to our other variables sectioned by country, an independent-­‐
samples t-­‐test was performed in order to give strength to our previous findings. While likeability and affinity differ substantially in the condition of culture-­‐ironic advertisements, the familiarity and unexpectancy variables do not. The small differences amongst the means of those variables are not statistically significant. Comparing the means of those variables between Dutch and Brazilians according to culture-­‐ironic ads condition, the following results were obtained: unexpectancy scores of Brazilian participants (M = 5.04, SD = 1.56) and Dutch participants (M = 4.72, SD = 1.63); t (98) = 1.02, p = 0.31; Familiarity scores of Brazilian participants (M = 5.21, SD = 1.34) and Dutch participants (M = 4.86, SD = 1.66); t (98) = 1.17, p = 0.25. 45 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
5. Discussion For the purposes of discussion, it is useful to reiterate what was presented in chapter 1, that there are two main lines of thought that need to be taken into account when arguing the results. The first is that ironic images are composed of a familiar image that is salient within the viewer’s mind and a novel response that goes against the expectations that the salient meaning has summoned (Giora et al., 2004 & Scott, 2004). The second is that cultural values have a great influence when it comes to relating to a pictorial scheme (Rodrigues, 2001). If the values depicted in a scheme relate to someone’s cultural identity, affinity will be established (Hoyer et al., 2013). Within the three conditions that this study has proposed, the respondents’ means aligned accordingly with the theory previously mentioned. Considering that any score above 4 is rated positively, in terms of regular ads, the only variable with a high score was familiarity (5,56), while unexpectancy (3,32), affinity (3,92) and likeability (3,72) were relatively low. In terms of ironic ads, familiarity (5,42) unexpectancy (5,50), affinity (4,61) and likeability (5,42) all had a high score. In terms of culture-­‐ironic ads that evoked Brazilian values, 46 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
unexpectancy (5,04 and 4,72) and familiarity (5,21 and 4,86) were high for both Brazilian and Dutch respondents, respectively. However affinity for Brazilians (5,71) was higher than for Dutch respondents (3,97), and thus likeability was higher for Brazilian respondents (5,97) than for Dutch respondents (4,78). Ironic ads were rated as significantly more likeable than regular ads. Both mixed ANOVA and t-­‐test proved that this difference is substantial and scientifically relevant with a level of confidence (95%) that allows us to state that those differences are not just a coincidence. The preference for ironic ads over the regular ones occurred for both Brazilians and Dutch respondents, with no significant difference between the two groups. Regarding the culture-­‐ironic condition, affinity proved to be directly proportional to likeability when cultural values are evoked. The descriptive statistics’ tests proved that Brazilian respondents had a considerable higher affinity and likeability than the Dutch respondents. Once familiarity and unexpectancy did not differed significantly between nationalities, it is possible to assume that affinity was the main factor that influenced on likeability, for the Brazilian participants in a positive way and for the Dutch participants in a neutral/negative way. Considering that the cultural values evoked pertained to Brazilian dimensions, this result was not surprising. Affinity played an important role for ironic images and proved that different cultures have different values, demonstrated by their respective positive or negative reactions to an ad depending on which cultural value it depicts, showing us that affinity toward cultural values indeed influence the likeability of irony-­‐based advertisements. 47 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
6. Limitations and recommendation for future research The present study hopes to shed more light on how visual irony works and how it can be used in advertising. Though our findings are significant, some caveats need to be highlighted. The questionnaire distributed to our respondents presented only 9 advertisements to avoid fatigue effects. The print ads chosen had a low-­‐effort decision character, given that this type of goods/services can be more effective, with a better chance of persuading the consumer. Products with a high-­‐effort process of decision-­‐making demand a more intense evaluation, and forthcoming studies might approach this other point of view. Additionally, the chosen types of ads are from print advertising. Since visual irony is not limited only to pictures, a future research project could investigate people’s response when facing other platforms of advertisement in different kinds of media. For comparison purposes, this study has chosen the Brazilian and the Dutch cultures, which are an antithesis to one another. For future research, other cultures with different scores on the three dimensions of cultural values (masculinity, verticality and collectivism) could be analyzed. The chosen parameter to measure cultural values concerns the major criteria according to advertising principles (Hoyer et al., 2013). Nevertheless, cultural values are not limited to the ones approached in this study. Each culture has ascribed marginal principals and ideals through its community, such as religion, beliefs, norms, traditions, custom rituals, common practices, and several other minor dimensions that can contribute to someone’s behavior. Such secondary 48 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
