Chapter 11: Interest
Groups
AP Classes, Nov. 11, 2016
So What’s an “Interest Group”?
• Any organization designed to influence
public policy.
• Goal may be to prevent action, change
policies, ultimately get what their client
wants.
• IGs hire (and are sometimes called)
“lobbyists,” perhaps after the activities that
went on in the Willard Hotel (probably a
myth, btw, but still a great hotel).
The lobby of the Willard
A look at an interest group in action
• http://aptv.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/
frntc10.guide.obama/obamas-deal-the-deal-makingbegins/
Historical Insight on Interest Groups
Federalist #10 by James Madison on
factions
• Selfish interests threaten common
good.
• Protect individual liberties from the
tyranny of the majority.
• Representative democracy and large
republic necessary to curtail influence
of factions.
• Separation of powers in national
government limits influence of
factions.
• In essence, let factions fight factions.
Constitutional Underpinnings of IGs
• First Amendment protects them.
• Freedom of speech
• Freedom of assembly
• Freedom to petition government
• Our federalist system encourages them.
• Lots of governments at different levels, so lots of groups
form to try to influence them.
• Some national groups (NRA, AARP, etc.), some regional (the
“Save Our Delta” movement)
There’s a group for everyone…
•
See list (undoubtedly partial) of trade associations: http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
List_of_industry_trade_groups_in_the_United_States
•
There’s even a trade association that represents other trade
associations (formerly the Association of Government
Relations Professionals; renamed in 2016 as the National
Institute for Lobbying and Ethics).
Class exercise
• Write down the name of a group. It can be any group
(within reason) — cat lovers, or Catholics, or people who
like the Kardashians. Be creative (again, within reason).
• Give your group’s name to a person sitting near you.
• That person then is to try to find an interest group that
is likely to advocate on the group’s behalf on some
issue.
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Types of Interest Groups
• “Institutional interest groups” ( sometimes called
“economic interest groups”). Examples:
• Labor Groups (AFL-CIO, Teamsters Union)
• Business Groups (National Association of Manufacturers,
Chamber of Commerce, American Bankers Association)
• Agricultural Groups (National Farmers’ Union, the Tobacco
Lobby)
• Professional Groups (National Education Association, American
Medical Association)
Types of IGs (cont.)
• “Membership interest groups” (sometimes called
“cause groups”). Examples:
• American Association of Retired Persons (AARP)
• National Rifle Association (NRA)
• Christian Coalition
• Anti-Defamation League
• Sierra Club
• Greenpeace
Types of IGs (cont.)
• Some “cause groups” are public
interest groups (when the goals
will benefit mainly
nonmembers). Examples:
• League of Women Voters
• American Civil Liberties Union
(ACLU)
Random picture of cute animals:
Why would someone join?
• Solidary incentives: social rewards – friendship, status,
guilt-avoidance, etc. A sense of belonging.
• Example: The Audubon Society. Nice people, cute birds.
Why join (cont.)
• Material incentives:
good rates, discounts,
etc.
• Example: AARP (let’s
tune in to see what
special deals I can get
right now: http://
discounts.aarp.org/
shopping/index/
uSource/F09)
Why join (cont.)
• “Purposive” incentives: pleasure
in serving for a cause (big with
ideological IGs).
• Example: NRA
(At right is one of the many lobbying
pieces that the NRA produces.)
How are IGs funded?
• Dues
• Grants
• From foundations like from the Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation
• From the government
• Products/services
• Some get federal contracts (see, e.g., Catholic
Charities, which runs various community
projects)
• Note: There often is a “free rider”
problem. People get the benefits of a
group’s work but don’t pay dues.
Free riders of a different sort:
Roles of IGs
• Represent—IGs are a linkage institution (along with
elections, media, and parties) between citizens and the
government.
• Participate in political process—stimulate members to
get involved.
• Educate – Admittedly in biased way (but should always
be factual)
Roles of IGs (cont.)
• Build agendas – identify problems, bring them to light,
get att’n. Example: Highlighting problem of pirated
CDs and other intellectual property
• Monitor – did the policy do what was promised? Any
unintended consequences?
• Frame issues—Examples:
Issue
Conservative
Liberal
Abortion
Pro-life
Pro-choice
Same-sex
marriage
Defense of
marriage
Equal protection
Taxes
Big government
Fair share
Strategies of Interest Groups
•
•
•
•
Lobbying
Going Public
Influencing Elections
Litigation
“Why, teacher, please tell us more about these fascinating
ideas!”
“Okay, class! Let’s go to the next slide!”
Lobbying – the “insider strategy”
• Provide information to policymakers. This is KEY!
