Rhetoric Matters:
Language and Argument in Context
Edited by Jason Carabelli and Brogan Sullivan
Copyright
Copyright © 2013 by University of South Florida.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as may be
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University of South Florida
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Contents
Copyright
2
Acknowledgements
6
Introduction: Academic Writing
7
Section 1: Understanding Arguments
9
Section 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Writing in the University Setting
10
11
Forms of Academic Writing
12
Writing is an Ongoing Conversation
19
Writers Emphasize Complexity
Writing is a Process
Chapter 2: Critical Thinking and Arguments
15
23
28
Introduction to Logical Fallacies
29
What is an Argument?
35
The Audiences of Various Media
Identifying an Argument
Understanding Claims
Understanding Visual Arguments
32
38
43
50
Chapter 3: Rhetoric
54
What is Rhetoric?
55
Logos: Appeals to Logic
63
Why We Study Rhetoric
Ethos: Appeals to Authority and Credibility
Pathos: Appeals to Emotion
Kairos: Appeals to Timeliness
Quick Reference Guide: Rhetorical Appeals
58
66
70
73
77
Quick Reference Guide: Logical Fallacies
78
Section 2: Crafting Arguments
79
Section 2: Introduction
Chapter 4: Conducting Research
80
81
Research as Conversation
82
Finding and Evaluating Sources
90
Research as Discovery
Defining Evidence
Summarizing and Paraphrasing
Chapter 5: Drafting an Argument
86
93
97
100
Formulating a Thesis
101
Making and Supporting Claims
108
Thesis Models
Considering the Opposing Side
Chapter 6: Constructing the Essay
106
114
118
Considering Audience, Purpose, and Genre
119
Tracing a Logical Progression
131
Classical Argument Structure
Constructing Paragraphs
Constructing Paragraphs: The Nuts and Bolts
How to Write an Engaging Introduction
How to Write a Compelling Conclusion
Citing Your Sources
Document Design
Section 3: Revisiting Arguments
Section 3: Introduction
Chapter 7: Peer Review: Using Feedback for Revision
Why is Peer Review Effective?
Stop Searching for Errors: How to Read Holistically
124
133
136
140
143
146
151
156
157
158
159
163
Writing Helpful Peer Reviews
165
Making the Most of Instructor Feedback
172
Making the Most of Peer Feedback
Chapter 8: Revision Techniques
Revising is Not Editing
First, Second, and Third Drafts
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
169
175
176
179
Acknowledgements
-
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
Introduction: Academic Writing
One of the most common sentiments we hear our students express in discussions about writing is this:
“I’m a horrible writer.” The anxiety that lurks underneath such statements is palpable—and completely understandable. Writing is hard. Just ask anyone who makes her living as a writer. And yet, as teachers and as
human beings, our first inclination is to encourage our students that they are not horrible writers, to insist
that writing is easier than they think.
So what are we to do with this set of conflicting ideas? Is writing easy or hard? Are our students horrible
writers? Or have they been operating under a false assumption since elementary school? The truth is probably a mixture of both. Writing is hard because you can never become a perfect writer; there’s always something more to learn about it, always a better way to say something. But writing is also easy, because you’re
been doing it ever since you can remember, ever since you learned to string words together in meaningful
sentences that describe what you did today and how you feel about it.
“Okay, sure,” you say. “I know how to talk to my friends and loved ones. But that’s not writing.”
Sure it is.
It’s also not. It’s true that there’s a difference between having a conversation about last night’s football
game or the movie you saw last week and writing an essay about the effects of the Vietnam War on socioeconomic class in the American Midwest or the use of irony in the novels of Ernest Hemingway. But it’s
not a huge difference. Either way, you’re using language to communicate ideas. On the most fundamental
level, that’s all writing is: meaningful communication. The only real difference is the form that communication takes; everything else is just details. The details are what this book is about.
In the next eight chapters, you’ll discover how to transform your already considerable talent for communication into a lifelong capacity to reach out to larger audiences, to thoughtfully confront and respond
to the seemingly endless stream of information that competes for your attention, and to contribute in a
meaningful way to the ongoing exchange of human discourse. In short, you will learn how to speak up.
Writing in the 21st century means taking an active role in the creation and distribution of knowledge. It
means paying more attention to what’s being said on radio, TV, and the Internet. It means making sense
out of what all too often seems like nonsense, and carving out a space in which your own voice and your
own ideas become important.
In this textbook, we focus on academic writing, which is simply the most common form of writing you
will encounter in a university setting. It is by no means the only form, nor the most popular. It is, however,
the one that you will use most often in your college career, and the strategies and skills you learn here will
apply to the writing you do for the rest of your life, whether you go on to work in business, science, engineering, medicine, the arts, or politics. You will also find these skills useful in your personal life, for creating
and maintaining a blog, for instance, or communicating with family and friends via email or other social
networking venues. In each of these human endeavors, the ability to express your ideas with respect, clarity,
and style translates into more effective exchanges overall.
This textbook also focuses on exploring the art of rhetoric, or argument—that is, the use of writing to
persuade an audience. Broadly speaking, argument constitutes only one of the three purposes of verbal
communication. The other two purposes of writing are to describe (the type of writing you might see in a
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
travel magazine or a movie review) and to entertain (stories, novels, plays, etc.). In practice, these three purposes tend to work together; in order to persuade an audience, you will most likely need to describe certain
things, and no one wants to read an essay that does not also entertain. However, with academic writing, the
ability to argue effectively is fundamental.
In fact, the ability to argue—effectively, thoughtfully, and cordially—also enhances your capacity to navigate everyday life, to become an active participant in our increasingly complex global society. It is common
for individuals to feel powerless and voiceless, to feel as though their lives do not affect the outside world.
With a solid understanding of rhetoric and its uses, you can counteract that tendency, and gain agency—
the capacity to change things for the better despite the forces that promote stasis and stagnation. Using
the skills you will learn in this book, you will be able to interpret the often conflicting, always complicated
messages that the world sends at you, to organize your thoughts and feelings about those messages, and to
articulate insightful, vigorous, and persuasive responses, all of which are the hallmarks of responsible and
active citizens.
In summary, this textbook is about more than simply learning how to write better. It’s about learning
how to recognize and develop talents you already possess. It’s about giving you the tools you need to fulfill
your destiny as an active participant in the human story. Fundamentally, it’s about you, your opinions, your
ideas, your voice. The world is waiting for you to speak up. What will you say, and how will you say it?
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Section 1: Understanding Arguments
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Section 1: Introduction
We have organized this textbook to reflect the general order in which academic writers approach the creation of a single piece of writing. Our guiding philosophy considers writing as a recursive process, a system
of steps that aims for forward motion but assumes that some steps will need to be repeated. A writer may
begin with a topic in mind, move on to research the topic, start to formulate an idea about the topic, do
some more research, refine her idea, generate a claim about the idea, and write a draft of her essay. Reviewing that draft, she may notice some inconsistent or conflicting ideas, conduct a third round of research to
smooth over the conflict, and write a second draft.
Notice, however, that the process always begins with a topic. The word topic comes from the Greek noun
topos (“place”), a word that connotes a platform upon which a writer stands in order to “see” the surrounding territory of her subject. In other words, academic writing always begins with an attempt to survey the
subject itself, to figure out what it already looks like, to determine what ground has already been covered
by other writers. This surveying usually takes the form of research, which we’ll cover in detail in Section 2:
Crafting Arguments.
But in order to conduct a thorough and effective survey, you first have to know how to think about the
ideas you’ll encounter along the way. In other words, you need to understand the context of verbal discourse, the concepts that surround and define the nature of academic communication. The information in
Section 1 aims to help you understand the basic terms and processes of academic writing, argument, and
rhetoric.
In Chapter 1: Writing in the University Setting, you will find out about the nature of writing in the
university and how it differs from the kinds of writing you’ve been asked to do so far. In Chapter 2: Critical Thinking and Arguments, you will learn how to confront and interpret the work of other writers—your
peers in the world of academic writing. Chapter 2 also covers the basic terms and procedures of argumentation and making claims. Chapter 3: Rhetoric moves on to the larger concept of rhetoric, the art and science of persuasive communication.
Once you understand the basic contexts of academic writing, you will gain access to the tools you need
to perform the writing process over and over, throughout your university career and beyond. By cultivating
your knowledge of these concepts and procedures, you begin to think like a writer, to understand that no
subject, no topic of human interest, is off limits. With these tools, you can write meaningfully about anything that interests you, no matter how complex or obscure it seems.
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
Chapter 1: Writing in the University Setting
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
Forms of Academic Writing
By Vernetta K. Williams
From Appetizer to Entrée: Expand Your Writing Appetite
During their first year of college, many students discover that writing expectations at the university level
differ vastly from those at the high school level. Writing a research paper and responding to literary works
in written form, via questions, short answer or essays, typically define the high school writing experience.
Having practiced these two forms of writing in high school English classes causes many students to develop a cookie cutter approach to writing that does not suit the college classroom. Consequently, many
new students approach writing assignments in the same fashion, which does not reliably produce work that
meets the requirements of academic writing.
If students view the five paragraph essay model and research paper given in high school as appetizers
rather than the main entrees on the menu of higher education writing, they open themselves to crafting an
exciting array of written works during their college tenure. While students have ample time to sample numerous items on the college writing assignment menu, producing solid academic writing also results from
understanding three writing forms that permeate academic assignments.
Before delving into these three forms of writing, a review of fundamental communication concepts will
supply the proper context for understanding the range and depth of academic writing. Writing should be
recognized as one form of communication that occurs naturally and frequently in a literate society. For
instance, most people engage in assorted modes of communication each day, from texting a friend to reading a sign to talking on the phone. Most people unconsciously adjust aspects of their speech, like inflection
and tone, to fit a particular communication situation. While written and oral communication demand a
different set of skills, adopting a fluid approach when engaged in both forms the written work or speech
appropriately reflects its communication context. In fact, effective writing and speaking share a common
foundation: a consideration of purpose and audience.
Most composition and public speaking textbooks explain that every form of communication has one of
three objectives: to inform, to persuade or to entertain. While informative or entertaining elements may
surface in a persuasive piece, the primary objective of persuasion is distinct from the primary objective of
informing or entertaining. Once writers and speakers identify a central reason for communicating, they can
determine which strategies allow them to accomplish their objective.
Secondly, writers and speakers must pinpoint the audience who will benefit from their communication.