dimensions can be better analyzed in a more in-­‐depth study, depending on the targeted culture(s). 7. Conclusion Advertising has changed with the times and so does the content being promoted. In order to keep up with this trend, marketers have to be innovative, present something that stands out from the ordinary. With that in mind, the present study set out to explore visual irony and its elements. The theoretical literature presented on this subject has aimed to explain how visual irony is established, what are the elements behind it, how can we identify and structure visual irony, and how culture plays an important role in interpreting this phenomenon. These concepts were chosen to provide new insight, and more importantly, to explain whether or not this new concept of advertising can be genuinely appreciated. Ironic ads were chosen to determine whether they could be effective and appreciated. Their effectiveness was determined by measuring variables that compose ironic images (unexpectancy and familiarity) and also the degree to which people relate to and like those images (affinity and likeability, respectively). For comparison purposes, regular ads were chosen to quantify whether the reactions to those ads could be significantly different from reactions toward ironic ads. Based upon the findings presented, we can objectively answer the first research question: “are advertisements with visual irony more likeable than regular ads?” Looking first from the perspective of the regular ads, it was noticed that the only variable that consistently had a high score was familiarity. Yet, by 49 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
comparing scores, we noticed that respondents considered those images monotonous, and had no sympathy or appreciation for them. Therefore, we can assume that simply presenting something that people often see and understand does not suffice. If one does not stimulate the viewer with something new and different, then whatever it is that one is trying to promote will be considered as boring. On the other hand, irony-­‐based ads proved to generate a better reaction from our respondents. Visual ironic ads triggered the two principles that irony stands for: an echoing message that denies a preconceived expectation. Presenting an image scheme that allows the interpreter to understand it and at the same time offers a new reality outcome that is not commonly expected, proved to generate a high score of likeability. Thus, the research question can be answered to the extent that ironic ads are indeed more likeable. They allow the viewer to become an active part of the scheme, where he/she interacts with it through reasoning in order to capture the irony. By doing so, the interpreter will appreciate the artwork more. Concerning the second research question: “does affinity toward cultural values influence the likeability of irony-­‐based advertisements?” it was proven that, undoubtedly, the dimensions of cultural values play a distinctive role in establishing affinity. Furthermore, the positive level of affinity boosted the likeability towards the ad in a proportional pattern. By focusing on ads that positively depicted the values of the Brazilian culture, we proved that in such conditions, the affinity and consequently the likeability were higher for the Brazilian participants. However, there was no significant difference regarding the perception of both cultures in terms of the 50 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
ironic excerpts, measured by familiarity and unexpectancy. We can assume that even though the irony was understood by both cultures, Brazilians liked the ads significantly more than the Dutch thanks to their affinity with the cultural values depicted. This proves that affinity indeed influences likeability, depending on the cultural values of given community. When we apply the representations of the quantitative data in our study to actual scenarios in our society, it becomes clear that even though the market and everything surrounding it has evolved, consumers still have inherent characteristics that are based upon where he/she finds him/herself. Marketers, when advertising a determinate good or service, need to take into account the cultural aspects of the place where the target consumer is. Visual irony opens up a space for a myriad approaches that the advertising world can make use of, and we proved that the best way to communicate with consumers is by making them feel related to what is being advertised. 51 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
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Appendix Questionnaire Sample: “Welcome and thank you for taking the time to complete the following survey. The completion of the questionnaire should take about ten minutes of your time. Your responses are voluntary and will be confidential. Responses will not be identified by individual. All responses will be compiled together and analyzed as a group. This study attempts to collect information concerning the customer's reaction towards different types of ads. In the questionnaire we will first ask you a few personal character questions. After that we will present you with a set of images and ask you to evaluate them. Take as much time as you need to fill in the answers. If you have any questions regarding this study, you may contact the researcher via this e: mail address: 54 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
What is your age? m
m
m
m
m
m
16 to 24 years 25 to 34 years 35 to 44 years 45 to 54 years 55 to 64 years 65 years and over What is your gender? m Male m Female What is the highest level of formal education you have completed? m
m
m
m