• Draft bills/regulations.
• Testify in committees and executive agencies.
• Provide information informally.
A brief word about “earmarks”
• An “earmark” is a provision in a bill that benefits one narrow
interest. Your book talks about them lacking review by all of
Congress, but that’s true of most legislation in practice.
• Note that earmarks are impermissible today. There is an
unofficial agreement in both the House and Senate not to use
these.
• Note also that some think that this is contributing to our gridlock in
Congress.
Going Public – the “outsider strategy”
To increase attention to, and support
of, the group’s issues(s), an IG might
use one or more of the following:
• Direct mailings, media ads,
internet blogs, tweets, etc.
• Polling.
• Protests, boycotts.
• Grassroots lobbying (or
“astroturf” lobbying)
Influencing elections
Interest groups
make campaign
contributions.
Check out http://
www.opensecrets.or
g/resources/
dollarocracy/
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Influencing elections (cont.)
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Influencing elections (cont.)
• IGs encourage members to vote.
• May use GOTV efforts
• Provide volunteers for campaigns
• They produce ratings and offer endorsements. See,
e.g.,
Pro-life: http://votesmart.org/interest-group/252/
national-right-to-life-committee#.VDr0hL5bwlI
Pro-choice: http://votesmart.org/interest-group/
1016/naral-pro-choice-america#.VDr0O75bwlI
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Litigation/Legal Maneuvers
• Interest groups and their lobbyists
may sue (or at least threaten to sue).
• NAACP sued against segregation
leading to landmark Brown v. Board of
Education decision.
• Or they may file amicus curiae
(friend of the court) briefs to
influence judicial decisions.
How about a cute AND relevant picture:
Comparing IGs and parties
• Goal of IGs: influence policies.
• They are policy maximizers.
• They are specialists, focusing on narrow issues of interest to
their members.
• IGs get involved in campaigns but that’s not their primary focus.
• Goal of parties: get someone elected.
• They are vote maximizers.
• Thus, they are generalists.
• The rise of plurality, single-member districts means that the
parties must be big tents. Must dilute some policy positions, be
ambiguous, ignore some issues.
IGs and parties (cont.)
2 scenarios where IG strength could weaken relative to
parties:
• If we had a multiparty system (i.e., >2).
• Much political support that goes to IGs probably would go to
parties as parties become more focused on narrower issues.
• If we had a system where politicians relied more on
parties for reelection.
• But we don’t. Individual legislators build own coalitions
across party lines on lots of issues. When parties are weak,
IGs have greater access to individual MCs.
Iron triangles, issue networks, and other
geeky labels
Iron triangle:
A close relationship
between an agency, a
congressional
committee, and an IG
Iron triangles, etc. (cont.)
Example:
Bureaucracy (Federal Reserve Board)
•
Gives information to Congress, industry; adopts regulations
that may be favorable to banks
Interest group (The American Bankers Association)
• Gives information to Fed, Congress; supports Fed’s
independence; makes PAC contributes to campaigns
Congress (House Financial Services Committee)
• Protects Fed’s independence; passes laws favorable to industry
Iron triangles, etc. (cont.)
Do iron triangles really exist?
• The three entities involved still interact but...
• Today we see more “issue networks” – a loosely defined
group of people in IGs, on congressional staffs, in
universities, in “think tanks”, in the media, in law firms,
etc. who talk regularly with each other about policy.
• Ill-defined, very loose, frequently changing … but very real.
• Information = power, and to get good, current info you
need to be in an issue network.
• Doesn’t guarantee success. Pluralism still very powerful.
Illustrative schematic of an iron triangle
and issue network
In addition to providing good
information, what makes an IG effective?
• Size/money.
• If you can deliver lots of votes and lots of money, you’ll be
listened to. Think AARP, NRA.
• Cohesiveness of the group.
• A narrow cause makes you better able to craft specific,
actionable request
• Some groups so big they’ll have internal fights.
• Strong, credible leaders.
• Doesn’t hurt if you’re well-connected to start with but you
can overcome that.
More effective lobbying
A Lobbying How-To Guide, Courtesy of Wall Street
http://bloom.bg/1SLyGzG
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Some limits on IGs’ effectiveness
• Media
• They can play an effective role as gatekeeper of an issue.
• Pluralism
• Madison was a genius. Factions can (and do) often cancel
each other out, but they still can provide a link between
the people and the government.
• Note also the “elitist theory” (i.e., just a few IGs have
the most power) and the “hyperpluralist theory” (i.e.,
so many groups out there that we get gridlock)
Potential problems with IGs
• Problem of bias – IGs typically reflect the upper class.
