DRAFT
An Analysis of the Situation with Respect to Natural Resources State, Use and
Management in the Caribbean for the Purpose of Identifying Priority Areas of Action for
IICA in the Caribbean.
Part I: Caribbean Natural Resources: status and trends.
1
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………….
3
Chapter 2: Policy responses - Agreements, Programmes, Policies & Strategies…………… 25
Chapter 3: Freshwater …………………………………………………………………….
43
Chapter 4: Coastal and marine resources …………………………………………………
49
Chapter 5: Land Use, Soils and Land Degradation ……………………………………….
56
Chapter 6: Forests …………………………………………………………………………
68
Chapter 7: Biodiversity ……………………………………………………………………
70
Chapter 8: Pollution and Waste…………………………………………………………..
73
Chapter 9: Natural Disasters and Global Climate Change……………………………….
76
Chapter 10: Trade, the Environment and Agriculture……………………………………..
86
List of Figures and Tables
2
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Geophysical Setting
The Sixteen Caribbean countries that are the subject of this report belong to the political
grouping known as the Caribbean Community or CARICOM.1. CARICOM comprises a
geographic and political group of islands and mainland countries which all share a common
resource, the Caribbean Sea. The Caribbean Sea is bounded by Central America to the west,
South America to the south, and the islands of the Caribbean archipelago to the north and east.
Covering an area of approximately 2,515,900 km2 the Caribbean Sea is designated as the second
largest sea. The Caribbean comprises a chain of islands extending for over 400 km from the
Bahamas archipelago in the north, through the Greater and Lesser Antilles to Trinidad and
Tobago, and the low-lying coastal states of Suriname and Guyana on the northern coast of the
South American continent. Historically, Belize, as a former British colony, is included in the
geographic designation “Caribbean”.
All of the countries in question have a common history in which they functioned as colonial
agricultural export economies supplying the demand of the governing metropolitan countries for
tropical agricultural products. With the exceptions of Haiti and Suriname which were French and
Dutch colonies up until 1766 and 1984 respectively, the CARICOM countries have a common
history as British colonies. Each Country gained Independence at different time, with Haiti’s
independence preceding the post-World War II independence movement by almost two
Centuries.
The flurry of independence in the early 1960s was followed by isolated alter
agreements, delayed by capacity, and or geopolitical considerations.
There are more similarities in history and social characteristics of the Member States, which
range in size from 103 km2 (Montserrat) to 214,970 km2 (Guyana). They have varied
1
CARICOM consists of the following Member States: Antigua & Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize,
Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent & the Grenadines,
Suriname and Trinidad & Tobago. Associate Members of CARICOM include Anguilla, The British Virgin Islands
and Turks & Caicos Islands.
3
topographies, geological features and high population densities, particularly in their coastal
areas. They also have similar narrow natural resource bases. The small size of the islands, in
particular, provides a number of disadvantages including the following:
•
A narrow range of resources that forces undue specialization, excessive dependence on
international trade and hence vulnerability to global developments;
•
High population densities which increase the pressure on already limited resources;
•
costly
public
administration
and
infrastructure,
including
transportation
and
communication;
•
Limited institutional capacities;
•
Limited domestic markets, which are too small to provide significant scale economies.
Map of the Wider Caribbean
Source UNEP CEP
4
Topography
Igneous and metamorphic rocks, limestone hills or karst, and coastal, sedimentary plains of
varying depths are the principal geological formations found throughout the Caribbean. The
general topography include rugged, steep mountains reaching greater than 1200 metres, covered
with dense, evergreen rain forests and cut by swiftly flowing rivers. The second consists of hilly
countryside, seldom rising above 600 metres and is usually more gently sloped. Finally, the
coastal plains skirt the hills usually on the southern or western sides of the mountains.
Active volcanoes exist in Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent & the Grenadines, and off the coast of
Grenada. Grenada also has some older crater lakes formed by earlier volcanic activity. All the
islands have rugged coastlines with innumerable inlets fringed by white or dark sands
(depending on the rock substratum) of varying texture.
Climate
The Caribbean climate is tropical, moderated to some extent by the prevailing northeast trade
winds. Individual climatic conditions are strongly dependent on elevation. At sea level there is
little variation in temperature, regardless of the time of the day or the season of the year.
Temperatures range between 24 and 32 degrees Celsius. These countries experience two
predominant seasons: a long rainy season, which in most countries runs from May through
October, and a dry season. During the rainy season, precipitation may fluctuate. The windward
sides of the islands receive much rain, whereas leeward sides can have very dry conditions. Flat
islands tend to receive slightly less rainfall, but its pattern is more consistent. Most of the rainfall
occurs during short heavy outbursts during daylight hours. The period of heaviest rainfall usually
occurs after the sun has passed directly overhead, which in these islands would usually be in the
middle of May and again in early August. The rainy season also coincides with the summer
hurricane season.
Hurricanes are constant features of the Caribbean, with a season that lasts from June to
November. Hurricanes develop over the ocean during the summer months when the sea surface
temperature is high (over 27 degrees Celsius), and the air pressure falls below 950 millibars.
These conditions create an "eye" about 20 kilometres wide, around which a steep pressure
5
gradient forms that generates wind speeds of 110 to 280 kilometres per hour. The diameter of
hurricanes can extend as far as 500 to 800 kilometres and, in addition to strong storm winds, they
can produce extremely heavy rainfall which often result in considerable destruction of property.
The geophysical characteristics may influence the environment by functioning in a number of
ways; by, constraining (e.g. isolation as a factor in genetic exchange, space limitation,
endogenous and or exogenous sources of water), modifying or regulating (e.g. orographicly
influenced precipitation and floral zoneation, water availability and drainage patterns),
supporting (e.g. soil type and futility).
Demographics
The populations and population densities of the Caribbean states vary significantly under the
influence of land area, topography, geomorphology, and settlement patterns. With a population
density of 628 residents per km2, Barbados, the 9th country in terms of size is the most densely
populated of the Caribbean islands.
In contrast, the population of Guyana is approximately 764 000 people, is the largest in the
English-speaking Caribbean. But, with a total land area of approximately 214 970 km², the
country has one of the lowest population densities in the world. However, average national
population density can be misleading. Despite the Guyana’s large land area and comparatively small
population, there is considerable pressure from human settlement. Approximately 80% of Guyana's
population lives on or near the coast drawn from the interior by the prospects of employment and
improved living conditions.
Antigua, with a land area of 440 km2 and a population of approximately 73,000 has a population
density of approximately 166 people per km2. The port city of St. John's, capital of Antigua and
Barbuda, contains approximately 25 percent of Antigua's population. With a land area of
approximately 7.4 km2 St. John’s has a population density of approximately 3000 persons per
km2.
Guyana experienced a population growth rate of 0.1% over the period 1975 to 2003. However,
the projected growth rate to 2015 is -0.1%. (UNDP, 2005). The 1997 population growth rate of
6
-0.78 reflected a net out-migration rate of -15.5 migrants/1000 population (FAO, 2002). Over
60% of Guyana’s population is located in rural areas. This figure is projected to fall to
approximately 55% by 2015 (UNDP, 2005).
The population of the Bahamas has been largely urban, with the percentage of the population in
1975 73.4% to 90.4% between 1975 and 2003. It is anticipated that this figure will rise to 91.6%
by 2015 (UNDP, 2005)
Trinidad’s pop growth is projected to level off between 2003 and 2015, accompanied by a
decline in annual pop growth. Over this period the population is projected to remain substantially
urban with the percent population in urban settlement increasing from 75.4% to79.7%.
Antigua and Barbuda and Grenada share similar demographic trends of minimal change in
population. Both are projected to continue as marginally rural populations.
Though demonstrating similar population growth trends of minimal population growth,
Dominica’s annual population growth is projected to triple from the 1975 to 2003 average of
0.3%. However, unlike Antigua and Barbuda and Grenada, Dominica is projected to maintain a
substantially urban population.
St. Lucia, despite and upward trending urban population projection is anticipated to experience a
decline in annual average growth rate and to remain substantially rural population with a
projected 2015 urban population of 36.8%. The average annual population growth rate is
anticipated to fall from 1.3% (1975-2003) to 0.8% (2003-2015)
Surinam is projected to experience an upward population trend despite declining annual average
growth, but is anticipated to become a substantially urban population.
St. Vincent and the Grenadines, like Trinidad and Tobago, Antigua and Barbuda, Grenada and
Dominica, is projected to experience no significant population growth over the period 2003 to
2015. Annual average population growth is projected to decline, but urban population growth
will continue its steep upward trend.
7
Belize is projected to realize no substantial population change from 2003 to 2015. Annual pop
growth rate is expected to decline from 2.4% (1975-2003) to 1.8% (2003-20015) and the trend in
urban population growth is expected to be level.
Jamaica’s population is projected to show a slight upward trend despite declining annual growth
rates. Urban population growth is not expected to be substantial with an almost even being
projected between urban and rural populations.
Haiti, with the largest population of the group of countries is projected to see a decline in annual
population growth from 1.9% to 1.4%, with the population growing from 8.3 million (2003) to
9.8 million (2015). The population is projected to remain marginally rural with 45.5% of the
population projected to be in urban settings in 2015.
8
Table 1: Demographic Trends.
COUNTRY
TOTAL
ANNUAL
POPULATION
GROWTH
(millions)
(%)
POP. URBAN POPULATION
(% of total)
1975
2003
2015
1975-2003
2003-15
1975
2003
2015
Barbados
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.2
40.8
51.7
59.1
St. Kitts and Nevis
(.)
(.)
(.)
-0.2
1.1
35.0
32.2
32.5
The Bahamas
0.2
0.3
0.4
1.8
1.3
73.4
89.4
91.6
Trinidad and Tobago
1.0
1.3
1.3
0.9
0.3
63.0
75.4
79.7
Antigua and Barbuda
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.9
1.2
34.2
37.8
43.4
Grenada
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.4
1.3
32.9
40.7
49.5
Dominica
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.9
55.3
72.0
76.2
St. Lucia
0.1
0.1
0.2
1.3
0.8
23.6
30.5
36.8
Surinam
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.5
49.5
76.0
81.6
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.7
0.4
27.0
58.2
68.6
Belize
0.1
0.3
0.3
2.4
1.8
50.2
48.4
51.8
Jamaica
2.0
2.6
2.7
1.0
0.4
44.1
52.2
54.2
Guyana
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.1
-0.1
30.0
37.6
44.2
Haiti
4.9
8.3
9.8
1.9
1.4
21.7
37.5
45.5
(Source: UNDP 2005)
9
Economic Performance
Caribbean economies are dominated by their export sectors which are concentrated on one to
three products based on the region’s natural resource base. Domestic food production is the most
common area of non-export production. Particularly, little domestic agricultural production
occurs in the more arid or limestone islands such as Barbados. Manufacturing in some
economies tends to be significantly dependent on imported inputs. Tourism has been the most
dynamic and fastest growing industry in most economies, and is already the dominant industry in
some (Pantin and others 2005).
Caribbean economies face a number of challenges which are linked to the following:
•
The unraveling of preferential arrangements for traditional exports, a development linked
to economic liberalization.
•
Poverty and high unemployment, particularly among youth, and concomitant growing
social deviance including violence, crime and drugs.
•
The Caribbean is marked by a relatively high degree of vulnerability to natural disasters
(exacerbated by climate change). The region is also economically vulnerable, as shown
by the negative fall-out from 9/11 on as important an economic sector as tourism.
•
High levels of foreign indebtedness in some countries.
The report “Economic Survey of the Caribbean 2004 to 2005” (ECLAC, 2004) Observed that
Caribbean economies had, in general, exhibited a process of economic recovery. Economic
performance improved in 2003, with Caribbean countries as a group registering on average 2.8%
GDP growth compared with the 1.0% recorded in 2002. However, the positive average obscures
the disparities in GDP growth among countries. At the lower end of the performance range,
Guyana recorded an economic downturn (-0.6%) while at the higher end Antigua and Barbuda
and Suriname doubled their growth rates in 2003 in comparison with the previous year (Fig. 2)
(ECLAC, 2004)
The observed 2003 economic recovery was attributed primarily to the performance of the
services sector, and more specifically by tourism. The performance of the tourism sector
reflected the broad continuing, post 9/11 recovery of the industry (ECLAC, 2004).
10
The significance of the recovery lies in the demonstration of the sensitivity of Caribbean to
external events. Earlier economic trends in the Caribbean, periods of stable growth expansion
(1994-1998) and acceleration (1998-2000) were a reflection of external conditions that were
favorable to Caribbean economies and economic performance (ECLAC, 2004) (see Figure 2). By
2005 the majority of Caribbean countries registered a decline in their rate of economic growth
with respect to the previous year (Fig. 2) (ECLAC, 2006). The patterns of national performance
varied with the highest rates of growth being recorded by Grenada, Saint Lucia, and Trinidad and
Tobago (9.2 per cent, 7.9 per cent and 7.0 per cent, respectively).
Both St Kitts and Nevis and Suriname achieved 5 per cent growth. Moderate growth rates of
between 2% and 3% were achieved by the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, and St.
Vincent and the Grenadines. Jamaica’s economic performance for the period was described as
stagnant at 1.4%, while Guyana experienced a contraction in economic activity as evidenced by
the -2.9% GDP growth (Fig. 2) (ECLAC, 2006).
Figure 2: Real GDP Growth for 2005 – Selected Caribbean Countries. (Source: ECLAC 2006)
The export agriculture sector in the Region has been in decline for the past three decades (CDB,
2003). As a result the sector has been contributing less to GDP as export performance has
11
declined in the face of increasing international competition driven by trade liberalization; the
reduction of existing barriers to trade and by preventing the creation of new barriers. This trend
has implications for increased impoverishment of rural communities and a social and political
stability.
The heavy dependence on export agriculture, population growth, increased real income, and an
expanding tourism industry have contributed to a nominal increase in “food import dependence”
(CDB, 2003). However, when food import dependence is viewed as the ratio of food imports to
GDP, it is seen to have wither stabilized or declined, indicating that food security ahs not
declined between 1970 and 1999 (CDB, 2003).