For example, the type of writing information provided to a group of first year graduate students with four
years of college writing experience differs from the information given to a group of undergraduate students
who lack even one year of college level writing experience.
Understanding the fluid nature of writing allows for an examination of three writing modes (writing
as invention, writing as discovery and writing as knowledge-making) that actively exist when composing academic assignments. A section of this textbook (“Section 2: Crafting Arguments”) provides specific
strategies for conducting these three types of academic writing (i.e., how to write to invent, how to write to
discover and how to write to make knowledge); however, the following section highlights each form.
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Writing to Create, Uncover and Produce
When you write to invent, you write with the goal of creating or producing. You write to document
original angles, perspectives, thoughts or information you have about a topic; writing to invent can take
place in an informal or formal manner. Imagine writing a research paper on the controversial issue of abortion. Your paper would not be effective by simply restating arguments about women’s rights or the point at
which a human being forms in the womb; instead, your goal would be to note new considerations, questions or answers to the topic. For example, a recent legal battle could spark an innovative idea or approach
that becomes the central or marginal content for your paper.
In many instances, writing to discover and writing to invent converge with one another. Typically, when
you write to invent, you have composed unique ideas, notions and information prior to conducting research. Several years ago, the decades-long debate on abortion revived because of a woman’s right to request a “late-term” abortion. Medically, late-term abortions were not a novelty because doctors performed
them to preserve the health and life of at-risk pregnant woman. However, the procedure became a viable
option for women wanting to terminate a pregnancy, which resurrected the topic. While some responded
quickly with interesting perspectives, others withheld their written reactions until gathering additional
information.
By definition, when you write to discover, you open yourself to ideas and insights about a topic that have
yet to be considered by writers or scholars, and even yourself at times. Therefore, writing to discover often results from exploring, unearthing and exposing all aspects of a topic, especially opposing viewpoints.
When you write to discover, the result may be invention, more discovery or the production of new knowledge.
When you write to generate knowledge, you write from a confident position to relay information that
you have acquired. Returning to the late-term abortion paper, once you have conducted adequate research,
stated your original ideas and included other perspectives in a manner that supports what you have discovered and invented about “late term” abortions, you have written to produce knowledge about abortion,
whether in the form of a solution, call to action, theory or stance.
A Writing Challenge
Now, you have the opportunity to read how writing to invent, writing to discover and writing to make
knowledge work together to complete an academic writing assignment. The paragraphs below detail a writing assignment that requires students to address aspects of one of the most controversial films in history,
The Passion of the Christ. Writing about a subject for which you possesses strong beliefs, such as religion, can
be challenging; however, college requires you to exercise critical thinking skills, which involves a willingness
to challenge, prove or dismiss information based upon your personal values. Within the academic world,
opinions, beliefs and values only become valid written arguments once they are supported sufficiently.
The film The Passion of the Christ chronicles the last 12 hours of the life of Jesus Christ; though a commercial success, people of varying religious beliefs as well as scholars and film reviewers criticized it heavily.
Therefore, strong written reactions from both supporters and opponents of the film exist.
Some students recall being banned from watching the film, encouraged to watch it or too young to view
it upon its 2004 release; they share what they have heard and know about the film with classmates who
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
have never watched or heard of the film. Initial reactions to the assignment range from apathy to excitement to intrigue to disbelief regarding what could possibly be controversial about a film about Jesus Christ.
Regardless of their knowledge level of the film, students recognize the contrasting thoughts, perspectives and beliefs about the film. Noting their thoughts, they begin to initiate the writing as invention and
writing as discovery processes. Then, students move from an awareness of the general praises and criticisms
of the film to an intimate knowledge of the staunch opposition as well as mass support of the film. With
nearly 10 years of dialogue, articles, interviews, blogs and reactions to investigate, students quickly realize
they know very little about the rich and dynamic conversation about the controversial film, thus continuing
the process of writing to discover and writing to invent.
The details of the conversation emerge as students scour newspaper articles and movie critiques, from
both the pre- and post-film release period. Students dissect perspectives, opinions and commentary from
Jewish, Catholic, Protestant, American, Muslim and International communities as well as blogs, organizational websites, editorials and journal articles by religious leaders, historians, devout Jews, faithful Christians, experienced movie critics, church leaders, teenagers, bible scholars and the general movie-going
public. The students locate interviews and a website devoted to the film where the director, Mel Gibson,
repeatedly defends and explains his artistic and cinematic choices.
With a fuller understanding of the controversies surrounding The Passion of the Christ, students unearth
other issues, like agreements between Christian and Jewish leaders over the representation of the Sanhedrin, the Jewish council, and the role they played in the crucifixion of Jesus. Other tangential subjects
located include real-life violence depictions that contemporary movie-goers expect, the role of technology
in visual presentations and the “passion play” genre of theatre and film.
Once they complete their research, students focus on aspects of the controversies that appeal to them,
confuse them, engage them, cause them to reflect, etc. Armed with knowledge, support and personal engagement, students watch the film to assess their sources, form their own conclusions and contribute to the
body of written knowledge about controversies surrounding The Passion of the Christ. As you can see from
this detailed description, the three forms of writing repeatedly occur while completing this academic paper.
The journey of writing at the college level encompasses a range of activities, from thinking to fact gathering to researching. However, embracing your responsibility to utilize writing in order to invent, to discover
and to make knowledge will equip you to explore all that the college writing menu has to offer.
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Writers Emphasize Complexity
By Ella Bieze
One of the things we see most often in academic writing is that authors have to deal with complex topics
or issues. An issue or topic might be considered complex if there are multiple points of view on the subject.
It’s important to understand that when we say multiple points of view, we mean more than just two; that’s
one thing that makes a complex issue or topic complex. Typically, there are going to be multiple groups,
organizations, or individuals who have a stake in any given issue or topic, and each of their perspectives
on the subject is going to be slightly different. Each of these separate groups, organizations, or individuals,
with their separate perspectives on the subject at hand, can be called a “stakeholder.” A complex issue or
topic might have three, four, ten, or a hundred different stakeholders involved. As an author, it’s important
for you to be able to articulate multiple points of view on any given issue or topic and to do so in a way
that emphasizes the complexity of an issue in a respectful, appropriate way.
Let’s discuss these ideas of stakeholders, multiple points of view, and the differences between simplifying
a topic and emphasizing its complexity by using an example from recent current events in this country. As
you read through the rest of this article, pay attention to the tone and word choice in my writing and in the
excerpts I’ve selected from other sources. Using appropriate tone and word choice is one way that you can
demonstrate that you understand the complexities of the subject matter you’ve chosen to write about.
On January 31, 2012, the world’s largest breast cancer organization, Susan B. Koman for the Cure, announced that it would no longer be funding breast cancer screenings and health education programs run by
Planned Parenthood affiliates. Without knowing too much about these two organizations or the multiple
stakeholders involved with this issue, it could be relatively easy to oversimplify this topic by relying on assumptions and binary thinking. “Binary thinking” is when we assume that there are only two perspectives
on an issue or topic; often these are categorized as a “right” perspective and a “wrong” one. Approaching a
debate like this one by relying on binary thinking is typically an oversimplification of what is in reality a
vastly more complex issue or topic.
In this example, relying on oversimplified, binary thinking to understand this debate might go something
like this:
“I don’t know that much about either organization, but I do know that the Komen Foundation is a breast cancer organization that organizes “Race for the Cure” – that’s a good thing, because it raises money for breast cancer
research. I also know that Planned Parenthood is often associated with abortions. I’m not sure how I feel about that
but I know a lot of people are against abortions – they think abortions are bad things. The Komen Foundation must
have cut funding to Planned Parenthood because they perform abortions. Therefore, The Komen Foundation is right
and Planned Parenthood is wrong.”
The first problem with the above conceptualization of this current event is, of course, the lack of evidence.
Look at the first sentence. The speaker says, “I don’t know that much about either organization, but…” This
is a common first mistake in oversimplifying complex issues or topics. Research is an important way to
gather more information, and will allow you to approach a debate like this one thoughtfully. You can read
more about techniques for doing research in Chapter 4: Conducting Research.
As you may suspect by now, this issue is much more complex than the binary thinking above illustrates.
According to the New York Times, “A spokeswoman for the Komen foundation, Leslie Aun, told The Associated Press that the main factor in the decision was a new rule adopted by Komen that prohibits grants
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
to organizations being investigated by local, state or federal authorities. Ms. Aun told the A.P. that Planned
Parenthood was therefore disqualified from financing because of an inquiry being conducted by Representative Cliff Stearns, Republican of Florida, who is looking at how Planned Parenthood spends and reports
its money.”
Our hypothetical speaker above assumed that the Komen foundation was no longer contributing financially to Planned Parenthood because the organization is labeled as one that provides services including
abortions. But the statement made by the Komen representative, Leslie Aun, indicates that there are more
complex issues at stake here.
Let’s consider for a moment the stakeholders we know about so far in this debate. While it initially
seemed as though there were only two stakeholders (the Komen foundation and Planned Parenthood), we
can move past that binary thinking and realize that this topic is much more complex than that. The stakeholders we know about so far include: the Komen foundation; Planned Parenthood; Planned Parenthood
affiliates; employees of the Komen foundation like Leslie Aun, a spokeswoman for the organization; Representative Cliff Stearns; and perhaps even the people that Representative Cliff Stearns represents.
Let’s also consider the stakeholders who may seem less obvious. The ones we’ve listed above are mentioned or implied by the paragraph cited from the New York Times, but if we think critically about the
Komen foundation and Planned Parenthood it becomes clear that there are other people who are impacted
by each of these organizations and thus also count as stakeholders in this debate. These stakeholders might
include: men and women who have or are survivors of breast cancer; the families of people with breast
cancer; people who have made donations to the Komen foundation; people who have made donations to
Planned Parenthood; and the nearly five million people who use Planned Parenthood to access affordable
health care or educational resources about sexual and reproductive health, including “585,000 Pap tests and
nearly 640,000 breast exams each year, critical services in detecting cancer” (www.plannedparenthood.org).
Each of these people care about this debate for their own particular reasons. They are all stakeholders in
this debate, and when the Komen foundation defunds Planned Parenthood, it impacts each stakeholder in
a slightly different way.