Middle School High School Undergraduate School Graduate School What is your nationality? m Dutch m Other :______________________ 55 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Kaya King Peanuts How strongly do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about this ad? Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Disagree Neutral Somewhat Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1) I understand what the ad is trying to convey m m m m m m m 2) I consider this ad surprising m m m m m m m 3) I can relate myself to this image m m m m m m m 4) I enjoyed seeing this ad m m m m m m m 5) I am familiar with the concept and elements in this image m m m m m m m 6) I consider this ad obvious m m m m m m m 56 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Strongly Disagree Disagree Somewhat Neutral Somewhat Disagree Agree Agree Strongly Agree 7) This ad represents existing elements in my society m m m m m m m 8) The satirical characteristic of this ad made it pleasurable m m m m m m m 9) I am aware of how the different elements of the ad fit together in order to show me a quality of the product m m m m m m m 10) I can recognize a contrast of opposite elements in the ad m m m m m m m 11) This ad is compatible with my personal values m m m m m m m 12) I find the ad monotonous m m m m m m m 13) I often see this product in advertisements in the media m m m m m m m 14) The presented ad seems implausible m m m m m m m 15) I have affinity towards this ad m m m m m m m 16) This ad is different from most ordinary ads in a positive way m m m m m m m 57 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
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UPS Stores How strongly do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about this ad? Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neutral Somewhat Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1) I understand what the ad is trying to convey m m m m m m m 2) I consider this ad surprising m m m m m m m 3) I can relate myself to this image m m m m m m m 4) I enjoyed seeing this ad m m m m m m m 5) I am familiar with the concept and elements in this image m m m m m m m 6) I consider this ad obvious m m m m m m m 7) This ad represents existing elements in my society m m m m m m m 8) The satirical characteristic of this ad made it pleasurable m m m m m m m 9) I am aware of how the different elements of the ad fit together in order to show me a quality of the product m m m m m m m 59 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
10) I can recognize a contrast of opposite elements in the ad m m m m m m m 11) This ad is compatible with my personal values m m m m m m m 12) I find the ad monotonous m m m m m m m 13) I often see this product in advertisements in the media m m m m m m m 14) The presented ad seems implausible m m m m m m m 15) I have affinity towards this ad m m m m m m m 16) This ad is different from most ordinary ads in a positive way m m m m m m m 60 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
PEPSI How strongly do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about this ad? Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neutral Somewhat Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1) I understand what the ad is trying to convey m m m m m m m 2) I consider this ad surprising m m m m m m m 3) I can relate myself to this image m m m m m m m 4) I enjoyed seeing this ad m m m m m m m 5) I am familiar with the concept and elements in this image m m m m m m m 6) I consider this ad obvious m m m m m m m 7) This ad represents existing elements in my society m m m m m m m 8) The satirical characteristic of this ad made it pleasurable m m m m m m m 61 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
9) I am aware of how the different elements of the ad fit together in order to show me a quality of the product m m m m m m m 10) I can recognize a contrast of opposite elements in the ad m m m m m m m 11) This ad is compatible with my personal values m m m m m m m 12) I find the ad monotonous m m m m m m m 13) I often see this product in advertisements in the media m m m m m m m 14) The presented ad seems implausible m m m m m m m 15) I have affinity towards this ad m m m m m m m 16) This ad is different from most ordinary ads in a positive way m m m m m m m 62 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
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Kaya King Jumbo Peanuts XL How strongly do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about this ad? Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Disagree Neutral Somewhat Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1) I understand what the ad is trying to convey m m m m m m m 2) I consider this ad surprising m m m m m m m 3) I can relate myself to this image m m m m m m m 4) I enjoyed seeing this ad m m m m m m m 5) I am familiar with the concept and elements in this image m m m m m m m 6) I consider this ad obvious m m m m m m m 7) This ad represents existing elements in my society m m m m m m m 8) The satirical characteristic of this ad made it pleasurable m m m m m m m 64 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
9) I am aware of how the different elements of the ad fit together in order to show me a quality of the product m m m m m m m 10) I can recognize a contrast of opposite elements in the ad m m m m m m m 11) This ad is compatible with my personal values m m m m m m m 12) I find the ad monotonous m m m m m m m 13) I often see this product in advertisements in the media m m m m m m m 14) The presented ad seems implausible m m m m m m m 15) I have affinity towards this ad m m m m m m m 16) This ad is different from most ordinary ads in a positive way m m m m m m m 65 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
FEDEX How strongly do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about this ad? Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neutral Somewhat Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1) I understand what the ad is trying to convey m m m m m m m 2) I consider this ad surprising m m m m m m m 3) I can relate myself to this image m m m m m m m 4) I enjoyed seeing this ad m m m m m m m 5) I am familiar with the concept and elements in this image m m m m m m m 6) I consider this ad obvious m m m m m m m 7) This ad represents existing elements in my society m m m m m m m 8) The satirical characteristic of this ad made it pleasurable m m m m m m m 66 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