12
Table 2
Caribbean economies
GDP growth, inflation and current account
2003-2005
Current account as
GDP growth
Inflation
percentage of GDP
2003
2004
2005
2003
2004
2005
2003
2004
2005
Antigua and Barbuda
5.5
5.2
4.0
3.5
2.1
…
-13.9
-10.8
-20.4
The Bahamas
1.9
2.8
3.0
2.4
0.9
1.8
-8.0
-5.3
-11.2
Barbados
3.7
4.8
2.8
1.6
1.4
3.2
-8.0
-10.5
-10.4
Belize
9.1
4.6
3.0
2.6
3.1
3.5
-10.5
-14.4
-11.1
Dominica
1.0
3.6
2.8
2.8
0.9
…
-14.4
-20.8
-21.4
Grenada
5.7
-3.0
9.2
1.1
2.5
…
-35.5
-13.5
-41.3
Guyana
-0.6
1.6
-2.9
4.9
5.5
6.0
-11.4
-9.3
-24.8
Jamaica
2.3
0.9
1.4
14.1
13.7
16.0
-8.7
-6.0
-9.3
St. Kitts and Nevis
0.6
6.4
5.1
3.1
1.7
…
-31.5
-23.1
-30.5
Saint Lucia
3.7
3.6
7.9
0.5
3.5
…
-20.4
-17.2
-13.5
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
3.6
5.4
2.8
2.2
1.7
…
-21.1
-25.9
-31.6
Suriname
5.4
7.8
5.0
13.1
9.1
16.6
-12.2
-8.5
-14.3
Trinidad and Tobago
13.2
6.2
7.0
3.8
4.0
5.3
9.4
16.4
17.4
Average
4.2
3.8
3.9
4.3
3.9
7.5
-14.3
-11.5
-17.1
Standard Deviation
3.7
2.8
3.1
4.3
3.7
6.2
11.3
10.6
14.3
Note: … denotes not available.
Source: IMF (2005); ECLAC (2005) and on the basis of official data.
13
Table 3
Indicators of size and development for Caribbean States 2003 (Source: ECLAC, 2004)
Caribbean states
Area in
Population
GDP per
Poverty
Unemployment
Inflation
Fiscal
Current
Public debt
balance
Thousands
Thousands
capita
of Km2
of
dollars
inhabitants
2003
2003
US
as
account
of
percentage
percentage
population
of GDP
of
below the
2003
Percentage
rate 2003
2003
poverty line
The Bahamas
14
312
16691
as
....
GDP
as
percetage
of GDP
2003
2003
10.8
3.0
....
-8.17
45.0
Barbados
0.43
272
9651
14
11.1
1.6
-2.5
-8.0
71.1
Belize
23
290
3646
....
12.9
2.6
-10.9
-18.3
88.9
Guyana
216
762
911
35
...
4.9
-34.7
-11.0
172.0
Jamaica
11
2 600
2962
19
13.1
14.1
-5.9
-12.4
142.0
Suriname
164
439
2470
....
...
26.0
0.2
-14.0
37.0
Trinidad and Tobago
0.44
1 300
7836
21
10.6
3.0
2.7
9.6
28.0
OECS
2.81
578
4338
.....
....
1.8
-9.0
-19.0
109.0
Anguilla
0.1
12
7840
.....
.....
6.9
2.
-34.7
17.2
Antigua and Barbuda
0.44
74
8369
12
....
...
-9.0
-12.7
151.7
Dominica
0.75
72
3023
33
....
3.0
-5.0
-13.2
127.0
Grenada
0.34
102
3353
32
....
1.1
-10
-34.5
110.1
Montserrat
0.1
4
7569
1.2
-28
-17.4
16.3
St. Kitts and Nevis
0.27
50
6510
31
....
3.1
-9
-23.7
162.0
St. Lucia
0.62
167
3658
19
....
0.4
-9
-15.4
66.5
St. Vincent and the
0.39
112
2819
33
....
2.7
-2.4
-18.2
76.7
Grenadines
Aruba
1.0
91
22000
.....
6.9
3.7
1.0
-7.0
41.0
British Virgin Islands
0.1
21
10000
.....
....
0.4
-0.7
....
....
0.8
219
11400
....
....
1.9
-5.0
0.2
90.0
0.3
108
12500
....
....
....
....
Netherlands Antilles
United
States
Virgin
Islands
....
8.5
... denotes not available.
Source: ECLAC, based on official statistics.
14
15
The Environment in the Economy
The countries of the Caribbean are characterized by economies that are highly open and that
are dependent on the performance of one or two sectors. With the exception of Trinidad and
Tobago, which possesses petroleum based economy that in tern has catalyzed the
development of a burgeoning industrial sector; most countries of the Caribbean are
dependent on their agricultural and tourism sectors.
Figure 3: Structure of GDP at current prices by broad economic sectors: 1985, 1995 and 1999 (% of
country’s GDP)
The UNCED Conference Agenda 21 recognized the special circumstances that small island
developing states have in common that limited their capacities to achieve sustainable
economic development. These circumstances arise from their “island” nature (de Bruglio,
2004) and include; isolation, a heavy dependence upon natural resource base (agriculture,
forestry, fishing, tourism, mining and light manufacturing), susceptibility to the vagaries of
international trade, the absence of economies of scale, high transportation and
communication costs, grave vulnerability to natural disasters, scarce land resources, ever
increasing pressures on coastal and marine environments and resources, and limited means
and capacity to implement comprehensive sustainable development goals. These constraints
are compounded by a number of factors, including a syndrome of institutional overlap,
duplication of effort, weak collaboration among institutions and the poor coordination of
16
institutional, human, and material resources. This syndrome exacerbates the limited human
capacity in those countries with small national populations. This is one of the factors that
affect countries ability and the means to manage and use natural resources on a sustainable
basis.
The economic growth of individual Caribbean states is based on the unique and limited natural
resources that they must configure to form the basis of a sound economy (GoAB, 2004).
However, the lack of strategic planning for resource management and lack of understanding of
the finite nature of natural resources is resulting in a degradation of ecosystem functions, which
will lead to a decline in quality of life (GoAB,2004). In it’s assessment of ….the OECS ESDU
determined that “… degradation of environmental resources has continued despite increasing
awareness of the strategic importance of the “healthy environment” for the long-term well
being of the people of the Caribbean and the sustainability of the economies of the region.
The Small Island Developing States (SIDS) of the Region share characteristics of SIDS
globally, that combine to create a syndrome of unique social (Table 5), and economic (Box
1) vulnerabilities (Whiter 2003, de Bruglio, 200x). The high levels of vulnerability of SIDS
and LLCS to extreme climatic events and natural disasters was highlighted by the impacts of
the intensely destructive 2004 and the unusually protracted 2005 hurricane seasons (Table 4).
17
Table 4: Some intense hurricanes in the Caribbean 1979–2004
Source: UNEP, 2005
18
Table 4: Some intense hurricanes in the Caribbean 1979–2004 cont’d
Source UNEP, 2005
19
The geophysical configuration of low lying coastal states (LLCS) also creates unique
vulnerabilities as demonstrated by the protracted flooding experienced in Guyana in early
2006 (CDERA 2006). The impacts of extreme climatic events when superimposed on the
characteristics of SIDS create s syndrome of increased vulnerability. Vulnerability is further
increased by the reliance of many Caribbean States on the productivity of one or two
economic sectors which are vulnerable in their own unique ways. This situation is further
compounded by the fact that the activities of the economic sectors contribute to
environmental degradation, and habitat destruction, which reduce or eliminate ecosystem
goods and services. The loss of ecosystem goods and services reduces economic
productively, increases vulnerability of human populations and economic sectors to a range
of potential threats.
Table 5: Determinants of Social Vulnerability (adapted from Adger, 1999)
INDIVIDUAL
COMMUNITY
(COLLECTIVE)
NATIONAL/REGIONAL
•
Poverty/income
•
Level
of
resource
dependence/access
•
Land-use
•
Existing sectoral policies and practices
•
Location/exposure
•
Institutional preparedness &
•
Formal/informal
preparation
coping
(planning
•
Resource entitlements
•
Market access
•
Institutional affectedness
•
Access to resources
•
(Active)
•
Diversity in income sources
•
Social
status
resource
allocation)
mechanisms
within
&
hazard
Institutional
inertia
(rent-
seeking)
•
Formal/informal institutional & political
risk coping mechanisms
community
•
Location/exposure
•
Institutional capacity
•
Adaptation options
•
Access/diversity of economic assets
•
Market structures
•
Absolute level of development
•
Absolute levels of infrastructure
•
Relative distribution of income
•
Management and maintenance of public
goods
•
Technological advances
20
Box 1: Indicators of economic vulnerability on the part of SIDS:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Greater exposure to globalisation trends as a result of WTO regime of tariff reduction and
other WTO rules;
Growing indebtedness;
Steady depletion of natural resources (minerals, forest, freshwater, fish stocks);
Reduced possibilities of diversifying their economies;
Reductions in donor assistance;
Growing dependence on tourism;
Continued designation of per capita income as the principal determinant of development
assistance benefits;
Slow incorporation of ICT;
The pending loss of lucrative historical markets without clearly elaborated strategies as to
how to minimize loss of revenue and employment;
Failure on the part of the international community to act on climate change during the
decade of the 1990s, when economic expansion was at its historical highest level and
development aid underwent the greatest reductions since its inception in the late 1940s.
Source: Binger et al. (2002)
The natural environment supports and benefits human populations in many ways through its
provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services. These goods and services are
innate features of natural systems (Figure 4). They are not produced for the benefit of
humans, but humans do benefit from their production. The past abundance and ubiquitous
nature of environmental goods and services has caused them to be taken for granted.
Environmental goods and services are becoming scarcer because healthy, un-degraded
environments are becoming increasingly scarcer. It is not the healthy environments that are
missed, it is the goods and services that they provide, and upon which our economies, health,
and wellbeing depend (Box 2).
It is imperative that the conservation of the environment become an integral part of the
development philosophy of Caribbean states. If Caribbean governments
fail to move
conservation into the decision making arena for development the familiar economic and
social vulnerabilities that have yet to be surmounted, will be exacerbated The consequences
of the alternative are already evident, and will be discussed in subsequent chapters.
21
Fig 4: Linkage between Ecosystem Services and Human Wellbeing (Source: WRI, 2005).
The unique character of the agricultural industry in the Caribbean has the potential to
transform the approach to development in the Caribbean. Traditionally a disjointed and
partitioned sectoral approach has been taken to development, in which social, economic and
environmental potentials are rarely brought together to exploit the latent synergies. Arguably
the converse situation maintains, in which advances for stakeholders in one of either the
social, economic, or environmental arenas translates to disadvantage for the at least one of
the others. The principle underpinning the concept of Sustainable economic development is
that the interests of the social, environmental, and economic sectors of development can be
advanced in a coordinated manner that minimizes the negative impacts to these sectors while
maximizing opportunity.
22
Box 2: Environmental Goods and Services (Ecosystem Functions)
Seagrass Beds
•
•
•
•
•
•
Habitat for a variety of animals including sea urchins, encrusting worms, sea cucumbers, seahorses
Nursery area for fish (camouflage) and an important shelter for fish and crustaceans
Feeding ground for some herbivorous fish including the parrot
Source of detritus to reef system and nutrient cycling
Settlement of suspended sediment through baffling effect of leaves. Also bind sediment and encourage
accretion
Habitat for algae, including calcareous algae such as Halimeda. These algae have high concentration of
calcium carbonate and when they die they contribute to the sediment budget of beaches.
Coral Reefs:
• Provision of a habitats for a wide array of species
• Provision of a hydrodynamic barrier to wave energy, thereby protecting the shoreline from erosion and
facilitating the formation of sandy beaches
• Provision of low energy areas which allow for the growth of seagrass beds
• Support of artesinal fisheries for fish, conch, lobster and shrimp
• Provision of sediment for the formation and maintenance of sandy beaches from the constant breakdown of
the carbonate skeleton.
• Ecotourism attraction
• Source of shells used in craft
Mangrove wetlands
• Export of material to other ecosystems such as coral reefs and sea grass beds through changing tides and
currents.
• The high productivity of mangrove wetlands provides food for ecosystems such as coral reefs and seagrasses.
This transfer of both dissolved and particulate suspended matter is highest during low tide, and helps to
support the ecology of coastal waters.
• Providing a variety of habitats for a wide array of terrestrial and aquatic species, having high biodiversity.
• Provision of feeding, nursery and breeding areas for fish, crustaceans, mollusks and crocodiles. The shallow
bays and lagoons are good nursery areas. In areas with red mangroves the prop roots provide protection from
predators. A variety of birds, including migrants, nest in mangrove wetlands.
• Stabilising of coastlines, acting as a buffer between the land and the sea. Mangrove forests help to control
coastal erosion.
• Stabilisation of sediments. The prop roots of the red mangrove trap and stabilise sediment deposits from
surface inflow and rivers.
• Protection of adjacent coral reefs from suspended solids and drastic changes in salinity due to ongoing inflow
of freshwater.
• Removal of contaminants from surface inflows
• Nutrient retention and removal.
• Protection of coastal land uses from oceanic storms
23
Agricultures role in, and impact on, rural development, export income generation, food
security, watershed management, water resource utilization and allocation, demands a
socially inclusive, integrated, multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary, holistic approach to policy
development, planning and implementation in order to attain optimal levels of economic
efficiency. That this objective requires the efficient utilization of environmental and social
resources, suggests that the agriculture industry the potential to transform national
development approaches through the act of reforming the agricultural industry.
24
CHAPTER 2: POLICY RESPONSES
Since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio
de Janeiro in 1992, and the ensuing Rio Declaration and Agenda 21, which sought to develop a
comprehensive blueprint for global sustainable development, environmental portfolios have
gained status and have progressed in the Caribbean from being an add-on to ministries of finance
and trade to being ministries in their own rights (UNEP, 2005).
Various environmental
agreements (The Barbados Declaration and Programme of Action for Small Island Developing
States (SIDS/ POA) 1994; St Georges Declaration in 2000; the OECS Environmental
Management Strategy and Charter 2001 are pertinent examples) in the region clearly points to an
appreciation of the impacts on the natural resources and well being of future generations. These
agreements elaborate principles and set out strategies for development that will protect the
important but, fragile environments of CARICOM member states. They build on the Rio
Declaration and Agenda 21. Among the Caribbean SIDS, there is consensus that all the
principles/priority areas of the SIDS/ POA are relevant to their sustainable development, and
significant progress has been made by many of these states in implementing the agreements.
Environmental institutions are only just beginning to create the capabilities they need to achieve
the goals identified in terms of effective trans-sectoral policies and to improve the international
negotiating position of the countries. With the onset of Agenda 21, the SIDS/POA, the
Johannesburg Plan of Implementation and the myriad of international environmental treaties that
govern various aspects of environmental management, the governments of the CARICOM region
have reiterated their commitment to addressing, in a more holistic manner, the sectoral issues
related to the achievement of sustainable development.