But wait—it gets even more complex. According to the New York Times, “Anti-abortion advocates and
Web sites have criticized the Komen foundation’s financing of Planned Parenthood for years. And in December, LifeWay Christian Resources, which is owned by the Southern Baptist Convention, said it was
recalling a pink Bible it was selling at Walmart and other stores because a dollar per copy was going to the
Komen foundation and the foundation supported Planned Parenthood.”
Now, in addition to all the stakeholders we listed above, we need to include: anti-abortion advocates and
websites; LifeWay Christian Resources; the Southern Baptist Conventions; and Walmart.
So maybe our initial assumption that this action had something to do with abortion wasn’t too far off.
But look at the difference between the number of stakeholders we started with and the number of stakeholders we’ve ended with. This is clearly a complex issue; binary thinking oversimplifies it, and leaves us
without a comprehensive understanding of who and what is truly at stake here.
And remember at the beginning of the article how I asked you to pay attention to tone and word choice?
The defunding of Planned Parenthood by the Komen foundation has connections to one of the most debated topics in our country today: abortion. Often we see a lot of inflammatory language and emotional
rhetoric surrounding this topic. But if you look at the tone and word choice I’ve used in this article, and
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which the New York Times used in its article, you’ll see a fairly balanced presentation of the multiple perspectives on a complex topic. Keep these things in mind as you write about whatever issue or topic you’re
interested in, and you’ll be able to avoid binary thinking, you’ll be able to devote your attention to multiple
points of view, and as an author, you’ll demonstrate an awareness of how truly complex many of today’s issues are.
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Works Cited
Belluck, Pam. “Cancer Group Halts Financing to Planned Parenthood.” The New York Times. N.p., 31 Jan.
2012. Web. 21 June 2013.
Planned Parenthood: http://www.plannedparenthood.org
The Susan G. Komen Foundation: http://ww5.komen.org
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Writing is an Ongoing Conversation
By Brittany Cagle
“Writing well means engaging the voices of others and letting them in turn engage us.” – Gerald
Graff and Cathy Birkenstein
So this might sound a little strange, but everything you’re about to learn (or have already learned) in
college has been or will be debated about by somebody, somewhere in this world. Think about that. Every
single thing—even the information you learned as a known fact could be only one person’s understanding
of that material. That means any main idea out there has already been interpreted in a number of different ways. There’s already a conversation in place all around us (just hopefully not inside our heads because
that’s a little creepy).
Well, who exactly is on the other end of that conversation? Other writers. Writers who already have
their own judgments, beliefs, values, and experiences. Writers who may very well be stubborn and ready
to argue, or writers who will inspire you to contribute a new idea of your own to what has already been
said. Kenneth Burke, a philosopher and rhetorician, introduced a metaphor for the ‘unending conversation’ encounter. He famously described a parlor in which a person has arrived late and finds that there is
already a heated discussion taking place about a topic. His metaphor emphasizes that the discussion never
does truly end. As the conversation proceeds in the academic world, you, as a writer, will be responsible for
conducting research and responding to previous claims about your topic made from others. It is important
to identify these conversations—whether that is through referencing academic journals, conferences, books,
or dissertations—because the people writing for these topics have (or should have) a strong knowledge and
understanding of the topic.
Your instructors have now assigned you to write for a specific project in your writing class. They have
asked that you think critically about a specific topic and formulate your own claim, or thesis, about it. You
have been assigned to make an interpretation about that given subject and examine your own interpretation of it. Will you defend that subject? Refute it? Offer a new view of your own? For any position you take
on your topic, you are being asked to do much more than regurgitate already known information or facts.
High school is now behind you and the days of gathering and summarizing information seem far-gone.
Now you must develop your own point of view from your given materials and provide evidence to support
your claims. You are now conducting research and entering into that scholarly conversation happening all
around you.
Ever been caught daydreaming in class? Did your instructor put a spotlight on you and ask an odd question that you had no idea how to answer? Your heart started to race. You felt everyone’s eyes burning into
your skull and you hoped that somehow your answer hadn’t already been said. You took a deep breath,
while hoping for the best, and began to speak…
This scenario is very much like conducting research and entering into an ongoing conversation. You want
to know what’s already been said and what evidence is already being presented out there on your topic.
That way you aren’t just being repetitive (and criticized by a large gathering of eyes). This process of listening and responding in an ongoing conversation, or debate, allows for a new introduction of viewpoints and
findings in academic writing.
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In our own everyday conversations, we listen (hopefully) to other voices, reflect upon what has been said,
evaluate the language, and respond using our own appropriate language, tone, and gesture. We follow accordingly to conventions of polite behavior. Our writing is very much the same. When we think of writing
as a conversation, we are introducing what others have already said about our subject, reflecting upon those
main points, evaluating what these viewpoints or findings mean for our topic, and responding to these
viewpoints accordingly to academic writing conventions. In our own writing, we also respond using appropriate language or diction according to the project guidelines. Depending on the form of argument we’re
being asked to write, the audience we’re writing to, and the purpose of the assignment, we adjust our writing style accordingly.
For example, when asked to write a bibliographic essay, the writer must discuss a number of different
works of previously published writing on that same topic. You pinpoint a topic, visit credible sources, and
see what others are already saying about your chosen topic. You are identifying that already existing conversation by looking through the available evidence. Another example of entering a conversation could be
when you’re blogging or posting on a networking site. These websites provide a space for productive conversations where one can actively create and critique arguments. You might expand upon a writer’s point on
a thread post or status. You may either agree or disagree with that person’s statement, but in either case you
are contributing to an ongoing conversation.
When you are positioning your argument for your paper, it is important to present your claim as a part
of the larger conversation. These other views will help to frame and clarify your own position on your topic.
Once you get your argument positioned for your paper, this will help structure the direction of your text.
Although there isn’t one explicit formula for writers to enter into an ongoing conversation, the writing
textbook, They Say, I Say: is one valuable source that writers may use to start their writing process. The text
emphasizes the importance of starting a paper with what others are already saying. They offer writers a
basic template to follow:
In discussion of X, one controversial issue has been..........
On the one hand, ..........argues..........
On the other hand, ..........contends..........
Others even maintain..........
My own view is.......... (Graff and Birkenstein, 24)
The authors of They Say, I Say: tell writers to ensure that their writing maintains a sense of mission and
urgency from start to finish. There are many ways to include the conversation surrounding the topic into
the text. You could use simple phrases such as “according to the author,” “the author states that,” or “the
writers point out that…” There are many variations on these formulas. For example, the writing textbook
They Say, I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing lists other phrases useful for introducing summaries and quotations from an ongoing conversation.
• Verbs for making a claim: Argue, assert, believe, claim, emphasize, insist, observe, remind us, report,
suggest
• Verbs for expressing agreement: Acknowledge, admire, agree, celebrate the fact that, corroborate, do
not deny, endorse, extol, praise, reaffirm, support, verify
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
• Verbs for questioning or disagreeing: Complain, complicate, contend, contradict, deny, deplore the
tendency to, disavow, question, refute, reject, renounce repudiate
• Verbs for making recommendations: Advocate, call for, demand, encourage, exhort, implore, plead,
recommend, urge, war (37)
After following the conversation of your topic, you will learn how to decipher what sources are not relevant to your topic or research. You will learn to evaluate what the writer says as you read, and check to
see if your own conversation differs or matches the author’s opinion of the same topic. So go on and use
the scholarly conversation all around you to engage and respond to your written ideas. By critically reading
from these outside authors, you can strengthen your own argument and get back to daydreaming.
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
Works Cited
Graff, Gerald and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. New
York: W. W. Norton, 2006. Print.
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
Writing is a Process
By Anna Angeli
Writing is a process. And we mean more than the painful process of sitting down and blurting out
thoughts onto a Word document in the two hours before an essay is due. Really good writing is a long
and rewarding process of idea generation, research, multiple drafts, peer review, and revision. All successful
writers eventually come to accept that, despite common misconceptions, writing is not a spontaneous burst
of creative genius but a series of steps to be learned and carefully repeated.
Before we can begin to discuss effective writing, let’s tackle that misconception: anyone who claims to
write best under pressure is simply justifying procrastination. Your first draft is never your best draft, just
as your first attempt at anything that involves attention to detail, meticulous planning, and solid structure
is never your most polished work. The great novels you’ve read (whether War and Peace or Twilight) did not
spring complete and perfect from their authors’ brains onto paper.
Now imagine the following familiar scenario: your instructor has assigned an essay. Let’s say it’s some
variation of the argumentative essay. You have a vague notion of what you’re supposed to do: pick a topic,
argue something about it, and back up your argument with evidence. You turn on your computer, open
Word, and stare at the blinking cursor. Instead of panicking when faced with that blank page, learn to refine the necessary steps in the process of writing. These steps are discussed in more detail in later chapters,
but this introduction will help guide you as you prepare to master the writing process.
Idea Generation
This first crucial step in writing often seems to be the most difficult for students preparing an essay. If
your instructor has given you the choice of topic, or if you are writing for an upper-level course in which
you are expected to hone in on a theme or a concept, idea generation can be daunting.
One of the most important things to keep in mind is to start thinking about your paper topic early. Don’t sit
down to write the essay on a deadline with no topic in mind -- it will likely cause anxiety and will rob you
of the chance to fully perform the later steps in the process.
Next, make sure that you come up with something that is interesting to you. Students sometimes grasp
at topics that seem familiar, such as social issues they hear about in the news or concepts they’re learning
about in their courses. While it may seem like a good idea to pick a topic simply to learn more about it,
if you pick a topic that’s boring to you, you’re much more likely to procrastinate, skimp on research, and
ultimately write a weak paper. And if you hate your topic (and your paper), chances are that your instructor
will too. On the other hand, if you can’t stop reading about your topic, and you find yourself telling anyone
who’ll listen to you about it, the writing process will be much easier and more rewarding. You’ll want to get
your thoughts coherent and onto paper, and your instructor is likely to sense your involvement and respond
positively.
Let’s return to the above scenario. You are staring at a blank document that is destined to be a brilliant
1000-word argumentative essay incorporating at least four sources. You browse your university library’s
online catalogue, your Facebook feed, your diary, some favorite blogs, and Twitter and come up with the
following five possibilities:
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
• gun control (because it’s all over the news)
• Skunk Ape (what is that thing?)
• horror/zombies in film (The Walking Dead = amazing)
• abortion (isn’t this a topic instructors like?)