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9) I am aware of how the different elements of the ad fit together in order to show me a quality of the product m m m m m m m 10) I can recognize a contrast of opposite elements in the ad m m m m m m m 11) This ad is compatible with my personal values m m m m m m m 12) I find the ad monotonous m m m m m m m 13) I often see this product in advertisements in the media m m m m m m m 14) The presented ad seems implausible m m m m m m m 15) I have affinity towards this ad m m m m m m m 16) This ad is different from most ordinary ads in a positive way m m m m m m m 68 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
PEPSI: We wish you a scary Halloween! How strongly do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about this ad? Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neutral Somewhat Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1) I understand what the ad is trying to convey m m m m m m m 2) I consider this ad surprising m m m m m m m 3) I can relate myself to this image m m m m m m m 4) I enjoyed seeing this ad m m m m m m m 5) I am familiar with the concept and elements in this image m m m m m m m 6) I consider this ad obvious m m m m m m m 7) This ad represents existing elements in my society m m m m m m m 8) The satirical characteristic of this ad made it pleasurable m m m m m m m 69 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
9) I am aware of how the different elements of the ad fit together in order to show me a quality of the product m m m m m m m 10) I can recognize a contrast of opposite elements in the ad m m m m m m m 11) This ad is compatible with my personal values m m m m m m m 12) I find the ad monotonous m m m m m m m 13) I often see this product in advertisements in the media m m m m m m m 14) The presented ad seems implausible m m m m m m m 15) I have affinity towards this ad m m m m m m m 16) This ad is different from most ordinary ads in a positive way m m m m m m m 70 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
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PEUGEOT God is watching. Peugeot panoramic roof. Available for 208, 308, 3008 and 508. How strongly do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about this ad? Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neutral Somewhat Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1) I understand what the ad is trying to convey m m m m m m m 2) I consider this ad surprising m m m m m m m 3) I can relate myself to this image m m m m m m m 4) I enjoyed seeing this ad m m m m m m m 5) I am familiar with the concept and elements in this image m m m m m m m 6) I consider this ad obvious m m m m m m m 7) This ad represents existing elements in my society m m m m m m m 8) The satirical characteristic of this ad made it pleasurable m m m m m m m 72 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
9) I am aware of how the different elements of the ad fit together in order to show me a quality of the product m m m m m m m 10) I can recognize a contrast of opposite elements in the ad m m m m m m m 11) This ad is compatible with my personal values m m m m m m m 12) I find the ad monotonous m m m m m m m 13) I often see this product in advertisements in the media m m m m m m m 14) The presented ad seems implausible m m m m m m m 15) I have affinity towards this ad m m m m m m m 16) This ad is different from most ordinary ads in a positive way m m m m m m m 73 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Non Alcoholic Nova Schin How strongly do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about this ad? Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neutral Somewhat Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1) I understand what the ad is trying to convey m m m m m m m 2) I consider this ad surprising m m m m m m m 3) I can relate myself to this image m m m m m m m 4) I enjoyed seeing this ad m m m m m m m 5) I am familiar with the concept and elements in this image m m m m m m m 6) I consider this ad obvious m m m m m m m 7) This ad represents existing elements in my society m m m m m m m 8) The satirical characteristic of this ad made it pleasurable m m m m m m m 74 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
9) I am aware of how the different elements of the ad fit together in order to show me a quality of the product m m m m m m m 10) I can recognize a contrast of opposite elements in the ad m m m m m m m 11) This ad is compatible with my personal values m m m m m m m 12) I find the ad monotonous m m m m m m m 13) I often see this product in advertisements in the media m m m m m m m 14) The presented ad seems implausible m m m m m m m 15) I have affinity towards this ad m m m m m m m 16) This ad is different from most ordinary ads in a positive way m m m m m m m 75 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
Dagens Industri Newspaper Be there when the market turns How strongly do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about this ad? Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neutral Somewhat Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1) I understand what the ad is trying to convey m m m m m m m 2) I consider this ad surprising m m m m m m m 3) I can relate myself to this image m m m m m m m 4) I enjoyed seeing this ad m m m m m m m 5) I am familiar with the concept and elements in this image m m m m m m m 6) I consider this ad obvious m m m m m m m 7) This ad represents existing elements in my society m m m m m m m 8) The satirical characteristic of this ad made it pleasurable m m m m m m m 76 IRONY WITHOUT BORDERS
9) I am aware of how the different elements of the ad fit together in order to show me a quality of the product m m m m m m m 10) I can recognize a contrast of opposite elements in the ad m m m m m m m 11) This ad is compatible with my personal values m m m m m m m 12) I find the ad monotonous m m m m m m m 13) I often see this product in advertisements in the media m m m m m m m 14) The presented ad seems implausible m m m m m m m 15) I have affinity towards this ad m m m m m m m 16) This ad is different from most ordinary ads in a positive way m m m m m m m Thank you for participating! 77