In order to successfully monitor and evaluate progress in the region, approaches to sustainable
development require consistent, long-term strategies and sound policies, which should be based
on timely and reliable information. Extensive fundamental changes in existing governing
systems and institutional structures would also be required, if these countries were to be able to
derive the benefits from their participation in international environmental treaties and achieve the
goal of sustainable development.
25
Global MEAs
The Caribbean States have taken an active role in defining and developing the major global, nonbinding, multi-lateral agreements (MEA), either independently, or through political or
geographic groupings such as CARICOM, the G77, and AOSIS. Involvement in the
development and implementation of MEAs arises in part from the recognition that global
environmental problems with transboundary characteristics can only be affectively addressed
through multilateral solutions.
CARICOM’s participation, in particular, in MEAs has incresaeds significantly, driven primarily
by member states’ interface with international environmental institutions, the demands of
international financial donor institutions and states and, increasingly, the emergence of local
environmental actors and interests. International MEAs and non-binding agreements have
increased public knowledge of environmental issues and have had significant impact on the
development of national policies and legislation to protect the environment and to promote
sustainable development in CARICOM member states.
A review of MEAs shows that there are more than 100 conventions that hold some relevance to
the Caribbean, many of which have attracted significant levels of ratification and/or accession by
Caribbean States (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Caribbean Environment
Outlook (1999)). The most relevant MEAs to the region and the indication of acceptance of these
global MEAs to the CARICOM region are presented in table 6 below.
26
Table 6: The status of MEA Implementation among Caribbean States.
Global MEAs
Country
CBD
CITES
Basel
Ozone
UNFC
CCD
Antigua and Barbuda
*
*
*
*
*
*
Bahamas
*
*
*
*
*
*
Barbados
*
*
*
*
*
*
Belize
*
*
*
*
*
*
Dominica
*
*
*
*
*
Grenada
*
*
*
Guyana
*
*
Haiti
*
Jamaica
*
*
St. Kitts and Nevis
*
*
St. Lucia
*
UNCLOS
MARPOL
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Trinidad and Tobago
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Surinam
*
*
*
*
*
*
St.
Vincent
and
the
Ramsar
Heitage
*
*
*
*
*
Grenadines
*
*
*
*
Legend
* = acceptance (ratification or accession) of the Convention
Conventions
CBD = United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992
CITES = Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973
Basel = Convention on the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, 1989
Ozone = Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985, and Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987
UNFCC = United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992
CCD = United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious
Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, 1994
Ramsar = Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 1971
Heritage = UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
1972
UNCLOS= United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982
MARPOL = Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships, 1973, 1978
27
Some difficulties exist in assessing the extent to which the MEAs have impacted on regional and
national programming for sustainable development. This is a result of the following:
•
Lack of a shared definition of sustainable development, amenable to measurement via a
set of indicators;
•
The absence of a methodology for determining the impacts of MEAs on the sustainable
development planning and development at the national level;
•
Lack of adequate collection and compilation of environmental statistics and indicators
that can be used for monitoring and control.
Information from CARICOM indicates that member states are more often constrained in their
ability to fully meet their obligations under the MEAs due to their respective, small human
resource pools, and small economies. Member states find themselves without adequate financial
and human resources to ensure compliance with the MEAs to which they have signed on. This
capacity constraint is often reflected in the presence or absence of enabling legislation to
facilitate the implementation of the various conventions, and hence the mechanisms to put the
underlying principles into action. The global level priorities are defined to a greater extent by the
main conventions and the associated multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs).
SIDS Barbados Programme of Action (BPoA)
One of the most important and relevant global action plans for the Caribbean is the Barbados
Programme of Action (BPOA) for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing
States (SIDS). A direct output of the UN Conference on Sustainable Development for Small
Island Developing States, the BPoA was adopted to facilitate the implementation of Agenda 21
in SIDS. It is the blueprint for small island developing state and international community to
address national and regional sustainable development in SIDS. The BPoA:
• Takes into account the economic, social and environmental considerations that form the
pillars of the holistic and integrated approach to sustainable development,
28
• Sets out the basic principles and specific actions required at the global, national, and local
levels, to support sustainable development in SIDS.
The BPoA embodies and articulates the sustainable development priority of the Caribbean SIDS.
These priorities are reflected in the frameworks of other global, regional, and sub-regional
initiatives and agendas. These include, the Mauritius Strategy for the further implementation
of the for the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of SIDS, Barbados +5,
the Rio Principles, the full implementation of Agenda 21, the Johannesburg Plan of
Implementation, the Millennium Development Goals, WTO Agendas related to the Doha Round,
the St. Georges Declaration of Principles of Environmental Sustainability.
The BPOA translates Agenda 21 into specific policies, actions and measures to be taken at the
national, regional and international level. Fifteen priority areas were identified with the
understanding that effective action in these areas was essential if SIDS were to achieve the
individual and collective objectives of sustainable development. The 15 priority areas for
specific action are:
• Climate change and sea-level rise;
• Natural and environmental disasters;
• Management of wastes; Coastal and marine resources;
• Freshwater resources;
• Land resources;
• Energy resources;
• Tourism resources;
• Biodiversity resources;
• National institutions and administrative capacity;
• Regional institutions and technical cooperation; Transport and communication;
• Science and technology;
• Human resource development;
• Implementation,
• Monitoring and review.
29
In 1999 a special session of the United Nations General Assembly, undertook the review and
appraisal of the Barbados Programme of Action. The Special Session adopted a report2 that
identified six priority areas requiring urgent attention in the five years that were to follow. The
priority areas were (UNESCO 2006):
• Climate change (adapting to climate change and rising sea levels, which could submerge
some low-lying island nations);
• Natural and environmental disasters and climate variability (improving preparedness for and
recovery from natural and environmental disasters);
• Freshwater resources (preventing worsening shortages of freshwater as demand grows);
• Coastal and marine resources (protecting coastal ecosystems and coral reefs from pollution
and over-fishing);
• Energy (developing solar and renewable energy to lessen dependence on expensive imported
oil);
• Tourism (managing tourism growth to protect the environment and cultural integrity).
Climate change and sea-level rise; Natural and environmental disasters; Management of wastes;
Coastal and marine resources; Freshwater resources; Land resources; Energy resources; Tourism
resources; Biodiversity resources; National institutions and administrative capacity; Regional
institutions and technical cooperation; Transport and communication; Science and technology;
Human resource development; Implementation, monitoring and review.
2
“Report of the CSD acting as preparatory body for the special session of the General Assembly for the review and appraisal of the
implementation of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of SIDS (A/S-22/2*)” - http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=12117&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
30
REGIONAL MEAs
An evaluation of the impact of regional MEAs on the Caribbean region reflects similar results
and limitations as those described for global MEAs. The only environmental convention
covering the entire Caribbean is the Cartagena Convention (Convention for the Protection and
Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region; 1983) and its
protocols on oil spills (Oil spills Protocol), specially protected areas and wildlife (SPAW
Protocol) and the recently developed land-based sources of marine pollution (LBSMP Protocol).
The Convention and Oil spills Protocol have attracted widespread support, and after many years
the SPAW Protocol has entered into force (April, 2000). The record of acceptance of this
regional MEA and its associated Protocols is presented in Table 7.
In recent years, CARICOM Governments have assigned very high priority to the sustainable
management of the Caribbean Sea. This has led the region to gain acceptance of an international
instrument that calls for the development of a management regime for the Caribbean Sea. The
resulting United Nations Resolution is entitled “Promoting an Integrated Approach to the
Caribbean Sea in the Context of Sustainable Development.” It is envisaged that the management
regime will be based on the principles embodied in co-management, and will allow for the
responsibility for resource management and ocean stewardship to be shared between the
Governments of the region and relevant stakeholders. MEAs have helped to establish a number
of important issues on the national environmental agendas of the countries, as well as to broaden
stakeholder participation in environmental governance. The onset of MEAs has forced the
crucial acknowledgment of the growing need for the development of adequate and timely
information to support decision-makers in measuring progress towards sustainable development.
The Cartagena Convention
The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment in the Wider
Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) was adopted in Cartagena, Colombia in March 1983
and entered into force in October 1986, for the legal implementation of the Action Plan for the
Caribbean Environment Programme (UNEP/CEP 1983).
31
Table 7: Status of the Cartagena Convention
Source CARICOM, 2003
The area over which the Cartagena Convention applies comprises the marine environment of the
Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the areas of the Atlantic Ocean adjacent thereto, south of
30° N and within 200 nautical miles of the Atlantic Coasts of the United States (GIWA 2004).
The Convention requires the adoption of measures aimed at preventing, reducing and controlling
pollution of the following areas:
• Pollution from ships;
• Pollution caused by dumping;
• Pollution from sea-bed activities;
• Airborne pollution;
• Pollution from land-based sources and activities.
The Cartagena Convention has been supplemented by three Protocols as summarized in table 8
below.
32
Table 8: Summary of the Protocols of the Cartagena Convention
Protocol
adoption
Entry
in Obligation
force
The
Protocol
1983
October 1986.
-Cooperate in taking all necessary measures for the protection of
the marine and coastal environment of the Wider Caribbean;
Concerning
Cooperation
in
Combating
Oil
particularly the coastal areas of the islands of the region, from
oil spill incidents.
-Establish and maintain means of responding to oil spill
Spills
incidents and
-Through legislative, capacity building, and institutional means,
to reduce the risk of oil spill incidents
The
Protocol
1999
after it has been
-Take appropriate measures to prevent, reduce and control
ratified by nine
pollution of the Convention area from land-based sources and
Concerning Marine
Signed:
Pollution
(Colombia,
Member States
activities,
Costa
following
-Develop and implement appropriate plans, programmes and
from
Land-Based
Sources
and
Activities (LBS)
6
Rica,
2
Dominican
COP
measures, adopting effective means of preventing, reducing or
Republic,
Obligations:
controlling pollution of the Convention area from land based
France,
the
sources and activities on its territory
Netherlands,
-Jointly develop sub-regional and regional plans, programmes
and the United
and measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the
States
Convention area from land-based sources and activities.
of
America)
The
Protocol
1990
2000
Each country shall:
Concerning
-Take the necessary measures to protect, preserve and manage
Specially Protected
in a sustainable way, areas that require protection to safeguard
Areas and Wildlife
their special value; and threatened or endangered species of
(SPAW)
flora and fauna.
-Regulate and, where necessary, prohibit activities having
adverse effects on these areas and species.
-Endeavour to cooperate in the enforcement of these measures,
-Manage species of fauna and flora with the objective of
preventing species from becoming endangered or threatened
33
The St. Georges Declaration and the OECS Environmental Management Strategy
In accordance with the Ministers of the Environment in OECS’ request for an “OECS Charter for
Environmental Management” and "a regional strategy...that will become the framework for
environmental management" in the sub-region., the OECS NRMU developed the St. George's
Declaration of Principles for Environmental Sustainability in the OECS (Box 3) , which was
signed by Ministers in April 2001 and sets out the broad framework to be pursued for
environmental management in the OECS region.
OECS Regional Environmental Management Strategy
Subsequent to the St. George’s Declaration and within its framework principles of
Environmental sustainability, the OECS Environmental Management Strategy was developed.
The fundamental challenge for the OECS Environmental Management Strategy is to catalyse
observable and broad improvement in environmental quality. In order to facilitate achievement
of this objective, the OECS Environmental Management Strategy is specific in identifying what
should be done and the agencies that should do it. The OECS Environmental Management
Strategy provides “one voice” for environmental management in the OECS region. It has been
developed through a widely consultative process; including input from OECS state
representatives, NGO representatives, the private sector, regional organisations, international
development agencies and others.
In order to achieve its goal, the OECS Environmental
Management Strategy:
•
Promotes integration of environmental management into development planning at the
regional and national levels.
•
Assists the OECS region in planning for and responding to environmental issues of
common interest.
•
Encourages pooling of intra-regional financial, human and other resources to achieve
environmental management objectives.
•
Promotes harmonisation of national policy, legislation, capacity building and on the
ground implementation with respect to environmental management.
34
Box 3: The St George’s Declaration of Principles for Environmental
Sustainability in the OECS
•
The St. Georges Declaration and Principle of Sustainability in the OECS.
•
Foster sustainable improvement in the quality of life
•
Integrate social, economic, and environmental considerations into national
development policies, plans and programmes.
•
Improve legal and institutional frameworks
•
Ensure meaningful participation by civil society in decision making.
•
Use economic instruments for sustainable environmental management
•
Foster broad based environmental education, training, and awareness
•
Address the causes and impact of climate change
•
Prevent and mange the cases and impacts of disasters
•
Prevent and control pollution and mange waste
•
Ensure the sustainable sue of natural resources
•
Protect cultural; and natural heritage
•
Protect and conserve biological diversity
•
Recognize relationships between trade and the environment
•
Promote cooperation in science and technology
•
Manage and conserve energy
•
Negotiate and implement multi-lateral agreements
•
Coordinate assistance form the donor community in the OECS Region
•
Implementation and monitoring [of the St. Georges Declaration]
•
Obligation of member states [under the St. Georges Declaration]
•
Review [of the St. Georges Declaration]
Source: OECS 2000 and CEO, 2000
35
National Action Plans and Strategies
National level action plans and environmental strategies continue to be prepared to address
sustainable development and environmental priorities. The following is a snapshot of national
environmental strategies and plans in the Caribbean (Sources: UNEP 1999b; UNDP 2003b;
NIMOS 2004, UNEP,2005)
St Lucia
St Lucia through its Ministry of Physical Development, Environment and Housing, has prepared
a National Environmental Policy (NEP) and a National Environmental Management Strategy
(NEMS) in accordance with the terms of the St George’s Declaration of Principles for
Environmental Sustainability, with support from the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States
Environment and Sustainable Development Unit (OECS ESDU).
Grenada
Grenada endorsed a National Environmental Action Plan during the 1980s. This plan, however,
was never implemented as an objective-driven strategic plan of action. In 2000, Grenada
published its National Physical Development Plan (NPDP) after an extended process of
nationwide public consultations and endorsement by the Cabinet. The NPDP addresses a number
of key issues, including forest, coastal and fisheries resources, sustainable tourism, and land use
and management within the context of biodiversity conservation and management. This plan
lacks a human resource strategy or capacity-building component. A draft National
Environmental Policy has been prepared and is undergoing review and discussions.
St Kitts and Nevis
St Kitts and Nevis’s National Environmental Management Startegy and Action Plan 2005-2009
has been completed in 2004. It identifies major environmental issues facing the community and
ensures that appropriate policies and actions are formulated and implemented. The NEAP will
ensure the Federation’s involvement in regional and international projects related to sustainable
development, assisted with the enhancement of environmental legislation, review of
development policies, and the upgrade of existing institutions to address environmental concerns.