• obesity (once again, it keeps popping up on social media)
• standardized testing (ugh)
• Chuck Norris as a cultural phenomenon (because everything you do, he does better)
Even making such a jumbled list is better than grasping at the first thing you think of. Often, your instructor will define parameters that will help guide your choice. If not, simply spend some time in front of
your computer, browsing the library’s shelves for titles, or bouncing ideas off of friends. Research as Discovery will help you develop specific methods for using research as brainstorming for your paper.
The most important things to keep in mind during this part of the process are to start early and to care
about your topic.
Research
Once you’ve decided that you absolutely have to find out more about the Skunk Ape, or whatever you
choose as your topic, it’s time to start researching. As you start viewing writing as a process, you’ll see this
step as one of the most enjoyable in the process of writing a paper. You’ll also realize that it’s one of the
longest. As you delve into your topic, you may discover new and interesting aspects that help you narrow
your argument and scope. This is also the stage that will help you eliminate topics that are too narrow, too
broad, or simply not practical.
Skunk Ape, for example, might prove to be tricky. Upon a quick perusal of some databases, Google Scholar,
and the library catalogue, you see that there is not much out there. What you do find is that he’s the Floridian relative of Bigfoot and Sasquatch, or alternately a common black bear with facial fungus and a BO
problem, which is fascinating but not a great topic.
When you run into a snag like this, you can always try to reshape the topic into something more manageable. You might ask questions about Skunk Ape: Why is this bear stinky? What’s wrong with his face?
And what’s going on in the Everglades that leads to ill bears in the first place? This line of thinking might
lead you to other topics to explore, such as the ecological implications of airboat traffic, agricultural run-off,
or even invasive species for the Everglades.
Some common pitfalls that panicking students fall into and that you should learn to avoid are:
• only using Google and not the library databases
• reading a source only long enough to find a good quotation that supports your own argument
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• stopping your research after the first four sources, even if they aren’t that useful
The library is your greatest resource, and your university spends countless dollars keeping literally millions of sources at your fingertips. Take advantage of it! In Finding and Evaluating Sources, you’ll also learn
the importance of reading sources in their entirety and exploring many options before settling on a few to
incorporate into your writing.
Lastly, the most important thing is to enjoy your research. If you find yourself unable to concentrate on
reading or to retain anything you read, return to Idea Generation and pick a topic you care about.
Drafting
Now that you have found a topic and have read a lot of material about it, you have ideas floating around
in your head. It’s time to get them down on paper. Instead of diving right into your introduction, however,
it’s a better use of time to first write an organizing draft to get your ideas into a structure you can use. An
outline is a great way of getting organized, but if that’s daunting, you can start with a simple list of major
subtopics or themes you’ve learned about. You’ll also have to develop an argument, or thesis statement.
For example, your research on the Skunk Ape, and then subsequently on the ecological issues associated
with the Everglades, might have led you to believe that the invasive species running amok in the region
pose a threat to the ecological health of the Everglades. To make this argument, you’ll have to bring in evidence by giving examples and citing your expert sources.
Arranging these is a question of balancing what is most logical to you and how a reader can best navigate
your argument. Here is an example of one possible outline for this topic:
I. Introduction to historical context of the problem
A.
Everglades
B.
Who is supposed to live in the Everglades?
C. Thesis: Invasive species such as the feral hog and the Burmese python are destroying the
Everglades by upsetting the delicate ecosystem; the python preys on native species of animals and the hog
outcompetes deer and destroys native plant species.
II. Python
A.
Eats everything, difficult to eradicate
B.
Population explosion could lead to extinction of native species
III. Hog
25
A.
Outcompetes deer
B.
Rooting destroys necessary plant life
Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
IV. Conclusion
A.
Why should it matter who lives in the Everglades?
B.
Some ideas to solve the problem
Your outline can be as detailed or as sparse as you prefer, but often, a detailed outline can make drafting
the essay much easier.
Drafting the essay simply means writing as many drafts as you feel is necessary to achieve a polished and
effective final product. Although you should always write to the best of your ability, expect your first draft
to be fairly rough, especially if you’ve never written about your topic before and the material is new to you.
All writers write multiple drafts as they work out the kinks and expand the aspects that are underdeveloped
in their works.
Peer Review and Revision
In addition to learning how to generate ideas, do research, organize ideas, and create drafts, you should
also master the skill of giving and receiving effective feedback through peer review. Instead of regarding
peer review as a hurdle you’ll have to clear in your writing course, consider it as an opportunity to develop
and practice a lifelong skill that will greatly benefit you later.
Giving and getting feedback is a necessary step in any writing you’ll do in college and beyond, especially
when the stakes are high. You’ll want to create the most perfect draft possible when you hand in a major
research paper, apply for a grant or scholarship, or create documents for a promotion at your workplace.
Asking peers to read and review your writing will help you do this.
Your peers might point out to you, for example, that your paper on the Everglades is missing key information about how invasive creatures were introduced into the region, and by whom. They might point out
minor details -- you forgot a title! this is a comma splice! typo! -- but they may also pose questions that
reveal some major structural flaw or lapse in logical progression of thought.
Peer review and revision go hand in hand. As you learn to work with your peers in the classroom, you’ll
learn when to accept or reject their advice regarding your writing. Ideally, you’ll receive polite but critical
feedback that will point out the strengths and the weaknesses of your argument, giving you the chance to
revisit, rethink, and revise your draft several times before submitting a final draft. Your instructor’s feedback
will also be valuable to you in showing you which areas to rework and improve. Making the Most of Peer
Feedback and Making the Most of Instructor Feedback will help you interpret and make the most of both
your peers’ feedback and your instructors’ for effective revision.
While the writing process involves all of the above stages, from Idea Generation to Peer Review, the stages
may not always be as clearly defined as the examples given here. Although there is a specific time you feel
you are generating ideas, you’re actually always brainstorming as you write. Similarly, your research may
start well before you even get an assignment and may continue long past the due date. Each stage of the
writing process is interconnected with the others, making for a fluid progression towards the final product:
a polished final draft. And although good writers generally use all of the stages mentioned above, no two
writers use them in exactly the same way. As you develop as a writer, you’ll learn how to adapt these stages
to produce your best work.
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Writing is rarely a single burst of exertion, nor is it an individual effort. Effective writing incorporates
all of the above steps in a process that spans weeks and results in a polished result that reflects the hard
work of both the author and her reviewers. As you learn to master each of these steps, remember that if
you weren’t a conscientious follower of these steps, you might have handed in that last-minute paper about
Skunkape the hairless bear, or even worse, a limp argument about how Chuck Norris doesn’t fall off a
horse, a horse falls off Chuck Norris.
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
Chapter 2: Critical Thinking and Arguments
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
Introduction to Logical Fallacies
By Brogan Sullivan
By now you know that all arguments operate according to an internal logic. No matter which of the four
rhetorical appeals the author uses, a fault in that logic will weaken her argument. When such a breach occurs, we say that the argument is not sound. In classical logic, an argument is sound only if all of its premises
are true and the argument is valid. And an argument is valid only if its conclusion follows logically from
the combination of its premises. For example, Plato’s classic syllogism, “All men are mortal; Socrates is a
man: therefore, Socrates is mortal” is both valid and sound. Its premises are true, and the conclusion is undeniable given an understanding of the definitions of the terms.
Plato’s syllogism is an example of a deductive argument; that is, it relies on a process of reasoning from
general statements of common knowledge to arrive at a specific and logically consistent conclusion. But
most of the arguments you will encounter in college and in life in general take the form of inductive arguments, which move in the opposite direction: from statements of specific instances toward a general
conclusion. For instance, if I say that the sun has always risen in the morning, and then conclude that the
sun will therefore rise tomorrow, I have formulated an inductive argument. Notice, however, that my conclusion is not necessarily valid given the definitions of the terms. I can be fairly confident that the sun will
rise tomorrow in the morning, but I can’t be absolutely certain of it. After all, the sun might go supernova
overnight.
Of course, given the fact that astronomers suggest that the sun isn’t likely to die for at least another 4
billion years, my inductive argument’s lack of absolute certainty shouldn’t bother anyone. The point is that
because my argument relies on a specific instance known to be true (“the sun has always risen in the morning”), and then moves to a general conclusion (“the sun will therefore rise tomorrow in the morning”), the
possibility that I have committed a logical fallacy in the course of my argument is relatively high. That is,
somewhere in the chain of reason leading from the premise to the conclusion, I might have unknowingly
violated the internal logic my argument needs in order to succeed. The term “logical fallacy” refers to the
point—or points—at which that chain of reason snaps, rendering the conclusion invalid.
Not all inductive arguments commit logical fallacies. Indeed, many of the argumentative texts you will
encounter in college manage to avoid such faulty reasoning, mainly because successful authors have learned
how to avoid such pitfalls. They know that inductive argumentation is vulnerable to logical fallacies, not
only because such arguments start with specific premises and move to general conclusions, but also because
their premises so often rely on human values and abstract concepts. Furthermore, poorly constructed inductive arguments often make statements that on the surface appear plausible, but after consideration or
further research reveal inconsistencies or outright falsehoods.
For example, let’s say that I’m writing an essay attempting to prove that same-sex marriage is wrong
and should not be allowed. One of my premises suggests that if same-sex marriage were legal, pretty soon
humans would be marrying their dogs. This statement commits a number of logical fallacies, but the most
egregious of them is called the slippery slope, which describes a situation in which a generally unacceptable situation (humans marrying dogs) is proposed as the inevitable outcome of a particular event (legalizing same-sex marriage). But no evidence exists that such an outcome will in fact result. Furthermore, the
argument commits a variant of a categorical mistake, because dogs and humans do not belong to the same
species; a dog cannot consent to or decline a marriage vow, and marriage legally requires that both parties
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are willing and able to provide consent. A reader who accepts such arguments at face value simply cannot make an informed decision about the issue at hand. Logical fallacies do a disservice to the reader and
undermine the author’s credibility; therefore, an ethical, responsible author avoids them.
Many more logical fallacies exist than can be included in this article. In the article that follows, you
will find explanations of some of the more common examples as they play out within the context of the
four rhetorical appeals. Further research in the library and on reliable websites will yield an inexhaustible
amount of information on the various logical fallacies (see some example websites below). As you read assigned texts and write your own argumentative essays, you should constantly test the arguments they contain, examining the premises and their links to one another and to the conclusion. Learning to recognize
logical fallacies is a skill essential to college-level writing and to critical thinking in general.