• Yes, but this doesn’t guarantee victory (see earlier slide
about pluralism)
• Some groups not represented. Why? B/c
• It may be hard to coordinate a group
• Lack of financial resources
• May lack an issue that has direct impact on sufficient
number of people or may be an issue of greatest
importance to people who don’t vote (see, e.g.,
homelessness as an issue).
Potential problems (cont.)
• Large organizations are often internally fractured; a
small minority may be dominant.
• Ex: ABA representing big and small banks.
vs.
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The big 4: $8.09 trillion
Around 6,200 banks with $1.3 trillion
Potential problems (cont.)
• Mismatch of resources (although small groups can use
courts effectively).
• And some are sleazy, like Jack Abramoff
• See Abramoff video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=CHiicN0Kg10
So what’s your response to
Abramoff?
• Are his actions problematic?
• If so, how would you address the problems?
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Response to abuses: Regulation of
lobbyists
• First, who is a “lobbyist”? Anyone who spends 20% of time
lobbying Congress or Executive Branch.
• If you are a lobbyist, you must register with House and Senate.
• And you must disclose certain things, per Lobbying Disclosure
Act of 1995.
• Who you’re representing
• The issues you’re working on
• To whom you’re giving money
• And, of course, you must comply with campaign finance laws.
Regulation of lobbyists (cont.)
• Can’t bribe.
• Can’t give gifts.
• Can’t reimburse MC for travel costs (no “fact finding”
junkets paid for, or arranged by, a lobbyist).
(Fortunately, this cartoon is dated.)
Regulation of Lobbyists (cont.)
• Post-employment lobbying bans: Can’t lobby old employer
after leaving government employment.
• N.B. This is NOT a ban on employment, just on lobbying.
• Complicated rules. Generally:
• 2-year ban for very senior officials (like Senators) from lobbying on
any issue at their old employer (i.e., Congress).
• 1-year ban for less senior officials from lobbying on any issue at
their old employer (but note that “employer” here is very narrow).
• Purely social contacts okay.
• Making campaign contributions okay.
Some early Trump proposals:
“* FOURTH, a 5 year-ban on White House and Congressional
officials becoming lobbyists after they leave government service;
* FIFTH, a lifetime ban on White House officials lobbying on behalf
of a foreign government;
* SIXTH, a complete ban on foreign lobbyists raising money for
American elections.”
Excerpted from "Donald Trump's Contract With The American
Voter."
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Review
1. This is the general rule regarding lobbying a former
government employer.
Can’t lobby on an issue you worked on; shorter bans on any
contact with former employer, with length depending on your
seniority while with the gov’t
2. Why would someone join an IG? (3 reasons)
Solidary, material, purposive incentives
3. In addition to providing information, these are “insider”
tools.
Drafting bills, testifying, making campaign contributions,
grassroots lobbying
Review (cont.)
1. What are the constitutional underpinnings protecting IGs?
First Amendment protection of speech, assembly, and petition.
2. These are two things that can limit an IG’s effectiveness.
Media and pluralism (i.e., competition from other groups)
3. This is the definition of an iron triangle.
A relationship between an agency, an IG, and Congress (or
committee)
4. This is the most important tool for a lobbyist.
Knowledge/information.
Review (cont.)
1. These are three ways in which IGs influence elections
Get their members to vote, ratings, and campaign
contributions
2. These are two ways to use litigation to influence policy.
File a lawsuit or an amicus curiae brief.
3. What are some of the roles of IGs?
Represent people, participate in elections, educate, frame
issues, build agendas, monitor
Review (cont.)
1. These are 3 differences between IGs and political parties.
(a) IGs are policy maximizers, parties are vote maximizers; (b) IGs
are specialists, parties are generalists; (c) IGs cannot nominate
candidates, parties can
2. This is the definition of an issue network.
A loosely defined group of experts in and out of the gov’t who
regularly communicate about issues of common interest.
3. These things make an IG particularly effective.
(a) size/money, (b) cohesive group (narrow issue), (c) strong leader
4. What are the 3 types of IGs?
Economic, cause, and public interest
Review (cont.)
1. These are some of the problems with IGs.
Bias, underrepresentation of some, mismatch of resources,
sleaze
2. What are the 4 strategies (broadly speaking) of IGs?
Lobbying, going public, influencing elections, and litigation
3. These are “outsider” tools.
Direct mailing/blogs/tweets, polls, boycotts/protests
4. This is the threshold for determining whether someone
must register as a lobbyist.
Spend 20% of your time engaged in lobbying activities.