36
Jamaica
The National Environmental and Planning Agency (NEPA) of Jamaica is directly responsible for
the management and protection of the country’s environment and natural resources. NEPA has
developed 15 policy papers, central among which is the Jamaica National Environmental Action
Plan (JaNEAP). The policy document has been updated several times since the plan was issued
in 1995. The present plan covers the period 1999–2002, and identifies 190 practical actions to
which the government is committed, identifying the agencies and organizations responsible for
their implementation.
Suriname
The Nationale Milieuraad, NMR (National Council for the Environment), in Suriname is a policy
and advisory body in the Office of the President. The Nationaal Instituut voor Milieu en
Ontwikkeling (National Institute for Environment and Development) in Suriname, known as
NIMOS, is the executive and research arm of the Council. These bodies will work with the InterMinisterial Advisory Commission (IMAC) upon its establishment, which was unanimously
endorsed in a special seminar titled Op Weg naar een Duurzaam Milieubeleid (On the Way to a
Sustainable Environmental Policy) in November 1997.
NEMS
Six Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) members/affiliates undertook the
preparation of National Environmental Management Strategies (NEMS) in fulfillment as a
requirement of their respective Government mechanisms in discharge of their individual
obligations under the St George’s Declaration (SGD) of Principles for Environmental
Sustainability in the OECS, 2001. In addition to the St. Lucia, St Kitts and Nevis, and Grenada
discussed above, Antigua and Barbuda, Anguilla, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines have
completed National Environmental Management Strategies and Action Plans (OECS/ESDU).
37
Regional Assessments, Projects and Programmes
Several regional assessments, projects and programmes currently being implemented are of
importance for the region. These include:
Global International Water Assessment (GIWA)
The Global International Water Assessment (GIWA) produced a comprehensive and integrated
global assessment of international waters, the ecological status of and the causes of
environmental problems in 66 water areas in the world, and focus on the key issues and problems
facing the aquatic environment in transboundary waters. GIWA has completed an assessment of
the Caribbean and the findings are set out in two reports:
•
Caribbean Sea/Small Islands- Region 3a
This report presents the GIWA assessment of the Small Islands sub-system of the Caribbean Sea
region, which covers CARICOM member states of the Lesser Antilles. The report indicates that
the sub-region is an area particularly vulnerable to human activities owing to the fragility of the
island ecosystems and their limited carrying capacities. Habitat and community modification, as
a result of anthropogenic pressures, was found to cause the most severe transboundary
environmental and socio-economic impacts in the sub-system. The governments regard rapid
economic growth as a priority, which they have failed to balance with the conservation and
protection of important ecosystems. The report discusses an analysis of the root causes of habitat
and community modification by investigating the cause-effect pathways of the concern. Policy
options are proposed that aim to provide solutions to these fundamental issues, in order to
enhance the management of the region’s aquatic environment (UNEP, 2004).
•
Caribbean Islands- Region 4
This report presents the GIWA assessment of the Greater Antilles Caribbean Islands region, an
archipelago comprising drainage basins and coastal areas that contain some of the world’s most
diverse and productive habitats (Jamaica, Haiti and the Bahamas are included in this group). The
report indicates that a variety of human activities are impacting these countries’ sensitive and
unique ecosystems, upon which the population is so dependent for their social well-being and
economic survival. Pollution, originating from both land-based sources and marine traffic, is of
38
particular concern, but despite considerable and widespread environmental and socio-economic
impacts, there has been a lack of appropriate measures aimed at mitigating this concern. The past
and present status and future prospects are discussed, and the transboundary issues of pollution
are traced back to their root causes. Policy options are analysed that aim to address these driving
issues in order to significantly improve environmental quality and secure the region’s future
prosperity (UNEP, 2004).
The CARSEA Project
The Caribbean Sea Ecological Assessment (CASEA) is being undertaken to establish a decision-making
and management framework for collective policy and action to protect the ecosystem function of the
Caribbean Sea and its ability to sustainably supply services, which improve human wellbeing (CARSEA,
2003).
The CARSEA assessment is being developed with the input of the Secretariats of the Association of
Caribbean States (ACS) and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), which represent the continental and
insular Caribbean countries with associate status from some other countries with vested interests in the
Caribbean Sea. The ACS has the political mandate from the ministers of the region to advance a proposal
to have the Caribbean Sea designated as a Special area in the context of sustainable development. The
project has been integrated with the work program of the ACS and UNECLAC to advance the wider
Caribbean regional agenda ‘Promoting an Integrated Management Approach to the Caribbean Sea Area in
the context of Sustainable Development’ (A/RES/57/261), approved by the 57th Session of the UN
General Assembly. The incremental value of CARSEA is that it can provide a scientific foundation for
the UN Resolution because it is based on the peer reviewed and published MA conceptual framework for
an integrated assessment (ecological, economic and socio-cultural) in the context of sustainable
development. Further the CARSEA project will examine whether there is scientific support for the
recognition of the Caribbean Sea by the international community as a “Special Area in the context of
Sustainable Development” (CARSEA, 2003).
39
Integrated Watershed and Coastal Area Management in Small Island Developing
States of the Caribbean (IWCAM)
The GEF/CEHI/UNEP CEP/UNDP project will demonstrate integrated watershed management
and coastal area management systems in thirteen Caribbean SIDS. The project addresses the
special conditions and needs of small island developing states (SIDS) necessitate more integrated
approaches to land and water management as a mechanism to address threats to their water
resources.
The long-term goal of the project is to enhance the capacity of the thirteen participating countries
to plan and mange their aquatic resources and ecosystems on a sustainable basis. This will be
achieved through the strengthening of the capacities of the participating countries to implement
an integrated approach to the management of watersheds and coastal areas. The project will also
assist participating countries in developing National Integrated Water Resources Management
Plan.
Global Water Partnership - Caribbean
The Global Water Partnership- Caribbean (GWP-C) was developed in response to the priorities
established by the BPOA, and motivated by the Global Water Partnership. The GWP-C is a
working partnership among stakeholders in water management in the Caribbean. It is a network
of partners for achieving an integrated approach to water resources management at the
community, national and regional levels. The objectives of the CWP are:
•
To establish proactive alliances in water resources management that are representative,
gender sensitive, and participatory at the community, country, and regional levels.
•
To promote public participation in the management of water resources through capacity
building and information sharing at the regional, national, and particularly the community
level.
40
•
To promote integrated water resources management (IWRM) as the approach to water
resources management in the region and to obtain national commitments towards IWRM
implementation.
•
To align the Caribbean Region with hemispheric and other global water initiatives in
order to capitalize on international experiences and opportunities for regional capacitybuilding in IWRM.
•
To improve water governance through the promotion, enhancement and effective
implementation of legislation, policy, programs and institutional regulatory and
administrative frameworks.
•
To collaborate with other organizations and institutions working in other areas of
sustainable development.
The Interim Secretariat (the Caribbean Council for Science and Technology) and Steering
Committee of the CWP have been established, and the CWP was launched in June 2004.
41
Table 9: Major National Plans and Reports in the Caribbean (UNEP, 2005)
COUNTRY
Antigua and
National
National
National
Environmental
UN
UNFCCC
Forestry
Environment
Biodiversity
Conservation
Sustainable
Actions Plans
Convention on
National
Action
Reports/National
Strategy
Strategy
Development
Desertification
Communications
Plan
Environmental
and Action
Policy/Plans
(Action
Profiles
Plan
1991
ip
National
National
State
Report
Report
on
for
UNCED
WSSD
1992
Barbuda
2002/
of
the
Programmes)
na
na
na
na
2001
1993
2002*
Bahamas
1992
2002
na
1999
na
na
na
na
2001
Na
Barbados
1992
2001
2001
2002
na
na
na
2001
2001
1993
Belize
na
2002
1995
1998
na
2004
1993/
na
2002
Na
(coast)
1996
Dominica
na
2002
1991
2001
na
na
1994
na
2001
1993
Grenada
Na
20022/
1991
1988/
na
na
1994
na
2001
1993
Guyana
na
2002
na
1999
na
na
1994
1994
2002
Na
Haiti
1992
Na
1985
na
na
na
1999
na
2002
Na
Jamaica
1992
2002
1987,1995,
2003
na
na
1994/
2002
2000
1990/
2002*
2000
1996,1997
St. Kitts and
1992
2002*
1991
1995
Ip
na
na
1994
2004
na
2001
1992
Nevis
St. Lucia
na
2001
1991
2000
na
na
1994
na
2001
1993
St. Vincent
na
2002*
1991
1986
na
na
1994
na
2000
1993
and
the
Grenadines
Surinam
na
2001
na
ip
na
na
na
na
na
na
Trinidad
1992
na
Na
ip
na
na
na
na
2001
1993
and Tobago
Na = Information not available ip=in preparation * = OECS sub-regional report
Source: Based on UNEP 2005 and adapted from CEO, 2005.
42
CHAPTER 3: FRESHWATER
Many of the CARICOM Member States face severe constraints in terms of both the quality
and the quantity of freshwater because of their small size and particular geological,
topographical and climatic conditions. The scarcity of water resources is a limiting factor for
economic and social development in CARICOM (Caribbean Environmental Outlook, 2005).
This is even more the case for low-lying coral-based islands, where there are limited supplies
of groundwater and which are protected only by a thin permeable soil. Water supply was
identified as a priority by the 1978 Caribbean Environmental Health Strategy and the First
CARICOM Ministerial Conference on the Environment (CARICOM 1989).
Water Resources
Groundwater, rainfall, surface reservoirs and rivers are the main sources of freshwater in
many CARICOM member states. The majority of the member states are reflective of the
following four country examples:
In Antigua and Barbuda for example, there are no perennial water sources in the country. The
total average rainfall for both islands is estimated at 453 million m3/year and Internal
Renewable Water Resources (IRWR) about 52 million m3/year. At present the country's
agricultural and municipal (domestic and commercial) water demands are being met by two
desalination plants (total capacity 3.3 million m3/year); three surface dams, numerous small
ponds and 5 well fields (total capacity 2.8 millions of m3/year). The small ponds are used
primarily for agriculture and many of the reservoirs are used for both agricultural and
municipal uses. During drier months irrigation is restricted to a very limited surface due to
shortfall in surface and groundwater yields, and most surface water storage is diverted to
municipal supply. On the other hand, Barbuda's topography and geology are not well suited
to dam construction (AQUASTAT).
In Barbados, the Annual Internal Renewable Water Resources were estimated in a 1997
Water Resources Study to total about 82 million m3. Groundwater derived from infiltrated
43
rainfall accounts for 73.9 million m3; surface water amounts to 5.8 million m3; springs 2.0
million m3 and direct runoff to the sea 0.5 million m3(AQUASTAT).
The mean annual rainfall is 2 200 mm for Trinidad and 1 900 mm for Tobago. According to
a study conducted in 1998, available surface water resources were estimated at 3 600 million
m3/year for Trinidad and 136 million m3/year for Tobago. The groundwater safe yield for
both islands was estimated at 107 million m3/year. Large-scale development of surface water
has been limited to four rivers in Trinidad and Tobago. There are five surface water
reservoirs (four in Trinidad and one in Tobago) with a total capacity of 75 million m3. Private
water users have constructed and operate small reservoirs, mainly in south Trinidad, but no
data about their capacity were available. Groundwater is found throughout most of Trinidad.
The major groundwater areas include the Northern Valley aquifers in alluvial deposits at
Chaguaramas, Tucker Valley, Diego Martin and Port of Spain; the alluvial fan deposits at El
Soccorro, Valsayn, Tacarigua and Arima; the artesian aquifers in the Sum Sum and Durham
sands; the reef limestone's of the Central Range; and sands in the Erin, Morne L'Enfer, and
Mayaro formations of Southern Trinidad.
Estimates of surface water resources are not available over all of Guyana: there are data
available from the three main drainage basins of Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice (Table 9).
44
Table 10: Characteristics of the main river basins in Guyana.
Drainage basin Station
Surface area (km2) Discharge (km3/y) Specific discharge
(m3/s/km2)
Essequibo
Plantain
66 600
66.96
0.0319
Apaikwa
14 000
23.98
0.0543
Kamaria
53 500
35.52
0.0211
Demerara
Great Falls 2 460
2.32
0.0299
Berbice
Itabru
5 100
1.60
0.0099
The groundwater system comprises three aquifers. A small amount of the copious supplies of
surface water which run off is trapped by a long low earth embankment to form large shallow
dams locally known as "conservancies". The conservancies are located in the "backland" or
upper stream catchment areas and comprise water-retaining embankments and structures.
Water Use
Water demand which has increased over the past 30 years as a result of population growth
and rapid urbanization is exceeding the natural supply capacity. At current population levels,
the available water supply in some of the member states is significantly below the
international limit of 1 000 m3 per capita per year below which a country is classified as
‘water scarce’ (Government of Barbados 2000). This limit places Antigua and Barbuda (800
m3 per capita), Barbados (301 m3 per capita), and St Kitts and Nevis (621 m3 per capita) in
the category of water-scarce countries (FAO 2003b).
Agriculture is the largest consumer of water in the CARICOM, consuming over 90 per cent
of the total water used in Guyana, Haiti and Suriname. Industrial consumption of total
45
renewable water resources exceeds other uses in Barbados, while domestic consumption is
the primary use in others such as Trinidad and Tobago (UNEP, 2005).
The demand for water in many of the islands The Bahamas is met primarily by extraction
from shallow freshwater lenses. Extraction of freshwater is very high on some islands in this
archipelago as a result of the demands of the local population and the tourism industry. This
is especially the case on New Providence, where inadequate freshwater resources necessitates
the import of water from Andros Island. Nationally, the high water deficit has led to
desalination of seawater by reverse osmosis (Government of the Commonwealth of The
Bahamas 2001).
Management Issues
Many of the low limestone islands of the Caribbean such as Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda,
Grenada, and Barbados, are heavily dependent upon rainfall as the freshwater recharge
source. The situation is critical for these countries where rainfall seasonality is very
pronounced (UNEP, 2005). For example, in Barbados groundwater recharge is restricted to
the three wettest months of the year; with only 15–30 per cent of annual rainfall reaching the
aquifers (Jones and others 1998). Of critical importance, much of the rainfall in the region is
strongly associated with
tropical depressions and storms, therefore any change in the
occurrence of these events will have an impact on the water supply of many CARICOM
countries (see Gray 1993; Nurse and others 1998 in UNEP, 2005).