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
Further Research
The OWL at Purdue lists some of the most common logical fallacies with examples: http://owl.english.
purdue.edu/owl/resource/659/03/
The Writing Center at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill has a more extensive list: http://
writingcenter.unc.edu/resources/handouts-demos/writing-the-paper/fallacies
Finally, the Fallacy Files devotes its entire web presence to all things fallacious: http://www.fallacyfiles.
org/
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
The Audiences of Various Media
By Jason Carabelli
Try to remember, if you can, the last Twitter entry or Facebook post you read. What was it about? How
was it written? Think about its style. Now consider the last textbook chapter or scholarly article you read,
perhaps for one of your classes. What was it about? How was it written? It is not hard to imagine all of the
differences between a tweet and a scholarly article or book. It is important to remember, though, that these
differences attract unique audiences to read these media. In many ways, different media are shaped by the
expectations of their audiences. Readers of scholarly journal articles expect to see lengthy discussions of
academic topics, whereas Twitter followers expect to find information that they can grasp in 140 characters
or less. Of course, this does not mean that someone who reads scholarly articles cannot also be an audience for Twitter, but that reader will have very different expectations for each written work. It also does not
mean that the topics discussed on Twitter or Facebook cannot be up for discussion in a scholarly article or
book but rather that they will be discussed in very different ways. When examining different media, it is
important to keep in mind the audiences to which they appeal as well as the expectations of those audience
members.
Newspapers
Newspapers are a good example of a medium that is intended for a very general audience. Though it is
true that certain newspapers are marketed to readers of a particular political affiliation, all newspapers are
written in a way that make them available to readers with little to no prior knowledge of the subject matter.
This is why many newspaper articles that report on a development in an ongoing story will recap some of
the events that led up to the one being covered. Because of the audience of this medium, newspaper writers
and editors work to ensure that any content discussed is easily accessible and understandable. Newspapers
also have specific requirements about language use and style that are intended to keep articles simple and
easy to read. It is important for newspaper reporters to avoid using jargon or slang that would not be familiar to most of the general populous. For many papers, it is critical that their intended audience remain as
general as possible in order to ensure a large readership.
Emails and Letters
On the other hand, emails or letters are examples of two media that have a very small audience. Even
mass emails and junk mail are sent to targeted individuals (usually based on the sites they have visited or
their physical proximity to certain retailers), and most other kinds of emails or letters have only one or a
handful of readers. Because of this, readers don’t have the same kind of expectations for a letter or email as
they do for a newspaper and would probably find it odd or jarring to read a personal email that was written
like a newspaper article. For instance, while a newspaper article (not an op-ed piece) would never incorporate a second-person pronoun (“you”), a writer would find it difficult to write a personal email without
using it. Personal emails are a rather extreme example of media with small audiences though, and there are
many less extreme ones that can be discussed, such as scholarly articles, magazines, and blogs to name a
few.
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
Scholarly Journals
Scholarly journals, as previously mentioned, are one example of a medium with a very specific readership. A scholarly journal that focuses on advancements in biomedical engineering, for instance, will probably only attract readers who are interested in the topic and who likely already possess expertise in the
area: readers of an article about biomedical engineering will already know what biomedicine and engineering
are and how they are related and so will not expect to have these terms defined for them in the article. A
newspaper article about the same topic, though, would most likely explain a little about these terms since
its audience does not have the same expectations as the audience for a scholarly article. Additionally, scholarly sources will often employ jargon and language that is catered to the understandings of its audience,
whereas a newspaper (as noted above), would avoid this based on its broader readership.
Magazines
Magazines—both online and print—are another type of media that have very specific audiences. Discover Magazine, for instance, publishes articles about scientific developments and technology and attracts a
certain kind of reader. Although Discover Magazine articles read much like newspaper articles, where little
prior knowledge is expected, they also usually discuss highly scientific information. Because of this, many
readers who are not interested in science and technology might have difficulty following the stories and
thus would probably not be considered part of the intended audience for Discover Magazine.
In some ways, the audiences of journals and magazines are defined by the periodical’s topics. However,
there are differences between the audiences of scholarly journals and magazines even if those publications
cover the same kinds of topics. Magazines like Discover, Time, Newsweek, and the like are all considered
popular sources, whereas texts like The New England Journal of Medicine or The Journal of Field Archeology are
considered scholarly sources. Many popular sources have audiences that expect to be able to browse and skim
through most of the material, while an audience for a scholarly source will expect that they have to read
most or all of an article in order to comprehend it (and even then may still need to reread it in order to
fully absorb the information). This is not always the case, but it happens enough that it has become a part
of the expectations of each audience.
Blogs
Blogs are another example of media with a specific audience. Although blog topics range considerably—
from personal narratives, to funny pictures, to science, history, and philosophy—they are all usually much
less formal than traditionally published writing. While both popular magazines and scholarly journals
have individual standards for writing and content, blogs usually do not. Even bloggers who are paid for
their work have much more freedom to write how and what they want than most writers for magazines or
journals. Audiences for blogs expect this freedom of style and content and are probably more comfortable
with an informal, conversational tone in a blog than a traditionally published piece of writing. Blogs also
generally have a space for reactions and comments by readers, and so audiences will likely expect that they
are able to participate in the ongoing conversations of a blog. This kind of participatory media draws many
different expectations on the part of its audience than traditional media—for instance, television—where
audiences are usually imagined as passive receivers of information who do not participate in its development.
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
Social Networking Sites
Social networking sites like Twitter and Facebook are similar to blogs in that they are informal and involve audience participation. In fact, it is often difficult to distinguish the difference between a reader and
a writer on a social networking site, since most individuals do a great deal of both writing and reading.
While a blog usually has one or a few dedicated bloggers that write most of the content, sites like Twitter
and Facebook do not have this kind of singular voice. Instead, the audiences for social media sites are also
the writers. This, then, is part of the expectation of the audiences for social media—that they will be able to
involve themselves in the way the conversation takes shape through writing. The emergence and popularity of social media has developed a very unique kind of audience that has very different expectations from
those of traditional print media audiences (like those discussed previously). Because of this, and the important ways that audiences shape all kinds of media, it is important to consider audience before reading or
composing in different writing situations.
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
What is an Argument?
By Ryan Blank
What is an argument?
An argument can be a mere disagreement, consisting of two or more conflicting points of view. It can
be some form of communication with the intention to persuade. Perhaps even a heated disputation, like
those that are all too common on shows like Jerry Springer. The most successful arguments are those that
peacefully encourage an audience to change the way it views an issue through a new understanding of it.
Ultimately, we argue for the purpose of furthering or achieving some cause—getting a person or people to
respond or act in accord with our goals. This can take the form of arguing the importance of a product so
that potential customers will be more likely to purchase it, or arguing that the environment deserves more
of our attention.
Argumentation, that is, the art of persuasion, achieved great public recognition 2500 years ago in Ancient
Greece. Educators began teaching this art of public speaking, arguing, and persuasion; they were called
rhetors (the word from which English’s orator originates). Back then, Ancient Greek citizens had just established their first democracy; the novelty of a government ruled by the people created a demand for speakers
skilled in argumentation, and so began the study and principled teaching of argumentation. So effective
was their art that it withstood the test of time and is still taught and practiced today.
This section will provide you with some questions to help you analyze arguments, as well as introduce you
to some Greek terms that were used to describe argumentation 2500 years ago. Because we still analyze
and compose arguments based on these inherited terms, it is useful to understand how they fit into argumentation.
Why is it important to analyze arguments?
Not all arguments are aggressive or even outwardly assertive. In fact, some arguments are subtle by design, and it is important to understand these arguments in order to act responsibly on the information they
convey. Some arguments will challenge your beliefs—arguments about diet, environment, or technology—
while others will encourage you to act in a certain way—purchasing something or volunteering time and
money. In order to best respond to arguments, as well as to compose more effective arguments of your own,
an understanding of how arguments work is essential. By analyzing arguments, then, you can make calculated, educated responses to the arguments you are faced with while concurrently learning to improve your
ability to communicate effectively.
But how can arguments be analyzed?
The first thing to do is to consider the medium that an argument takes, i.e, oral, written, or visual (an
infographic or advertisement in a magazine). This will give you some indication of the contexts it was
composed in and for. Print images are static and therefore unchanging, so these visual messages rely heavily
on the setting in which they appear. Is it an advertisement in a magazine or newspaper? A flyer? Maybe a
poster? Why would the creator of an argument choose a static medium? It could also be a more fluid visual,
like a commercial on TV or a GIF on a website. These contextual choices are made in order to optimize the
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
efficiency of an argument on a target audience, and if you come across these in magazines, on TV, or on the
Internet, chances are that you are the target audience.
The next thing to consider is the source of the argument. It must be coming from someone somewhere,
so who is this person (or group of people) that is trying to persuade the audience? Is this person someone
you are familiar with? What is the purpose of her argument? What does she seek to accomplish? While
exploring the motives driving the argument, you can examine the character of the author. Is the person a
part of your community (someone that shares your values)? How does she demonstrate this? The character
presented by the composer of the argument is often referred to as her ethos.
The argument should also be analyzed for the claims that are made and the evidence used to support
those claims. What is being argued? How is it supported? Does the combination of claims and evidence
truly make sense? Using evidence to support claims in an attempt to make the argument logical is called
logos.
Finally, we can observe the ways that the argument appeals to our emotions. These appeals to our emotions, referred to as pathos, carry immense potency, and thus deserve additional attention from the audience.
Before assenting to the propositions of an emotionally charged argument, ask yourself: am I assenting to
this argument based on my intellect or emotions? Looking past the emotional arguments, are the claims
and evidence logically sound? That is not to say that emotional responses should be disregarded—they can
be quite important. Rather, weigh that response against the validity and soundness of both logical and ethical components as well.
Applying Analysis to an Argument
In order to get a feel for argument analysis, consider an anti-tobacco ad that you might see on TV. Numerous groups, for instance, have taken to the streets to prevent the continued use of tobacco products. A
TV commercial promoting smoke-free living is responding to a large body of contemporary research that
shows the negative impacts of cigarettes on the human body, both first- and second-hand. The desired
outcome of this commercial is likely twofold: to get smokers to take serious steps towards quitting, and to
get the family and friends of smokers to help in this process. Commercials often employ a moving, visual
narrative with audio (music, speaking, or sound effects) to support the message, and therefore have a wider
range of possibilities than a face-to-face argument. Consider how this argument might differ it were found
on a billboard (a static image without sound) or in person (conversation, no visual story or special effects).