In Dominica, for
example, reduced flows in the Castle Comfort, Roseau, Layou and Geneva rivers have raised
national concerns, since these rivers are the main source of potable and irrigation water on
the island The declining flows have been well correlated over the last few decades with
extended periods of drought (Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica 2000 in
UNEP, 2005).
It is projected that, on Andros Island in the Bahamas, where the water table is only 30 cm
below the surface, high evaporation and increasing brackishness will occur if sea-level rise
46
continues (Martin and Bruce 1999). Saltwater intrusion into the freshwater lenses from over
extraction is also threatening freshwater supplies in the Bahamas and Barbados.
The Caribbean Environmental Outlook (2005) reported recent increases in salinity levels for
several coastal aquifers in Trinidad and Tobago, attributed mainly to rapid draw-down
exacerbated by sea-level rise. The impact of climate change on water supply is also a critical
issue for sustainable development in CARICOM. Shrivastava (1997) suggested that annual
precipitation would increase by approximately 6 per cent in the Western Caribbean and
decrease by 4 per cent in the Eastern Caribbean as a result of climate change. Prolonged and
heavy wet seasons and more severe and longer droughts during the dry seasons are predicted.
The vulnerability of water resources to climate change has been demonstrated in Grenada
where the droughts of 1984 and 1992 caused freshwater losses of 20 per cent and 40 per cent,
respectively. Recovery from these losses can take many years (Government of Grenada
2001). This situation is expected to become worse with the increase in freshwater demands
due to population growth and the expansion of tourism. In several countries, the adverse
implications of climate change on water resources will be compounded as growing
populations move into marginal areas with very limited water supply. Insufficient quantity
and quality of water, particularly potable water, is correlated with increases in waterborne
diseases, particularly when people seek alternative sources, which may be of poor quality.
Increases in the incidence of heat-related illnesses also occur during periods of drought and
elevated temperatures (Government of Jamaica 2001).
One of the targets of the Millennium Development Goal 7 requires countries to ‘halve, by
2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and
sanitation’. It will be difficult for many Caribbean countries to meet this goal, considering
their already high coverage rates (over 82 per cent for drinking water and up to 97 per cent
for sanitation, with the exception of Haiti), as well as the deteriorating condition of remaining
freshwater resources (UNDP 2004).
47
Deforestation and inappropriate land use practices in watersheds have impacted upon
groundwater recharges and water retention capacities of soils. In addition, ineffective
maintenance and replacement of infrastructure give rise to transmission losses as high as 50
per cent in some countries.
Table 11: Water abstraction, water supply and water use (million m3)
48
CHAPTER 4: COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES
The coastal and marine resources in the CARICOM region are of critical importance. As
most of the Member States are either small-island or low-lying coastal states, the issues
affecting them are similar in nature, though different in magnitude. Not only are the
resources of this area of major importance to the Member States, but they also continue to be
under threat from natural and anthropogenic activities. Within this context, a number of
issues surface which are likely to have a significant impact, or be impacted upon, as a
consequence of the status of coastal and marine resources of the region. These issues include,
but are not limited to, climate change, tourism and biodiversity.
Resources
The CARICOM member states possess many productive and biologically complex
ecosystems including coral reefs, sea grass beds, mangroves, coastal lagoons, beaches and
mud bottom habitats. Member states have been endowed with a unique, rich and invaluable
marine heritage. Several of the most productive ecosystems in the world are found with the
Caribbean Sea and along estuaries of mainland territories. Such ecosystems include the
mangal forests that fringe the Atlantic coast of South America and the extensive reefs that
border Belize and populate the Caribbean Sea. Additional ecosystems include the mud flats,
typically of the mainland territories and the varying types of seagrass beds. Within the
following paragraphs several major ecosystems within the region, their location and
ecological functions are highlighted.
Coral Reefs: Coral reefs occur along most shallow, tropical coastlines, where the water is
clear, salinity is constant and water temperatures seldom drop below 20oC (68oF) (FAO,
1990). Coral refs provide shelter and serve as a food source for a myriad of organisms many
of which are of great commercial value. Such organisms include parrotfish, grunts,
surgeonfish and other reef fish, shrimp, lobsters, giant clams and sea urchins. Consequently,
coral reefs are considered to be the most diverse and productive marine ecosystems in the
wider Caribbean. In addition, coral reefs protect coastlines from wave and storm damage;
49
they serve as a source of life-saving medicines (for example anticoagulants and anticancer
agents) and provide recreational and educational amenities for locals and tourists alike. For
example the Caribbean attracts about 57% of the world’s scuba divers and it has been
estimated that by the 2005 diving will generate about $1.2 million (Mitchell, 1996). Islands
such as Saba and Bonaire are major diving destinations receiving over 50% of their gross
national product from scuba diving and other marine-recreational activities.
Caribbean coral reefs are greatly degraded where they exist in the Caribbean. They have lost
approximately 80% of living coral over the last two decades (CARICOMP data). This
degradation can be associated to a mix of impacts in the past and are still increasingly
present. Hurricane damage, diseases, pollution, over fishing and direct damage from boating
and recreation and collection are some of the impacts on Caribbean coral reefs. Recoveries
have been both rare and, when present slow. With the exception of a few functioning marine
protected areas, sustainable management of coral reefs is yet to be achieved in the Caribbean.
Seagrasses: Extensive seagrass meadows generally occur in the protected waters landward of
coral reefs. Like coral reefs, these submerged flowering plants thrive in clear, tropical waters.
Their ability to effectively colonize the marine environment is predicated on their ability
thrive in a submerged saline environment, their well developed anchoring system and their
ability to compete with other organisms under the unstable conditions of the marine
environment. Of the 60 species of seagrasses in the world only three species are most
abundant within the members states of CARICOM. These include: the turtle grass (Thalassia
testudinum), the manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme) and shoal grass (Halodule
beaudettei). The ecosystems created by seagrasses are very productive. Grazers, such as
green turtles, fishes, and sea urchins feed directly on the grasses whereas the blades of the
plants provide surfaces for epiphytes like algae and invertebrates to be affixed. Seagrass beds
also serve as nursery grounds for the juveniles of many commercially important species, such
as snappers, grunts, lobsters, conch and sea urchins. In addition to their biological
importance, seagrasses promote the physical stability of the coast by providing protection to
inland areas from wave action. With their root-like rhizome, seagrasses bind sand particles
50
giving the substrate a level of stability that inhibits sand transport during periods of ocean
turbulence (CEP Technical Report #2).
Threats to Seagrass beds in the Caribbean include dredging to allow access to shipping or to
lay pipes and cables or other submarine structures, resulting in burying by sediment. In
addition pollution from sewage etc. results in excessive growth of epiphytes. Often as well
seagrass are removed from shallow water to improve bathing beaches.
Mangroves: Mangroves are a collection of salt-tolerant species of trees or shrubs, which
grow on sheltered shores and in estuaries in the tropics and some sub-tropical regions. These
inter-tidal salt tolerant plants generally occur on low energy depositional coasts exposed to
fluctuations in salinity, turbidity, nutrients and freshwater. As a result, mangroves extend
along the coast of Suriname, Guyana, and Trindad occupying deltas and riparian lands
(Sturm, 1991). These ecosystems also occur throughout the insular Caribbean and are closely
associated with coral reefs and seagrass beds.
Mangroves are accredited with promoting land reclamation and stabilization and serving as a
nursery, feeding ground and habitat for many commercially valuable fish, shrimp, lobsters,
crabs, mussels and other species. A collection of terrestrial fauna e.g. monkeys, birds, snakes
also make their home in the canopy of the mangal ecosystem. Furthermore, the mangrove
ecosystem contributes significantly to the productivity of the inter-tidal environment. Like all
ecosystems the inter-tidal ecosystem is fueled by energy from the sun captured by the process
of photosynthesis. The latter is the responsibility of phytoplankton and therefore these tiny
organisms form the basis of the inter-tidal food wed. The dead organic matter from the
mangrove ecosystem is carried offshore by the flux in water movements where it stimulates
phytoplankton growth and ultimately primary productivity. The solar energy captured and
stored in phytoplankton tissue is passed onto other epipelagic creatures. Many of these
creatures do not consume the phytoplankton directly but consume the herbivores
(zooplankton) that feed directly on the phytoplankton.
51
In the wider Caribbean region there are three main mangrove species – Avicennia germinans
(black mangrove), Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove) and Laguncularia racemosa (white
mangrove). The major ecological and environmental functions of the mangrove ecosystem
are (1) they protect the coast from erosion by dampening the wave, (2) they serve as a
nursery for a wide range commercial valuable fish species, shrimps, lobster and crabs (3)
they provide essential nutrients to nearshore coastal ecosystem through tidal flushing, (4)
they serve as a wildlife habit for reptiles, mammals, fishes, crabs and birds (cattle egrets and
pelicans nest in mangrove areas), (5) substantial amount of sediments are traps in the roots
that possibly leads to land building and (6) the anaerobic mangrove sediments have the
ability to trap heavy metals and pesticides without harm to the tree, leading to improve water
quality to the nearshore community. (Bossi and Cintrón, 1990; USAID/NOAA, 1987; Rützler
and Feller, 1987; Snedaker, 1986; IPIECA, 1993).
Increased human population and lack of awareness of the value of mangroves has resulted in
this ecosystem to suffer from clearance for housing, dumpsites, impoundment through road
building, pollution from domestic and commercial waste, clearance for aquaculture ponds
and overexploitation for commercial use e.g charcoal, firewood, construction material and
tannins.
Wetlands and Estuaries, Besides coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves ecosystems, the
wider Caribbean region houses additional and equally important ecosystems. Such
ecosystems include wetlands, estuaries and Salinas. Wetlands are ecosystems in which the
land surface is saturated or covered with standing water for most of the year. There are
varying types of wetlands in the Caribbean. In Dominica for example, there are swamps of
bloodwood trees growing in stagnant water, while the morasses covered mainly with grasses
and other herbs are unique to Jamaica. Freshwater wetlands have developed in larger islands
Trinidad, which have extensive coastlines and large rivers, as well as Guyana and Belize.
At first glance wetlands may appear to be wastelands. But this impression is far from the
truth. Wetlands are tremendously productive ecosystems providing a habitat and breeding
52
ground for numerous birds, fishes and crustaceans, many of which are of commercial
importance.
Another important marine ecosystem is the estuary ecosystem. Estuary ecosystems are very
fertile and productive ecosystems and serve as important sources of organic material and
nutrients, and also provide feeding, nesting and nursery areas for various birds and fishes.
These ecosystems along with wetlands act as sinks of terrestrial run-off, trapping sediments
and toxins, which may damage the fragile offshore ecosystems e. g. coral reefs.
Mud Flats: The bottoms of estuaries that become exposed at low tide often form mud flats
(Castro and Huber, 2000). These unique ecosystems are widespread where large sloping
continental shelves fringe the edges of coastlines. As such, these ecosystems are associated
with the coasts of Suriname and Guyana and to a lesser extent Trinidad. The fauna occupying
mud flats are detritus feeders, feeding either on organic deposits or on organic matter
suspended within the water column. Thus, mud flats house many species of snails, crabs,
clams, worms and shrimp upon which predators such as egrets, gulls and wild ducks and
groundfish fishes prey. Many of these organisms serve as important fishery resources for
many of the wider Caribbean territories. For example, fisheries within countries such as
Guyana, Bahamas, and Jamaica are heavily dependent on shrimp and groundfish.
Management issues
The impacts on the above natural resources are significant in the Caribbean, because of high
population densities, poverty and inadequate or absence of sanitary facilities. Shifting
agriculture and other common agricultural practices are the major cause of deforestation,
which in turn has direct negative effects on watersheds, rivers, mangroves and other coastal
resources (Gobin, 2005). Artisanal fishing methods and over-fishing are major culprits to
decline and damage to Caribbean coastal and marine fishing grounds; over-harvesting has led
to the decline of wild stocks of some species in some islands —Tripneustes ventricosus
(white sea urchin) in St Lucia. Common to most Caribbean islands are pollution and
contamination in coastal and marine environments which emanate from agriculture
(fertilisers and pesticides), domestic/municipal areas (sewage, solid and liquid wastes);
53
tourist hotels and marinas (sewage, solid and liquid wastes); shipping and marine transport (oil,
solid and liquid wastes); and, in Trinidad, heavy industry (oil, liquid wastes and heavy
metals) (Gobin, 2005).
Other key management issues include:
•
Natural disasters such as tropical storms and hurricanes occasionally affect
productivity.
•
Degradation and contamination in the coastal zone from industrial, urban and
agricultural activities are common to most Caribbean territories.
•
Scientists agree and warn that the world’s oceans are headed for collapse due to
massive over fishing (Pew Oceans Report, Dayton, Pauly et al 2000). An FAO
assessment (FAO 1997c) suggests that 35 per cent of the region’s stocks are
overexploited, and the sub-region also has the highest percentage discard—mostly as
by-catch discard of shrimp trawling (Gobin, 2005).
•
Recreational activities (diving, swimming, boating etc) also affect the state of these
ecosystems. Coral reefs have been damaged by boat anchors and by tourists stepping
on them. Development in coastal areas has coincided with the influx of tourism. This
is a big threat to coral reef ecosystems, mangroves and sea grasses. In addition, the
associated sewage and solid waste products pose a serious threat to the Caribbean.
The human impacts on these environments in the Caribbean are significant, because
of high population densities, poverty and the absence of adequate sanitary facilities.
•
Coral reefs are very vulnerable to temperature changes since they live near the upper
limit of their tolerance; small increases stress them and cause them to expel their
symbiotic algae which provide their nourishment and colour. Global warming and
associated climate change have already impacted on the status of coral reefs
worldwide and in the Caribbean. Natural damage and hurricanes have also caused
damage to coral reef ecosystems and prolonged algal blooms (CARICOMP reports)
have caused extensive mortalities of reef organisms such as Diadema antillarum. The
massive, climate-related, coral bleaching event of 1998 (major El Nino 1997-1998)
was the largest single cause of deterioration of coral reefs (Wilkinson 2000). On the
54
Belize barrier reef, sea surface temperature which rarely exceeds 29 degrees Celsius,
reached 31.5 degrees and caused extensive bleaching (Coastal Zone Report 2000).
Table 12: Common Threats to Coastal and Marine Resources
Coral reefs
Mangroves
and
coastal
Sea grass beds
lagoons
Overfishing by commercial and subsistence fishers
Uncontrolled anchoring of boats and ships, shrimp
Residential and hotel resort
Shrimp
developments
dredging
Dredging, landfilling.
Removal
trawling, tourist activities
trawling,
for
tourism activities
Dredging, inland agricultural activities, coastal,
Natural disasters/hurricanes
Natural disasters
residential and tourist developments.
Natural phenomena/global warming.
Pollution-
oil
(bilge/ships/boats),
agriculture,
aquaculture, sewage
55
CHAPTER 5: LAND USE, SOILS AND LAND DEGRADATION TRENDS
The available land resources in CARICOM member states vary based upon the characteristics of
size, topography, sectoral demands (agriculture, tourism, industry, human settlement,
infrastructure) and outdated land tenure systems. These combine create and intense climate of
competition between land-use interests (CARICOM, 2003).
Information from UNEP data portal classified 30% to 34 % of Caribbean land area as
agricultural (sum of arable and permanent crops) (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Percentage of Land in the Caribbean classified as Agricultural Area
Individually, Guyana has the highest proportion of land as agricultural area at 8.8 per cent,
followed by Belize (6.7%) (UNEP/DEWA/GRID-Geneva 2004). Land occupied by agricultural
area has been decreasing over the last three decades in many of the member states, except in
Belize, Dominica, Guyana, St Vincent and the Grenadines, and Suriname, the percentage of.
Both total and per capita agricultural production decreased in most of the Caribbean countries
56
and territories for most of the 1990s, with some exceptions, such as Antigua and Barbuda, The
Bahamas, Belize, Dominica, Guyana and Jamaica (UNEP/DEWA/GRID-Geneva 2004).
Land Use, Distribution and Tenure Arrangements
The agricultural systems of the Caribbean have their origins in the colonial systems designed to
satisfy metropolitan demand for tropical, export crop commodities using slave labor. Little
diversification or rationalization of Caribbean agricultural systems from the export-driven
plantation systems has taken place in the post-colonial period. The land use patterns in the
Caribbean have their origins in this historical demand for tropical crops, and the persisting export
driven plantation systems. One of the characteristics of the pattern of land that has characterized
Caribbean agriculture since emancipation is the dualistic system comprising, a small number of
large well capitalized, mono-crop farms, located on comparatively flat land, in contrast to the
large number of small undercapitalized, mixed-crop farms (Wilson, 1994).
The current agricultural sector in the Caribbean has been described as comprising four groups of
farmers based on farm size, farming practices, market orientation, and cropping characteristics,
as follows (Paul, C. L., 2001):
(i)
A large number small traditional subsistence farmers practicing mixed cropping on
marginal, hilly land.
(ii)
A small number of commercially oriented small farmers that focus mainly on
domestic markets
(iii)
A small number of large commercial farms that dominate the export market
(iv)
A small number of absentee owners whose farms are idle due to their absence.
The demands for tropical export crops to developed countries have influenced the current land
use pattern in CARICOM member states, rather than from the characteristics of the climate, soil,
topography and natural vegetation (FAO, 2002). Only approximately 26% of the total land area
is suitable for agriculture (FAO Data Stats, 2002ai). Approximately 75% of all suitable
agricultural land is arable and occupied by permanent crops. According to information from the
57
various agricultural ministries and industry experts it can be estimated that land suitability
classification (Figure 3) based on levels of limitations to agricultural production could be
apportioned as follows:
•
4.5% can be cultivated with little or no limitations (i.e. these land possess very fertile
alluvial soils, usually extremely flat plains, easily accessed, located within close
proximity to all the basic amenities and infrastructures - road, electricity, water supply
and telephone services) and has an excellent free or natural drainage or can easily
facilitate the implementation of drainage facilities at reduced capital expenditure. Large
and medium size farmers predominantly cultivate these areas with medium to high
technological farming systems.
•
40% can be farmed with moderate restrictions, topography range from gently or slightly
to moderately sloping. These lands have a level of fertility that is considered to be
moderate and can be improved by a combination of fertilization and other requisite soil
management techniques. These areas are predominantly cultivated by large and medium
size and technology driven farming ventures.
•
35% of the remaining suitable agricultural land has strong to extremely strong limitations
to agricultural production. This category of land is largely cultivated by small-scale
farmers (possessing one or two plots of land both totaling less than or equal to 2 hectares
in size), and by a small percentage of medium to large scale farmers with sophisticated
advances in technology.
•
The remaining 19.5 % of suitable agricultural land is reserved for tree crops, pastures and
forestry. Forty-five percent of (45%) all land areas in the Caribbean is covered by
forestry.
Land tenure arrangement (Figure 4) is generally typified by approximately 44% of farmers who
own the land they cultivate; 20% utilized land for which they pay no rent or lease (family or state
owned lands) while the remaining 36% of Caribbean farmers lease or rent their land (Bailey,
2001).
58
Typical land use characteristics in member states include:
•
Conversion of agricultural land to urban uses
•
Farmland conversion patterns often discourage farmers from adopting sustainable practices
and a long-term perspective on the value of land
•
At the same time, the close proximity of newly developed residential areas to farms may
increase the public demand for environmentally safe farming practices.
•
Comprehensive new policies to protect prime soils and regulate development are needed,
•
By helping farmers to adopt practices that reduce chemical use and conserve scarce
resources, sustainable agriculture research and education can play a key role in building
public support for agricultural land preservation.
•
Educating land use planners and decision-makers about sustainable agriculture is an
important priority.
The land tenure situation has implications for land management and degradation. Farmers who
do not own land tend to:
• Tend to cultivate steep slopes on inaccessible him and mountainsides
• Lack the incentive to undertake soil conservation measures (Madramootoo, 2001).
Management Issues
Among the problems resulting from these demand-driven land use patterns is the issue of land
tenure. Land distribution in member states is characterized by inequitable distribution of property
and the lack of titles to the land (UNEP 2003a).
Intensive monoculture large-scale agriculture practice in member states have lend to degradation
of land. Smallholdings, on the other hand, are on marginal lands that are susceptible to erosion
and desertification.
59
On both types of holdings there are few fallow periods and little crop rotation, leading to a
gradual decline in soil fertility (UNEP 2003a).
A reduction in coastal arable land is anticipated as a result of the projected sea-level rise and
consequent saltwater intrusion due to global warming and climate change. These impacts
coupled with reduced rainfall and the anticipated reduction in yields of current crops will result
in reduced food security in affected countries (UNEP, 2005).
The major long-term land management issue in most of the Member States is the degradation of
the limited land area because of a variety of factors, including overuse caused by high population
pressure on a limited resource base; deforestation due to unsustainable commercial logging; and
episodic events, such as fire and other natural disasters. The reality, however, is that the
traditional, sectoral approach of Caribbean Governments to natural resource management has
lead to the fragmentation of Government control and authority. This institutional reality is
subjected to the continuous, competing interests of the various economic sectors (agriculture,
tourism, development, government) and stakeholders. As a result, the development of a common
vision for growth and development at the national and watershed levels has been severely
hindered (UNEP (DEC)/CAR WG.28/3 (2005).
The combination of poor land- use and management practices, and incompatible or conflicting
land uses, causes serious environmental problems (FAO, 2001). Patterns of land use affect all
aspects of the environment, including; surface and groundwater volumes and water availability;
freshwater and coastal ecosystems and biodiversity.
In the absence of sound land use policies, the agricultural sector suffers the loss of prime
agricultural lands and contributes to the cycle of land degradation through improper practices on
steep, marginal hillsides (Madramootoo, C. A. 2001).
Land under agriculture has been decreasing over the last three decades (UNEP CEO 2005)
60
Table 13: Land use and Agriculture
Source: CARICOM, 2003
Land Suitability Classification
Tree crops
etc
20%
Non
5%
Moderate
40%
Strong
35%
Figure6: Land suitability classification based on levels of limitations to agricultural production.
61
Land tenure arrangement in the Caribbean
No rent or
lease
36%
Own land
44%
Rent or
lease
20%
Figure 7: Land tenure arrangement in the Caribbean (Bailey, 2001)
62
Box 4 : Rural land degradation related to agricultural development and its Causes as they Relate to
Watersheds and Watershed Management in the OECS.
PROBLEM: Rural land degradation related to agricultural development (soil erosion and mass wasting, loss
of soil productivity and declining agricultural yields, siltation of watercourses from upland erosion and associated
increased flood risk and damage to property and loss of life)
CAUSES:
• Poor agronomic practices including wanton deforestation of fragile areas for agriculture, intensive grazing,
lack of soil conservation measures, shifting cultivation, indiscriminate burning;
• Lack of institutional human and financial resources to effectively manage activities within watersheds.
Ineffective extension services (in terms of inadequate personnel, capacity, confidence and trust) to guide
farmers in adoption of soil conservation measures;
• Lack of knowledge and skills to design watershed resource conservation strategies and implement
appropriate mitigative measures;
• Land fragmentation into smaller, increasingly marginal units for agricultural production as lands are passed
down through inheritance. Increasingly difficult to coordinate soil and water conservation remedial measures
among spatially diverse agricultural production systems and owners;
• Insecurity of land ownership and associated lack of commitment to long-term conservation strategies. This
problem is of greatest concern for undivided family-owned lands where individual commitment is generally
absent. Lands occupied by landless farmers are also of concern;
• Socio-economic status of small farmers often inhibits adoption of conservation-oriented agricultural
systems. Large, typically wealthy landowners often occupy a larger proportion of the most arable lands while
the more numerous poorer farmers tend to occupy smaller marginally productive parcels. Small farmers often
have less access to credit required to support implementation of conservation measures.
SOLUTIONS:
• Land use based on land capability and land suitability criteria to foster appropriate agronomic and other
land use practices. Work in collaboration with stakeholders (farmers/landowners) to develop appropriate
agro-forestry systems and nature-based ecotourism initiatives where possible;
• Provision of incentives to encourage proper conservation measures. Incentive measures could be tied to
environmental levies where funds are cycled into incentive measures;
• Establishment of a land bank where land is leased to landless farmers; lease purchase agreements should
be explored;
• Identify and establish forest and other protected reserves to conserve soil, water and biodiversity resources
in critical areas; land acquisitions, land exchange arrangements should be explored.
Source: NRMU (2002). Proceedings of the OECS Regional Policy Dialogue on Watershed Management in
Small Island States. Eastern Caribbean Central Bank, Bird Rock, St. Kitts & Nevis, 25th to 27th February 2002.
Pp. 35.
63
Farm Technology and Production Systems
The agrarian structure in the Caribbean for the most part is characterized by a dual system. At
one level, there are a large number of small farmers (approximately 90% of all farmers) each
with one or more small plots of land amounting to less than two hectares. These are located in
hilly areas with poor access and consisting in the main of poor quality soils. These farmers
produce livestock (goats, pigs, chickens, general purpose - cattle) and mixed crops for family
consumption and the general market. There is some participation in the export market by this
category of farmers, primarily through the production of coffee, bananas, cocoa and some nontraditional exports. At the other level, there are a small number of large farm enterprises with
200 hectares or more comprising just 3% of the total number of farms, but occupying
approximately 44% of the arable farmland. These farms account for the bulk of traditional
exports (e.g. sugar, bananas).
One of the most fascinating features of agricultural production in the region is the extent to
which the same commodity destined for similar national, regional and international markets is
cultivated in dissimilar fashions and localities by different producers of varying educational
background and technological advancements. Based on the levels of technology, sophistication
of their productive processes, farm size, and land topography Caribbean farmers can be divided
into three categories: low, medium and high technology producers.
Low Technology Farmers constitute to large extent the highest percentage (approximately
90%) of the total number of farmers in the region, they usually operate relatively small-scaled
activities, specifically for the domestic markets, however, approximately 35% of these farmers
are engaged in export agricultural crops – traditional and non-traditional, and livestock
production. They usually have one or more parcels of land not totaling more than 2 hectares.
Their operations are identified by the absence of an irrigation system, being totally dependent on
precipitation as their source of plant water. These farms possess only man-made tertiary infield
drains, or may have had an existing natural communal secondary drain (or one constructed by
donor or relevant state agencies), shared by adjacent farmers (properties) and are highly
dependent on family labour with minor employment to operate their activities.
64
Medium Technology Farmers- These operations possess a manual control irrigation system,
and a drainage system characterized by one or two primary canals (natural), a few secondary
drains and a less extensive network of tertiary infield drains (mostly man made trenches). They
constitute approximately 7% of the total number of farmers in the region and operate on farm
holdings of more than 2 to 200 hectares. It is not unusual to find a high percentage of medium
technology farmers in rain fed and watershed areas being dependent on annual rain fall for their
source of plant water. These farmers usually produce specifically for the export trade or for
specialized markets (agro processors and tourism sectors) requiring a consistently high quality
product, the surplus or “second class” commodities obtained after supplying specialized market
orders are sold on the domestic markets.
High Technology Farmers- These operations are characterized by a high level of mechanization
(harvesting and processing operations), the use of automated valve irrigation systems,
sophisticated harvesting systems including, cable way, a substantial drainage net work of
primary canals, secondary drains and an extensive network of tertiary infield drains. Agricultural
production in these systems are largely monocultural type plantations, ranging in size from 5001000 hectares, requiring massive capital investments in advanced technological systemsimproved roads, drainage, cable ways, irrigation and packing facilities under the control of single
multinational companies and the state, with intensive production methods. These systems result
in high yields, 50-80 % more per hectare when compared to the average yield per hectare of
small and medium producers. Traditionally, these activities were primarily conducted for the
production of agricultural commodities for prime export markets, however, the advent of
globalization has resulted in the diversification to agro-processing and the targeting of national
and regional market by these companies. For example, the Jamaica Producers Group, a large
multinational company responsible for the production of approximately 88% of Jamaican
bananas between 1996 and 2000 (Bailey, 2001) is now producing and selling banana chips on the
national, regional and international markets while intensifying its local sale of both green and
ripe bananas in the domestic market of Jamaica.
65
SOILS
For the island countries, the severe constraints imposed by limited land area and the suitability of
land for agriculture makes sustainable soil management strategically important for the
maintenance of soil fertility.
Table 14: Soils of the Caribbean grouped based upon their pedogenesis (adapted from Ahmad, 2001)
Group
Examples
Recent marine and Freshwater Sediments
Coastal and riverain soils of Guyana; Caroni, Nariva swamps in
Trinidad; soils of coastal areas of Belize and much smaller areas in
coastal flood-plain locations.
Pre-Quaternary
marine
and
freshwater
sediments
Riverain soils of Guyana
Alluvial soils of Trinidad, Jamaica and Belize
Smaller areas occur in other territories
Older Freshwater sediments(Pliocene to
Coropina soils of Guyana, Piarco, Valencia and long stretch soils of
pliestocene)
Trinidad and lowland pine ridge soils of Belize; similar to alluvials
of Jamaica.