Having determined how TV as the medium affects the ways we receive an argument, we can now examine the evidence used to support this argument. So what information might this commercial contain?
Statistics showing the mortality rate of smokers or the growing number of cancer-related deaths sound
practical. Perhaps some information about how costly the habit can become will be provided. While
this approach sounds logical, it doesn’t yield the desired results: not enough people have quit. With that
in mind, we can see how commercials have evolved to fit the contexts of today: statistics and appeals to
logic, logos, alone aren’t enough to persuade the audience to change a behavior, so more extreme examples
through character, ethos, and emotion, pathos, are often utilized.
Taking an alternative approach to presenting evidence, then, commercials today are likely to have a person whose body—and therefore life—has been ravaged by cancer explain how bad smoking is. We, the
audience, believe this person because she has physical proof (his or her body) that shows the damages of
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
smoking. Additionally, this person is probably associated with a reputable organization, like the American Cancer Society or the CDC, to boost her credibility. Having established authority in several ways, the
speaker then talks about her experiences, evoking images of family, friends, and life-before-cancer. This
argument now speaks powerfully to our emotions and intellect.
The importance of argument analysis cannot be overstated. Arguments permeate many aspects of our
lives, and their presence is realized both in and out of academic settings. Because of their enormous impact
on our lives, it is important to analyze and understand them. This process of argument analysis enables
us to evaluate the information we receive so that we can respond intelligently not only as students, but as
civic-minded, informed adults.
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Rhetoric Matters: Language and Argument in Context
Identifying an Argument
By Karen Langbehn
As a reader, a developing writer, and an informed student and citizen, it is extremely important for you to
be able to locate, understand, and critically analyze others’ purposes in communicating information. Being
able to identify and articulate the meaning of other writers’ arguments and theses enables you to engage
in intelligent, meaningful, and critical knowledge exchanges. Ultimately, regardless of the discipline you
choose to participate in, textual analysis—the summary, contextualization, and interpretation of a writer’s
effective or ineffective delivery of his or her perspective on a topic, statement of thesis, and development
of an argument—will be an invaluable skill. Your ability to critically engage in knowledge exchanges—
through the analysis of others’ communication—is integral to your success as a student and as a citizen.
Textual Analysis: The Thesis
A foundational skill of textual analysis is the ability to identify a writer’s thesis—the component of an
argument that communicates his or her position on a particular topic.
In order to learn how to better recognize a thesis in a written text, let’s consider the following argument:
So far, [Google+] does seem better than Facebook, though I’m still a rookie and don’t know how to do even some
basic things.
It’s better in design terms, and also much better with its “circles” allowing you to target posts to various groups.
Example: following that high school reunion, the overwhelming majority of my Facebook friends list (which I’m
barely rebuilding after my rejoin) are people from my own hometown. None of these people are going to care too
much when my new book comes out from Edinburgh. Likewise, not too many of you would care to hear inside jokes
about our old high school teachers, or whatever it is we banter about.
Another example: people I know only from exchanging a couple of professional emails with them ask to be Facebook friends. I’ve never met these people and have no idea what they’re really like, even if they seem nice enough on
email. Do I really want to add them to my friends list on the same level as my closest friends, brothers, valued colleagues, etc.? Not yet. But then there’s the risk of offending people if you don’t add them. On Google+ you can just
drop them in the “acquaintances” circle, and they’ll never know how they’re classified. But they won’t be getting any
highly treasured personal information there, which is exactly the restriction you probably want for someone you’ve
never met before.
I also don’t like too many family members on my Facebook friends list, because frankly they don’t need to know
everything I’m doing or chatting about with people. But on Google+ this problem will be easily manageable. (Harman)
The first sentence, “[Google+] does seem better than Facebook” (Harman), doesn’t communicate the
writer’s position on the topic; it is merely an observation. A position, also called a “claim,” often includes
the conjunction “because,” providing a reason why the writer’s observation is unique, meaningful, and critical.
Therefore, if the writer’s sentence, “[Google+] does seem better than Facebook” (Harman), is simply an
observation, then in order to identify the writer’s position, we must find the answer to “because, why?” One
such answer can be found in the author’s rhetorical question/answer, “Do I really want to add them to my
friends list on the same level as my closest friends, brothers, valued colleagues, etc.? Not yet” (Harman). The
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writer’s “because, why?” could be “because Google+ allows me to manage old, new, and potential friends
and acquaintances using separate circles, so that I’m targeting posts to various, separate groups.” Therefore,
the writer’s thesis—his position—could be something like, “Google+ is better than Facebook because its
design enables me to manage my friends using separate circles, so that I’m targeting posts to various, separate groups instead of posting the same information for everyone I’ve added to my network.”
In addition to communicating a position on a particular topic, a writer’s thesis outlines what aspects of
the topic he or she will address. Outlining intentions within a thesis is not only acceptable, but also one
of a writer’s primary obligations, since the thesis relates his or her general argument. In a sense, you could
think of the thesis as a responsibility to answer the question, “What will you/won’t you be claiming and
why?”
To explain this further, let’s consider another example. If someone were to ask you what change you
want to see in the world, you probably wouldn’t readily answer “world peace,” even though you (and many
others) may want that. Why wouldn’t you answer that way? Because such an answer is far too broad and
ambiguous to be logically argued. Although world peace may be your goal, for logic’s sake, you would be
better off articulating your answer as “a peaceful solution to the violence currently occurring on the border
of southern Texas and Mexico,” or something similarly specific. The distinction between the two answers
should be clear: the first answer, “world peace,” is broad, ambiguous, and not a fully developed claim (there
wouldn’t be many, if any, people who would disagree with this statement); the second answer is narrower,
more specific, and a fully developed claim. It confines the argument to a particular example of violence, but
still allows you to address what you want (“world peace”) on a smaller, more manageable, and more logical
scale.
Since a writer’s thesis functions as an outline of what he or she will address in an argument, it is often
organized in the same manner as the argument itself. Let’s return to the argument about Google+ for an
example. If the author stated his position as suggested—“Google+ is better than Facebook because its design enables me to manage my friends using separate circles, so that I’m targeting posts to various, separate
groups instead of posting the same information I’ve added to my network”—we would expect him to first
address the similarities and differences between the designs of Google+ and Facebook, and then the reasons why he believes Google+ is a more effective way of sharing information. The organization of his thesis
should reflect the overall order of his argument. Such a well-organized thesis builds the foundation for a
cohesive and persuasive argument.
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Textual Analysis: The Argument
“Textual analysis” is the term writers use to describe a reader’s written explanation of a text. The reader’s
textual analysis ought to include a summary of the author’s topic, an analysis or explanation of how the
author’s perspective relates to the ongoing conversation about that particular topic, an interpretation of the
effectiveness of the author’s argument and thesis, and references to specific components of the text that
support his or her analysis or explanation.
An effective argument generally consists of the following components:
• A thesis. Communicates the writer’s position on a particular topic.
• Acknowledgement of opposition. Explains existing objections to the writer’s position.
• Clearly defined premises outlining reasoning. Details the logic of the writer’s position.
• Evidence of validating premises. Proves the writer’s thorough research of the topic.
• A conclusion convincing the audience of the argument’s soundness/persuasiveness. Argues the
writer’s position is relevant, logical, and thoroughly researched and communicated.
An effective argument also is specifically concerned with the components involved in researching, framing, and communicating evidence:
• The credibility and breadth of the writer’s research
• The techniques (like rhetorical appeals) used to communicate the evidence (see “The Rhetorical Appeals”)
• The relevance of the evidence as it reflects the concerns and interests of the author’s targeted audience
To identify and analyze a writer’s argument, you must critically read and understand the text in question.
Focus and take notes as you read, highlighting what you believe are key words or important phrases. Once
you are confident in your general understanding of the text, you’ll need to explain the author’s argument in
a condensed summary. One way of accomplishing this is to ask yourself the following questions:
• What topic has the author written about? (Explain in as few words as possible.)
• What is the author’s point of view concerning his or her topic?
• What has the author written about the opposing point of view? (Where does it appear as though the
author is “giving credit” to the opposition?)
• Does the author offer proof (either in reference to another published source or from personal experience) supporting his or her stance on the topic?
• As a reader, would you say that the argument is persuasive? Can you think of ways to strengthen the
argument? Using which evidence or techniques?
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Your articulation of the author’s argument will most likely derive from your answers to these questions.
Let’s reconsider the argument about Google+ and answer the reflection questions listed above:
• What topic has the author written about? (Explain in as few words as possible.)
◊ The author’s topic is two social networks—Google+ and Facebook.
• What is the author’s point of view concerning his or her topic?
◊ The author is “for” the new social network Google+.
• What has the author written about the opposing point of view? (Where does it appear as though the
author is “giving credit” to the opposition?)
◊ The author makes a loose allusion to the opposing point of view in the explanation, “I’m still a
rookie and don’t know how to do even some basic things” (Harman). (The author alludes to his inexperience and, therefore, the potential for the opposing argument to have more merit.)
• Does the author offer proof (either in reference to another published source or from personal experience) supporting his or her stance on the topic?
◊ Yes, the author offers proof from personal experience, particularly through his first example: “following that high school reunion, the overwhelming majority of my Facebook friends list (which I’m
barely rebuilding after my rejoin) are people from my hometown” (Harman). In his second example, he
cites that “[o]n Google+ you can just drop [individuals] in the ‘acquaintances’ circle, and they’ll never
even know how they’re classified” (Harman) in order to offer even more credible proof, based on the way
Google+ operates instead of personal experience.
• As a reader, would you say that the argument is persuasive? Can you think of ways to strengthen the
argument? Using which evidence or techniques?
◊ Yes, I would say that this argument is persuasive, although if I wanted to make it even stronger, I
would include more detailed information about the opposing point of view. A balanced argument—one
that fairly and thoroughly articulates both sides—is often more respected and better received because it
proves to the audience that the writer has thoroughly researched the topic prior to making a judgment
in favor of one perspective or another.
Summary
Textual analysis is the term used to describe the process of critically reading, examining, understanding,
and articulating a writer’s argument. An effective argument communicates the writer’s position on a particular topic; explains existing objections to the writer’s position; details the logic of the writer’s position;
proves the writer’s research is thorough; and concludes with summative statements pertaining to the relevance, logic, and confidence of the writer’s position.
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Works Cited
Harman, Graham. Object-Oriented Philosophy. WordPress, n.d. Web. 15 May 2012. See <http://doctorzamalek2.wordpress.com/author/doctorzamalek>
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Understanding Claims
By Julie Gerdes
A claim is, more or less, an opinion whose truthfulness a writer is fairly sure of based on evidence. Claims
are perhaps the most essential component of academic writing because they keep conversations going;
without them, writing would be largely descriptive and offer no new points of view. Writing a claim is not
often easy because it requires writers to be assertive and fairly confident in their positions. Ineffective arguments break down when they include unsupported or broad claims.
Let’s consider an extended example of how claims work in an argument about water purification projects. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), one of every three people lacks a source of
clean water globally, and the problem is getting worse. Water.org is an organization that was co-founded by
American actor Matt Damon and entrepreneur Gary White in response to this problem. This group makes
claims of fact, value, and policy that work together to support its activist goals.
Claims of Fact
A claim of fact is one that presents information as a truth. It uses direct language to state a condition or
historical piece of information. Let’s take the water initiative example from water.org. The organization’s
website reflects many claims of fact, including several that run with infographics down the left navigation
bar of each page:
• Every 21 seconds, a child dies from a water-related illness
• Women spend 200 million hours a day collecting water
• More than 3x more people lack water than live in the United States
• The majority of illness is caused by fecal matter
• More people have a mobile than a toilet
• Lack of community involvement causes 50% of other projects to fail
(water.org)
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Source: water.org
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Fact claims are generally written by experts and acted upon by readers who believe in the writer’s credibility (ethos) or the information’s logic (logos). As a rule of thumb, claims of fact should be able to be supported by original research. In the water.org example, can you think of ways in which a reader could, with
the necessary research tools, investigate these figures and determine whether they are true?
Remember that all claims can be refuted. Claims of fact rely on agreed-upon definitions, which is something writers must consider. I might ask how water.org knows that women spend exactly 200 million hours
a day collecting water, and I might attempt to refute the claim by countering that they are including or excluding young girls in that estimate. In other words, I might question the definition of “women.” Similarly,
I might question the definition of “collecting water,” which can be done efficiently and methodically or as
a social event that takes up time in a positive way, allowing for women to interact and even make professional connections through the chore. Furthermore, some women in very dry countries must make overnight trips with canoes to fill up with water. Are researchers including sleep and cooking time for those
trips? Does this claim about sanitation define toilets as working flush toilets or does it include traditional
latrines, which are often referred to verbally as “toilets” despite their lack of reliance on modern plumbing?
The writers might be able to answer these questions, but it’s important to realize that the infographic itself
doesn’t. Instead, the writers rely on the reader’s trust, which they use ethos to develop through celebrity
endorsements and attractive web design.
Claims of Value
A claim of value, as it sounds, is one that asserts moral or social value. These claims involve judgment and
evaluation. Few topics are evaluated in the exact same way by all people involved. Therefore, claims of value
are generally more controversial than claims of fact. While some claims of value can be dangerous because
they can immediately turn off a reader who doesn’t share those values, they are important to include in
an argument about a controversial topic because they show a writer’s awareness of her own biases. In fact,
claims of value are inevitable for some arguments because they try to persuade readers to adopt a position
about a subject for which no objective facts exist.
While claims of fact are generally descriptive, claims of value are normative; that is, they can usually be
constructed using the auxiliary verb should or a phrase like “it is unethical to...” or “it is good/better/bad/
worse to...” These value claims can fall flat because they ultimately assume that there is a universal moral
code, although philosophers have spent centuries debating the very existence of such a code. For instance,
if a writer is convinced that “murderers should be sentenced to death row,” on the basis that murder, no
matter the circumstances, is morally wrong, then there is not much more to the argument. A reader will
either agree to the same set of morals or he won’t because the claim relies on purely subjective moral ideas
and leaves no space for compromise.
However, claims of value do not have to draw binaries. In fact, they can enrich an argument. By using
supportive evidence to back a normative claim, a writer may convince the reader to adjust her own set of
values or to at least question the cultural and moral principles that guide her convictions. Personal and
cultural values lend themselves to flexibility. While the premises of fact claims are generally rigid (research
either convinces a reader or it doesn’t), the basis for value claims is malleable. A successfully supported
claim of value might lead the reader to say, “I’d never thought of it that way” and reconsider the grounds on
which she makes decisions. Therefore, it’s important that writers are self-reflexive, use appropriate language
and refrain from aggressive value claims.
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Claims of Policy
Claims of policy can be considered the final step of an argument about a practical issue because they
rely on claims of fact that opposing sides have agreed upon and claims of value that allow for a common
ground. Claims of policy often arise organically, out of a need for practical and pragmatic solutions to an
issue.
Once an argument has advanced to the stage of policy decisions, it gets complicated because the policies
are sometimes hypothetical. Let’s return to the water.org example. There are many people involved in this
campaign, from environmental engineers to the media to the global citizens that the organization purports to support. If we consider the website as a composition, and the left navigation bar as a list of claims
of fact, then we might consider the points listed under the tab labeled “solutions” as claims of policy. The
organization’s policy reflects a move past describing the issue and why it’s important and towards a practical approach to solving that problem. While values are embedded in their solutions, the claims the group
makes on this page argue that using a multifaceted approach that involves local community members, technology, education, and evaluation is the best solution to global water problems. To convince the reader, the
organization then details each part of the solution with evidence of how it is logical and successful. In this
discussion, there is a mix of value and fact claims.
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Effective writers begin generating ideas about possible solutions during the brainstorming process, particularly if they are arguing about a controversial topic. An argumentative paper that just tries to convince
others to believe in a set of values might not need claims of policy. However, common writing projects
often have a more pragmatic agenda—to solicit change. Once a writer has convinced readers to agree with
his or her set of facts and values, he or she can call readers to act in accordance to those understandings.
For unique topics or ones that are just emerging, it can be difficult to guide readers to action because there
might not be a way of knowing whether a solution will work. In these cases, writer use their expertise
argue why a proposed solution is better than what is currently being done or why it is the best place to start
in developing a long-range solution.
Putting It Together
Sometimes, a thesis in a solution-driven argumentative paper will combine these different types of claims
then use the length of the paper to expand on just one. For instance, a thesis statement might be structured:
“Because children are dying of water-borne illnesses in Angola (claim of fact), and the American government
should care about less fortunate global citizens (claim of value), the Department of State needs to form a panel of
experts that includes environmental engineers, politicians, and African studies scholars to meet biannually in Angola
(claim of policy).”
This thesis sets up a paper that will focus on at least one of these claims; deciding which one relies on
awareness of audience and purpose. If this writer is preparing a paper or speech for an environmental group
that works in southern Africa, then he or she will probably be able to take the claims of fact and value for
granted because the audience will already be convinced of them. But perhaps the audience doesn’t understand the implications of bringing African studies or cultural scholars into the conversation. Maybe they
have gotten used to the status quo of meeting independently to make decisions. In that case, explaining
what it would look like to organize a larger scale meeting and the basis for the opinion that these meetings
are the next best step in developing a long-term solution gives the paper a pragmatic purpose.
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Works Cited
Water. World Health Organization, March 2009. Web. 1 June 2013.
Water.org. Water.org, 2013. Web. 1 June 2013.
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Understanding Visual Arguments
By Julie Gerdes
What is Visual Rhetoric?
When scholars discuss rhetoric, the immediate implication is that they are referring to written or spoken
language. For instance, one thing rhetoricians study is how writers, including bloggers, journalists, business
proposal writers, science writers, students, penpals, and others use distinct tones and methods to reach their
audiences and accomplish their purposes. However, with new media and technologies, the way in which
persuasion happens with words is changing quickly: text messages present new linguistic standards, tweets
force writers to stick to character counts, and eBooks change the way readers interact with texts. However,
as much as it has affected the way writers construct words, digitalization may have changed the landscape
of composition most profoundly through its effect on images and visual rhetoric.
As recently as the 1990s, the term “mobile phone” was reserved for clunky receivers in fancy cars. Today,
wireless handheld cell phones can be found in the hands of Americans in nearly any public space. Popular
smartphone apps include Google maps, Instagram, Facebook, and snapchat, which all rely on one’s ability
to compose and share images. As technology develops and encourages more and more casual writers to join
Facebook, twitter, and other social networking forums, it is also turning more people into graphic designers. Although snapping a photo may seem effortless, your work can have serious implications for persuasion in the same way that writing choices do.
For example, in March 2013, many Facebook users in support of marriage equality changed their profile
pictures to a red version of the equal sign logo of the Human Rights Campaign. This political statement
was purely visual; without words, it became evident which side of the controversy some people stood. Some
personalized the logo with extra images or shading, and others objected to the movement by changing
their profile pictures to images that countered the gay rights movement leading up to a Supreme Court
vote on Proposition 8. Consider what other images have been used as political statements, historically and
more recently. These are examples of visual rhetoric—attempts to persuade others to believe or to act based
on a viewer’s reaction to an image.
Analyzing Visual Rhetoric
To understand the central persuasion techniques of a composition, particularly one that combines textual
and visual elements, you can start by breaking the composition into manageable elements then analyzing
the rhetorical appeals of each element. Fortunately, there are countless elements that comprise visual com-
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positions, so images lend themselves to rich analysis. It can be easy to get caught up in the details of image
analysis when each design decision contributes to an overall message, so it’s important to keep in mind the
purpose and audience of your specific analysis in order to select the 3-4 major visual elements that play
into the message you are interpreting.
So, what should you be focusing on as you try to understand visual rhetoric? A good thought experiment
is to consider yourself as a designer. Imagine that you are using an app on a tablet or smartphone, a graphic
design program on a desktop computer, or even a pencil and paper to compose a message from scratch.
What decisions do you need to make? What decisions are you able to make with the tools you have? More
importantly, you should first consider questions about (1) the audience, (2) composer, and (3) context (the
rhetorical triangle). In other words, what will my audience expect? What is the point of the image you
are using? How do you want to persuade your audience? Think of a social issue that you feel passionately
about, and draw up an ad that would convince your family and friends to join your cause. As you draw (or
think about what you would draw), write down the decisions you make as you come to them. What person,
animal, or object are you featuring? Why? If you’re using the image of a person, what age and ethnicity is
that person? What is he or she wearing? What kind of lighting or shading are you using? What effect do
these considerations have?