Calcareous Parent Materials (chalk, marl and
Carron Hall and Nonsuch soils of Jamaica, and in Antigua and
calcareous claystone, silt stone and shale)
Barbados. Calcareous derived soils of Belize and Princes Town and
Brasso in Trinidad
Calcareous Parent Materials
Bauxitic soils of Jamaica, Barbados, Belize, Barbuda, Tobago etc.
(Coralline Limestone)
Volcanic Parent materials
Residual
Soils
from
Windward and Leeward Islands
Igneous
and
Interior of Guyana, Northern Range of Trinidad, blue Mountains
Metamorphic acid to basic rocks
Jamaica, upland Pine Ridge of Belize and upland of Tobago
Problem soils
Acid sulphate soils, Peats and Sands of Guyana, Belize and Trinidad
and Petroleum polluted soils of Trinidad and Barbados.
66
Soil management practices in the region are not the most appropriate for the environment hence,
soil degradation has been continuing in member states. The present situation is that there area
large areas of degraded and abandoned land, many of which, due to limitations of soil depth and
nature of underlying rock, would be extremely difficult to rehabilitate. More awareness of land
quality and suitability and adoption of appropriate land use and soil management strategies are
urgently needed to stop the process of land degradation and to rehabilitate already degraded land.
Measures to counteract soil erosion and improved soil fertility maintenance are essential in this
process. There are important areas of problem soils which are not well understood and
underutilized. Greater economic advantage can be obtained by proper use of these soils
considering there limitations and requirements for successful reclamation and use (Ahmad,
2001).
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CHAPTER 6: FORESTS
Among the most diverse and widespread ecosystems of the world, forests provide many
significant resources, such as fuel wood and other timber products and serve as habitats for a
multitude of animal and plant species. Hence they are important for the conservation of
biological diversity. In addition, forests are a tourist attraction, provide recreational opportunities
and represent a major resource for watershed protection and management. Forests also play an
important role in the global carbon cycle by acting as a carbon sink; their management or
destruction could significantly affect the course of global warming in this century.
Resources
In the CARICOM member states, forest covers only 19 per cent of the total land area, with the
proportion of forested territory within individual countries ranging from 3.2 % and less than 10%
in Haiti and Barbados respectively to 59%, 85% to 90.5 % in Belize, Guyana and Suriname
respectively. In some small islands in the region, where commercial agriculture has been on the
decline, there is the possibility that agricultural land may revert to forest (UNEP 2005, FAO,
2005).
The growing tourism industry and increased urbanization may result in reduced forested areas.
CARICOM’s share of world production and trade in forest products is minor, and its members
are heavily dependent on imports to meet their paper, sawn wood and wood-based panel
requirements (CARICOM, 2003).
Recently, deforestation in the region has been fuelled by the need for land for transportation
infrastructure, agriculture, housing and industrial development. In addition, expansion of road
networks and improvement in road surfaces in general increase access to more remote forest
areas and timber resources, leading to further deforestation. Belize, Guyana and Suriname, still
retain much of their original forests mainly due to lower population densities and their policies
for natural resource protection and utilization.
68
Use
While the forests in the majority of smaller island based members states are too limited to meet
all national needs for energy and wood products, some produce a range of wood products.
Guyana’s forests are the major income source. In 1995, Suriname’s total timber export was
estimated at about US$3.2 million, an increase of more than 400 per cent over the previous year.
This timber production came from just over 16 per cent of its forested area (2 414 800 ha)
(Government of Suriname 1997).
Management Issues
Haiti had the highest deforestation rate in the Caribbean (FAO 2004b). Decline in the coverage
as well as the quality of the forests has removed their natural capacity to act as a buffer in case of
extreme meteorological events, such as hurricanes. The lack of vegetation cover to retain excess
water has led, to a great extent, to the increased severity of disasters: for example, in Haiti in
September 2004 where over 1 000 people were killed by floods. While the future of forests in the
region is bleak as existing pressures on this resource are expected to increase, some encouraging
results have emerged from localized forest conservation efforts.
69
CHAPTER 7: BIODIVERSITY
The Caribbean region has high biological diversity per unit of land area (Island Resources
Foundation 1998), as well as a very high level of endemism and a high extinction rate. The high
level of endemism is attributed to the insular conditions that impose an evolutionary pattern in
isolation allowing speciation. In the Caribbean, 54 per cent of vertebrates (excluding fishes) and
59 per cent of plants are thought to be endemic (WCPA Caribbean 2003).
Resources
CARICOM member states have a high level marine, coastal and terrestrial biodiversity. Endemic
species are relatively frequent so for example St. Lucia, St Vincent and Dominica have important
endemic species of parrots. Guyana, Belize and Suriname have large areas of untouched forests.
The endemic species of the Caribbean are concentrated in the larger islands example, Jamaica
has most of the endemic species of CARICOM Islands. All islands of less than 2000 km² in area
have fewer than 3% of endemics. Endemism is particularly important in the Guyana Highlands.
Although the knowledge of Jamaica’s flora is incomplete and information is not ready available,
the current estimates indicate that at least 3,304 species of vascular plants occur in Jamaica, of
which 923 (27.9%) are endemic. The Natural Resource Conservation of Jamaica (NRCA)
indicates that current research results in several new species of plants being discovered each
year. Yet, accordingly the Jamaica’s Conservation Data Centre database (CDC), 221 endemic
species are classified as critically imperilled and especially vulnerable to extinction (BIFANI,
2001).
Jamaica also enjoys a rich diversity of marine species including species of fish, sea anemones,
black corals, stony corals, sea fans, mollusks, turtles and marine mammals including whales,
dolphins and manatees. Three Endemic freshwaters fishes have been recorded though that little
information is available about their ecology.
The biological diversity of St. Lucia includes at least 1,310 known species of flowering plants,
cycads and gymnosperms belonging to 143 families. This includes 105 plants known for
medicinal values and 241 forests tree species. There 118 fern species. The biodiversity of
70
Trinidad and Tobago is the most diverse of the islands in the Caribbean archipelago, due to the
continental origin of the islands. So Trinidad and Tobago has a rich tropical South-American
natural heritage.
Guyana being a continental country reveals some differences in relation to the islands of the
CARICOM. In 1992, the Country Study of Biological diversity identified 6,300 species in
Guyana however the real value today can be greater than 6,500. The Guyana’s biodiversity is
reasonably well preserved. Approximately 10% of higher plants in the Amazon region can be
found in Guyana, the rest would comprise species that are found in the Guiana Shield, Atlantic
zone or are endemic. In the case of fish 352 species have been identified representing nearly 18%
of Amazon fishes and in relation to amphibians and reptiles the 186 identified species correspond
to 7% of the Amazon’s stock. Percentage is higher in the case of mammals for the 123 identified
species represent 41% of Amazonian species.
Management Issues
The biodiversity is being lost due to unsustainable natural resource exploitation, poorly managed
tourism, mining, pollution, habitat destruction and conversion, natural events such as hurricanes,
and the introduction of alien species. In Belize the transformation of agriculture from subsistence
cultivation to industrial-scale monocrop cultivation of oranges and bananas, and the rearing of
cattle, has had a significant impact on biodiversity. Fertile alluvial soils that supported species
rich ecosystems were cleared for agro-industrial farming, destroying valuable biodiversity in the
process (Government of Belize 1998). The effluents generated by the agro-industry, especially of
sugar, citrus and banana, also pose a significant threat to biodiversity. Fertilizers, pesticides and
herbicides are transported in waterways, contaminating aquifers, and affecting the biology of
sensitive riverine and coastal ecosystems.
71
Many species of aquatic animals are exploited for export, local consumption or recreational
purposes. Coastal biodiversity has been under increasing threat from the development of tourism
infrastructure. In Belize 22 threatened coastal and marine species are either unprotected or, if
protected, the legislation lacks enforcement or protective measures are inadequate (Government
of Belize 1998).
Urbanization has also contributed to biodiversity loss in the Caribbean, through habitat
destruction and conversion. Urbanization has been a major force for economic growth,
modernization and improvements in human well-being (ECLAC 2001), but it often causes
depletion of natural resources in surrounding areas.
A significant threat to the region’s biodiversity is the insurgence of invasive alien species.
Invasive alien species are considered to be the greatest threat to biodiversity in geographic and
evolutionarily isolated systems such as the insular Caribbean (Kairo and others 2003b) (Box 7).
An initial report indicates that there are 552 alien species (Table 24) in the insular Caribbean, 75
per cent of which are regarded as naturalized (established in the wild) and/or invasive
(established and spreading or constituting a biological, environmental or socio-economic threat
to the region). The remaining 25 per cent, though alien, were assessed to be neither established
nor spreading (Kairo and others 2003b). The countries with the largest reported numbers of alien
species are the Dominican Republic (186), Puerto Rico (182), The Bahamas (159) and Jamaica
(102) (Kairo and others 2003b). Biodiversity is a multisectoral issue with implications that
extend far beyond the more obvious environmental considerations. In addition to the causes of
biodiversity loss that have been mentioned already, a number of biodiversity strategies and
action plans indicate that forces behind biodiversity loss themselves, or their causes are:
•
Inadequate policies and regulations, and inadequate enforcement of existing laws;
•
Absence of integrated development strategies;
•
Absence of consideration of the non-market value of environmental goods and services;
•
Displacement and loss of traditional, sustainable resource use practices; and
•
Consumerism and inappropriate use of technology.
72
CHAPTER 8: POLLUTION AND WASTE
The generation of waste is intimately linked to the level of economic activity in a country where
wealthier economies tend to produce more waste. As economies in the CARICOM region grow
and prosper, there will be an increase in the amount of waste that is generated and that needs to
be disposed.
The shortage of land areas and resources available for the safe disposal of wastes, population
growth, the growing tourism industry, and the increase in imports of polluting and hazardous
substances combine to make pollution prevention and waste management a critical issue in most
of the Member States of the region. Point source pollution from industrial wastes and sewage,
inappropriately located and poorly managed solid waste disposal sites, and the inadequate
disposal of toxic chemicals are significant contributors to marine pollution and coastal
degradation.
Given that long-term disposal options are limited and will constrain sustainable development, the
Member States need to expand the amount of waste disposed of through alternative ways, such
as reuse and recycling. Although small islands in the region need to recycle as much of their
waste as possible, most of them do not produce enough plastic, glass or paper to run an economic
recycling facility. Some companies import waste from other countries in the region, for example,
Carib Glassworks in Trinidad, which started recycling 51 years ago. It imports broken glass or
cullet from several CARICOM Member States, as well as some from the United States. The
generation of hazardous wastes, including wastes that are toxic, poisonous, explosive, corrosive,
flammable, ecotoxic and infectious, is an important concern worldwide. When such wastes are
dumped indiscriminately, spilled accidentally or managed improperly, they can cause health
problems to humans, plants or animals, or poison water and land. The Basel Convention on the
Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was adopted in
1989, and entered into force on May fifth, 1992. This global environmental treaty strictly
regulates the transboundary movements of hazardous wastes. It provides obligations to its Parties
to ensure that such wastes are managed and disposed of in an environmentally sound manner. In
the CARICOM region, there is growing concern about the transboundary movement of toxic and
73
hazardous waste, including the use of some Member States for the disposal of waste generated
by other countries. Most of the Member States depend on a marine and limited terrestrial
resource base that makes them highly vulnerable to contamination by toxic and hazardous wastes
and chemicals, and radioactive materials.
Although most of the CARICOM Member States are parties to the Basel Convention, data on the
generation, exports and imports of hazardous wastes were not available from the Convention.
The passage of ships carrying toxic and hazardous wastes, chemicals and radioactive materials is
of international concern and of priority concern for the CARICOM region. Although difficult to
obtain full regional coverage, the most important indicators to measure waste issues presented in
the following table include the generation of waste by type and sector, as well as the disposal of
waste by type of method.
Soil erosion and runoff from agricultural land affects water resources directly by delivering
sediment, pollutants attached to sediment, and pollutants in solution to surface water. Indirect
effects on water resources occur through changes in stream channel dynamics and watershed
functions. Soil erosion and runoff from agricultural land are major causes and, in many
watersheds, the most important causes of non-point-source pollution (SWCS, 2003).
It is an accepted hypothesis that non-point source pollution from agriculture is a significant
contributor to marine pollution in the Wider Caribbean Region. The predominant sources of
nutrient contamination in the region include poorly or untreated sewage, agriculture and
industrial activities (UNEP GIWA 2004b).
The UNEP CEP through the LBS Protocol, has been instrumental in developing projects to
improve pesticide management in participating countries so as to;
• reduce pesticide run-off to the Caribbean Sea
• reduce the use of pesticides
• reduce the reliance on pesticides
• improve overall pesticide management.
74
Source: SWCS, 2003.
75
CHAPTER 9: NATURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS
The CARICOM region is prone to both natural and environmental disasters. The region has had
a long history of natural disaster experience associated with hazards, such as hurricanes, floods,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides and droughts. In the period 1910-1930, north Atlantic
hurricanes averaged 3.5 per year, increasing to an average of 6.0 per year during the period
1944-1980. Within recent times, some of the more severe hurricanes have been experienced,
including Hurricanes Frederick, Gilbert and Andrew. Earthquakes and volcanic activity have
also been a historical feature within the region, exampled by the Jamaica earthquakes (1692,
1907), and volcanic eruptions in St. Vincent & the Grenadines (1812, 1902, 1979).
Disasters occur frequently and are extremely detrimental; hence, they are among the main causes
of environmental degradation in the CARICOM region. Likewise, poor environmental
management practice is a significant factor, contributing to disasters, particularly in the case of
removal of vegetation cover and its exacerbation of flood events. Natural hazards affecting the
region are mainly geological and hydro-meteorological. Geological hazards are prevalent along
the margins of the Caribbean plate that renders many territories susceptible to seismic hazards.
These include earthquakes, volcanic activity and possible tsunami threats from the underwater
volcano, Kick-em-Jenny. Located nine kilometres north of the island of Grenada and
approximately 150 metres beneath the sea surface, a tsunami generated by Kick-em-Jenny could
affect many nearby islands, since travel times are estimated at less than ten minutes (CARICOM,
2003).
Of the hydro-meteorological hazards, hurricanes have the potential to be the most devastating,
but floods are the most commonly occurring hazard. Most of the Member States in the region lie
within the hurricane belt and are particularly vulnerable to such disasters. Hurricanes are
expected every year, usually during the months of June to October, and the accompanying floods
and landslides will often cause more damage than the winds and waves brought by the hurricane.
Floods and landslides also occur without storms. Drought has emerged as a hazard, particularly
in association with the El-Nino phenomenon, and has significant impacts on agriculture, the
economic base of many of the region’s countries. As a result of small size, narrow resource bases
76
and limited diversification of economies, very large segments of the population may be affected
by natural disasters (CARICOM, 2003).
Natural Disasters and Global Climate Change
Despite the long-standing awareness of the critical role of a healthy natural environment in the
economic development of the countries of the Region (CARICOM 1989) and the policy,
planning, and management, measures that have been implemented since UNCED 1982, the
Caribbean continues to experience increasing environmental degradation (UNEP, 1985).
It has been recognized that this trend has direct implications for the economic, social and cultural
viability of Caribbean societies (CARICOM 1989, Binger et 2004). Of increasing concern are
the indirect implications that environmental degradation has for increasing the vulnerability of
human settlements and economic resources to the pernicious effects of natural disasters. The
widening degree of degradation of natural resources prevailing in the Caribbean and Latin
America is magnifying the current and future effects of natural phenomena on the economic
sectors of the Region (ECLAC, 2003) (Trotz et a. 2001)
Global Climate Change
Climate change refers to alterations in the composition of the atmosphere as a result of human
activity3. It accepts the fact that there will always be changes in climate that result from natural
causes and focuses on the fact that human activity creates changes that are additional to these
natural factors. Human activities alter the climate through the release of so-called “greenhouse
gases” (GHG) into the atmosphere in sufficient volumes to alter its chemical composition.
Under normal circumstances the earth’s atmosphere functions as an insulating blanket, trapping a
portion of the heat from the solar radiation that enters our atmosphere and strikes the earth. This
natural greenhouse gas effect keeps the average global mean temperature near the earth’s surface
at 14 ºC. Without the insulating function of greenhouse gases the average global mean
temperature near the earth’s surface would be –19 ºC. Conversely, increased greenhouse gas
concentrations will increase global mean temperatures.
3
Article 1, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
77
Figuratively speaking, anthropogenic activities since the industrial revolution in the mid 1800s
have “thickened” the insulating blanket by introducing more of the gasses that contribute to the
atmospheres insulating effect. The imposition of more green house gas molecules between the
earth and space increase the opportunity for reflected infra-red radiation to be trapped in the
earths atmosphere .
The main greenhouse gases produced in large quantities by human activities are carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide and methane.
•
Carbon Dioxide is produced by the burning of fossil fuel in the form of gasoline, diesel
and natural gas in industrial, electricity generation and transportation activities and by
deforestation.
•
Methane is produced by agricultural activities such as livestock and crop waste
decomposition.
•
Nitrous Oxide is produced by intensive agricultural activity especially those that employ
intensive use of synthetic fertilizers.
Vulnerability of the Caribbean to Climate Change
The Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Third Assessment Report (TAR) of
Working Group II (WGII) concluded that “many human systems are sensitive to climate change
and some are vulnerable” and cites a number of projected adverse impacts based on models and
other studies. These include:
•
A general reduction in potential crop yields in most tropical and sub-tropical regions for
most projected increases in temperature.
•
Decreased water availability for populations in many water-scarce regions, particularly in
sub-tropics.
•
An increase in the number of people exposed to vector-borne diseases and water borne
diseases, and an increase in heat stress mortality.
78
•
A widespread increase in the risk of flooding for many human settlements from both
increased heavy precipitation events and sea level rise.
•
Increased energy demand for space cooling due to higher summer temperatures.
More specifically, in the Caribbean region physical alterations at the individual country level are
expected to include:
•
Higher average daily temperature (increasing by about one degree Fahrenheit (1ºF) each
decade)
•
Modification in the characteristics of rainfall, including longer period of drought, more
intense rainfall (larger amounts in shorter periods of time) and, reduction in the length of the
rainfall seasons.
•
More intense, frequent and unpredictable hurricanes and tropical storms.
•
Increases in sea level of about 5 mm per year.
Climate change induced changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, intensity of extreme
climatic events, and sea-level rise will affect the agricultural industry directly (Table 1). These
impacts will have social repercussions as they will affect levels of rural poverty, trends in intraand inter- national migration, the use of marginal lands, national food security, and foreign
exchange earnings. Despite the threat that global climate change poses to food security and
sustainable economic development in the Region, the issue of climate change and the areas of
vulnerability and risk assessment remain at the theoretical level in research institutions, or at the
practical and pragmatic levels of loans from financial institutions (A. Binger, 2004)
The growing consensus is that the worst impacts of climate change on agriculture will be
experienced in tropical region, resulting in a spatial shift of crops and agriculture away from the
tropics towards temperate and polar regions (IPCC 2001)and a suggested reduction in
production of between 4- 24%.
79
The Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Food Security.
Vulnerability may be defined as the degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope
with the adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and climate extremes.
The vulnerability concept incorporates the notions of physical exposure and the ability to cope.
Vulnerability may also be described as “the characteristics of a person or group in terms of their
capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard”.
The degree of vulnerability of the agricultural sector to climate change will be determined by a
range of environmental, natural resource management and agricultural management factors at the
local level.
The primary changes that will occur as a result of climate change include; long-term water
shortages, worsening soil conditions, drought and desertification, disease and pest outbreaks on
crops and livestock, and salt water intrusion into coastal aquifers and soils.
A strategy that was developed under the CPACC (1997-2001) project was the identification of
climate change adaptation options that also addressed current needs (REF). The identification of
“win-win” adaptation options addressed the dilemma faced by many developing countries with
scarce financial resources; how to justify the investment in preparation for events in the far
future (greater than five years) in the face of current, pressing social and development needs.
Improving adaptation to climate variability, including extreme events, achieves both objectives.
The impact of climate change on agriculture is linked through its effects on water resources. In
addition, changes in patterns of rainfall will increase crop vulnerability to certain diseases. In the
case of banana, that is water intensive (demanding 1,300 -1,800 mm of water per year), adequate
water supply is required to produce larger fruit size, and the lack of water is associated with the
onset of Black Sigatoka disease. (Government of Jamaica, 2000).
Changes in the height of the water table and soil salinization as a consequence of sea-level rise
would be stressful for many important crops. A vast majority of the region’s population depends
80
on subsistence agriculture for at least a part of their livelihood. Many of the short-term crops
(e.g., pigeon peas, vegetables, etc.) are seasonal, and any significant shifts in climatic conditions
such as increased temperatures, more frequent or more intense droughts, and any changes in
mean rainfall, could have adverse effects on production and food supply. Changes in climate
could create more frequent drought situations and increase the incidence of losses by pests and
diseases.
81
Table 15: induced Changes in Environmental Parameters and their Associated Impacts (Based on
WB, 2003).
TEMPERATURE
CARBON
WATER
CLIMATE
& PRECIPTATION
DIOXIDE
AVAILABILITY
VARABIITY
CHANGES
INCREASES
(runoff)
EXTREM
SEA-LEVEL
&
RISE
CLIMATIC
EVENTS
• Alter distribution of
agro-ecological
• Increased water
use efficiency
• Length of growing
season
zones
• Increased
• Increased
agricultural
saltwater
losses
intrusion
into
coastal
aquifers
• Changes
in
moistures
soil
• Higher rates of
• Increased
and
photosynthesis
erosion
soil
• High rates of
soil erosion
• Increased
saltwater
content
intrusion
into
coastal soils
• Changes
in
the
timing and length
• Increased leaching
of agri-chemicals
of growing seasons
• Higher rates of
leaching
of
agri-chemicals
• Increased
incidents
of
flooding
and
inundation
in
coastal areas
• Changes
in
irrigation
availability
• Increased
surface
water
and
demand
contamination
leached
• Increased
contamination
migration
by
of surface water
coastal
agri-
by leached agri-
ecosystems
chemicals and run-
chemicals
off
run-off
of
waste
• Landward
livestock
of
and
of
livestock waste.
• Intensity of aquifer
exploitation
for
irrigation
• Increase
in
potential
evapotranspiration
82
Table 16: Adaptation Options for the Agriculture Industry (Based on WB, 2003)
ADAPTION LEVELS
ADAPTATION OPTIONS
MICRO-LEVEL
• Farm production adjustments:
o Diversification of production
o Intensification of production
o Changing land use practices
ƒ Cropping sequences
o Changes in land allocation for different uses
o Changing irrigation
o Altering timing of operations
MARKET RESPONCES
• Development of crop and flood insurance
• Innovative investment opportunities in crop shares and futures
• Credit schemes
• Income diversification schemes
INSITUTIONAL CHANGES
• Mainstream GCC adaptation into planning and policy processes,
• Mainstream GCC adaptation into extension services & knowledge
networks
• Pricing policies adjustments:
o Removal of subsidies
o Development of income stabilization options
o Agricultural support
o Agricultural insurance schemes
o Improvement in agricultural markets
o The promotion of intra- and inter- regional trade.
TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS
• The development and promotion of new crop varieties and hybrids
• Advances in water management techniques
• Improved nutrient management techniques
• Improved land management
83
Addressing the Climate Change and Uncertainty – Adaptation Options.
Adaptation can be defined as adjustments in ecological, social or economic systems in response
to actual or expected climatic stimuli, their effects or impacts (IPCC 2001). Adaptation can be
spontaneous or planned and can involve enhancing the viability of social and economic activities
to reduce their vulnerability to climate.
Adaptation to climate change will benefit from adaptations that have been made in the past to
localized climatic conditions and climate variability in the region. Adaptive capacity exists in
our societies. Experience had been developed in “dry-land farming” in arid areas of some
Caribbean countries, such as St. Elizabeth, Jamaica. In Guyana traditional knowledge still exists
of the verities of cassava and maze to be planted in anticipation of particular seasonal condition.
Adaptation options will present themselves at a number of levels in the agricultural sector,
ranging from production adjustments at the micro-level; income diversification and insurance
schemes at the market-level; pricing policy adjustments, and income stabilization options at the
institutional-level; and the development and promotion of new crop varieties and hybrids at the
technological level (Table: 2 ).
However, adaptation measures within agricultural sectoral must take place within a broader adaptation
framework. The Policymaker’s Summary of the TAR states, “Policies that lessen pressures on resources,
improve management of environmental risks, and increase the welfare of the poorest members of society
can simultaneously advance sustainable development andequity, enhance adaptive capacity, and reduce
vulnerability to climate and other stresses”. The broader adaptive context is one of sustainable economic
development.
The critically needed, long-term efforts to enhance local level adaptive capacity are consistent with the
measures needed to enhance and revitalize the agriculture industry in the Region.
The measures required to increase resilience and reduce vulnerability in the agricultural sector
are consistent with the objectives and the direction of the industry (REF appropriate ICCA
84
CARICOM Policy). Environmental protection, poverty alleviation and sustainable development
are interdependent and are mutually consistent .
Information for Adaptation.
To plan for adaptation the agricultural industry will require reliable, industry specific
information. The existing global scenarios provide information on average global trends, and
broad region wide scenarios for the Caribbean. This information is not specific or detailed
enough for planning and policy making purposes. To this end the GEF funded CARICOM
Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change (MACC) Project is working with teams on the
three campuses of the University of the West Indies to develop regional and sub-regional climate
change models that will serve to develop scenarios of plausible climatic futures. These regional
and sub-regional climate models will provide information at the resolution necessary to conduct
vulnerability studies of the major economic sectors, agriculture, tourism, water. This is necessary
because adaptation options, like climate change impacts, will be local in scale, and site- and
sector specific.
This process of model development must be informed by the information needs of the
agricultural industry, to ensure that the data outputs of the modeling process provide the
appropriate data for input into, agricultural-economic simulation, agro-ecological zone analysis,
and Ricardian models.
85
CHAPTER 10: TRADE, THE ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE
On January 1st 1995 the World Trade Organization fully replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT) Secretariat as the organization responsible for administering the international trade regime.
The purpose of the WTO is to; oversee the implementation of WTO agreements, provide a forum for
negotiations, and provide a disputes statement mechanism. These functions are intended to facilitate the
WTO’s objectives of; increased standards of living, full employment, increasing incomes and demand,
and expanded production of trade in goods and services. These objectives are to be achieved through the
reduction of existing barriers to trade and by preventing the creation of new barriers. The global resource
consumption patterns required to support the achievement of these objectives should allow for optimal
use of resources, consistent with the objectives of sustainable development, and while seeking to protect
and preserve the environment. (UNEP, 2000).
Although the WTO invokes the principles of sustainable development and conservation these principles
do not hold the same status as the core principles of: “the national treatment” and “most favored
nation” which together form the central tenet of trade law “non-discrimination”.
The WTO comprises seven main bodies and a number of Committees (Table x and Diagramme x See
UNEP 2000 for diagramme of WTO Structure).
The Council on Trade in Goods provides the mechanism to oversee the details of the general and
specific agreements on goods, such as those non agriculture.
Two committees, The Committee on Trade and Development, and the Committee an Trade and the
Environment, have specific mandates to focus o the relationships, which are specifically related to how
the WTO deals with sustainable development issues
86
Trade affects the agricultural sector directly (e.g.) and indirectly through its intersecting with the Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs).
Of the over 200 MEAs currently in existence over 20 incorporate trade measures that seek to achieve their
respective goals through the use of restraint on trade in particular substances and products (UNEP,2000).
Table 17:Multi-lateral Environmental Agreements with Trade Provisions
MEA
Mechanism Used
The Convention on International Bans,
Substance(s)/Product(s) Affected.
export/import Endangered species and potentially
Trade in Endangered Species of permits, registration and endangered species as outline in
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) markings. At the country Appendix 1 and 2
(1975)
level:
quotas,
and
sanctions on Parties for
non-compliance
Montreal Protocol on Substances Banned
export
and CFCs, halons carbon tetrachloride,
that Deplete the Ozone Layer - imports. Licensing
methyl chloroform
1987
The Basel Convention
control
and
on the Party non/party trade Ban. Hazardous wastes
Trans-boundary Prior informed consent.
Movement of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal (1992)
The Cartagena Bio-safety Protocol Restricted imports
to
the
1993
Convention
Biodiversity (2000)
on Advanced
informed
agreements
Convention on the Control of Labeling,
Persistent Organic Pollutants
GMOs, LMOs
Notification
informed
reporting, Persistent Organic Pollutants
and
prior
consent,
selective intra party trade
ban,
export/import
licnses,
party/no-party
trade bans
87
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