It’s likely that your answers relate to rhetorical appeals. If a designer uses dark shading and close-up
shots of a child’s downward eyes, she is using pathos to evoke an emotional response from her viewers.
Obviously, bright colors and a smiling child would have the opposite emotional effect. If you are conducting a visual rhetorical analysis of an image that you feel emotionally about, think about what details are
working together to create that feeling. If there are some elements that contradict that feeling, then the
designer may be asking the viewer to reconsider common associations. For instance, an ad that features a
smiling child with bright clothing may evoke a sense of innocent joy, but if the picture is covered by text
written in a dark, bold font about child homelessness, then the contrasting elements may be prompting
the reader to reconsider the connections we make between childhood and innocence. Similarly, a trophy
or blue ribbon would indicate success and build ethos, but used in a document that supports equal access
to education, those symbols might encourage the reader to realize a disconnect between competition and
education. Lastly, a series of graphs on a scientific poster uses logos to back research conclusions, but those
same graphs could be put in a different context, for instance next to statistics from a larger study that show
opposite results, to lead readers to throw out the initial, small-scale results and replace them with the author’s more comprehensive research. Both cases use logos to draw readers in visually and convince them of
an argument; however, analyzing how that analysis works can help you understand the composition and
the argument. Ultimately, a successful visual analysis will not only pull out details about an image but also
consider how these details work together towards one goal that supports a central purpose.
In her article on understanding visual rhetoric, Mary Hocks emphasizes the hybrid nature of verbal and
visual rhetoric. In other words, because we receive compositions as entire packages, we should not try to
divorce visual elements of a piece of writing from the text but instead remember that they work together.
We do not live in a binary world, so rather than consider just the text or just the image, we should strive to
interpret compositions holistically as working together.
International and Cultural Considerations
As we grow up, we develop associations that are often supported by societal influences such as parents
and guardians, teachers, and surrounding media. Oftentimes, these associations become engrained, and
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we don’t question them on a daily basis. For instance, people who have been involved in the fight against
breast cancer might associate a pink ribbon with that cause. They might have a magnet on their car, wear a
fundraiser teeshirt, or iron a patch into a bag with the symbol to show support and rally. However, ribbons
have only been a symbol of solidarity since the late 1970s, and the first pink ribbons were not given out
until the early 1990s (Fernandez, “History of the Pink Ribbon”). While they may be commonplace now, it’s
important to understand that images like this are the product of movements, and only those in similar cultural settings will automatically draw associations between two things like a pink ribbon and breast cancer
research.
Because cultural values vary in context, an image that is interpreted one way by one audience may be
confusing or even offensive for another. Pink is not an international symbol for femininity, and the original
ribbon symbol emerged as a response of an American military wife to the Gulf War (Fernandez, “History
of the Pink Ribbon”). Thus, using a pink ribbon to on materials distributed to raise funds for breast cancer
research might confuse people where in countries like Botswana, where women traditionally wear a wide
spectrum of bright clothes, and ribbons are not generally commonplace. Using a more recognized symbol
for femininity, like a bracelet, might be more effective in achieving the intended goal.
Consider international McDonalds menus. Cultural gastronomic values determine that not all global
citizens favor greasy cheeseburgers and fried chicken nuggets for fast food, so the company developed new
menus that accommodate the preferences of local populations. Imagine, for instance, if the company marketed a hamburger to countries with predominantly Muslim communities, where pork consumption is forbidden by the religion. Not only would the product not sell, but also it might be so offensive to the Muslim
community that its members might stop eating at the restaurant altogether. For this reason, the sandwich
is labeled “beefburger” for clarity.
Organizations must be able to anticipate confusing or offensive cultural assumptions in diverse environments, and visual analysis can be an important starting point for understanding the cultural values that
an organization reflects. As you perform this kind of analysis, think about whether the connections that a
designer relies on for understanding are universal or, if in a different context, they might be read very differently. This extra step will help you support claims about the message of an image as you deconstruct it.
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Works Cited
Fernandez, Sandy M. “History of the Pink Ribbon.” Think Before You Pink. Breast Cancer Action, Web.
10 June 2013. Rpt. of “Pretty in Pink.” MAMM June/July 1998.
Hocks, Mary E. “Understanding visual rhetoric in digital writing environments.” College composition and
communication (2003): 629-656.
Human Rights Campaign. Profile Picture. Facebook, 25 March 2013. Web. 1 June 2013.
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Chapter 3: Rhetoric
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What is Rhetoric?
By Jason Carabelli
If you enter “rhetoric” as a search term in Google, you’re likely to come up with a messy list of dictionary
definitions, recent political news, course syllabi, and maybe even a few reviews of Ancient Greek manuscripts. If you’re looking for a quick definition of rhetoric because you just read it or heard it and weren’t
quite sure what it meant, these Google search results might not leave you satisfied. This is because the word
“rhetoric” has come to signify many different things to many different people over the last few thousand
years of Western thought and popular culture. So much for getting an easy answer from our casual Google
search.
Because rhetoric has such a long and complicated history, scholars are sometimes reluctant to pin down
one definitive answer to the question “What is rhetoric?” In fact, if your writing instructor studies rhetoric,
asking her this question might get you into a much longer conversation than you care to have. This article
doesn’t give you one answer to the question “what is rhetoric?”—that would not be cool with your writing
instructor—but it does give you a foothold for understanding some of its most popular uses today.
When “Rhetoric” Was the Ancient Art of Persuasion
If rhetoric was a superhero in a comic book, it would need what comic book aficionados call an “origin
story.” How did Batman become Batman? What kind of inner demons and motivations sparked a guy to
dress up like a flying rodent and fight crime? If you don’t know the origin story, you don’t know the superhero, and hardcore comic book fans probably won’t take you seriously. Just like Batman, the rhetoric we
know today has an origin story. As you’ve probably guessed though, it’s long and complicated, so consider
this the movie version of the origin story that serious comic book fans pick apart in the YouTube comments.
In its original sense as a word referring to the ancient art of persuasion, rhetoric begins with the Greeks.
The term “rhetoric” was coined by the Ancient Greeks, and they are widely considered to be the first civilization to devote a formalized, comprehensive course of study to the art of persuasion. Additionally, “rhetorician” was popularized as a term to define those that studied persuasion, and “rhetor” came to designate
someone who spoke or wrote to persuade others. Young Greek men, usually politicians or businessmen,
often paid copious amounts of money to be taught the art of speechmaking from professionals, and this
skill was called rhetoric. The most renowned of these scholars of ancient oratory were called “sophists.” Unfortunately, they didn’t write much down, so most of their history is muddled by the political motivations
of those that wrote about them.
The famous Greek philosopher Aristotle, on the other hand, wrote all the time about a variety of topics,
and one of them was rhetoric. His book, On Rhetoric, is widely considered the first major treatment of the
topic in Western thought. In it, Aristotle describes quite a few theoretical concepts that still form the basis
of most studies of rhetoric today. For instance, you may be familiar with the terms ethos, pathos, and logos.
Those are Greek terms and they show up in Aristotle’s Rhetoric as ways to describe different aspects of arguments. Aristotle did not “invent” the study of rhetoric, but he has arguably become the poster boy for the
ancient study of rhetoric thanks to his writings. For comic book fans, he’s like the Adam West Batman—
not the first Batman portrayed in comic books, but the first to bring him to a wider audience by portraying
him onscreen.
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After Aristotle, the Romans picked up the torch of making a seriously big deal about the importance of
studying persuasion. They also started to make more connections between rhetoric and writing, though
some of the Greeks did this too. After the fall of the Roman Empire, though, rhetoric as the ancient art
of persuasion would fall in and out—mostly out—of favor in formal education, which is why many people
today are unaware of its history as the formal study of how to persuade people through oral and written
communication.
It’s also important to know that there is a difference between talking about the study of rhetoric, and the
study of persuasion. Rhetoric does usually have something to do with “persuasion,” but only for world cultures that have built their educational and philosophical history on the Ancient Greeks. These cultures are
often called “Western” cultures, and the United States is one of them. Rhetoric is the way that the Greeks
and their successors explained persuasion, but they were obviously not the only culture in the world to
think about what it means to persuade someone else. Ancient scholars from other world cultures, for instance in Asia, did not build their cultural history of persuasion on the Greek study of rhetoric. Though the
Greeks were unusual in their emphasis on the importance of learning about persuasion, they were by no
means the only culture to study it.
When “Rhetoric” is Empty Words
With our history lesson veiled by cheap comic book references finished, we can move on to what has
become the most recognizable use of the term “rhetoric” today: the one with the negative connotation. If
you’ve ever watched a presidential debate or campaign speech, you’ve probably heard phrases like “that’s
just rhetoric,” “there’s nothing behind the rhetoric,” or “that’s just the same old rhetoric.” In the news media, if someone says a politician’s words are “just rhetoric,” he is definitely not complimenting how skillful
and inspiring that politician’s speech was (as an Ancient Greek might have meant). Rather, he is probably
accusing the politician of using meaningless phrases and slogans to obscure the truth and deceive the public.
So what the heck happened between Aristotle and today’s political pundits? Well, that whole “rhetoric
fell in and out of favor” thing mentioned earlier was no joke. Many ancient scholars didn’t take too kindly
to what some people could do with a formal education in persuasion. In fact, philosophers like Socrates
and Plato were so worried that “rhetoric” would lead people to lie and deceive just to get their way that
they spent a good part of their careers turning it into a dirty word. That is why today, when someone says
“rhetoric,” they are often referring to a hollow, deceptive kind of persuasion.
When “Rhetoric” is Part of a Writing Course
This is all well and good, but if you were really searching for the word “rhetoric” in Google, it was probably because it had something to do with your college writing course. If rhetoric got such a bum rap in the
last few hundred years, though, why on earth would someone decide to use it in the title of a book that’s
supposed to help students become better writers? Why would writing courses at many universities put
rhetoric in the syllabus, or teach rhetoric courses? As you’ve probably guessed, it has something to do with
the first history of the word rhetoric discussed above, when it was the ancient art of persuasion.
American universities care deeply about the communication skills of their graduates. They care so much,
in fact, that they include writing in the list of general education requirements for all university students nationwide. These courses, sometimes called “composition” courses, usually have the goal of preparing college
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students to persuasively compose their ideas for an audience. Because of this need for successful writing
instruction, many scholars devote their careers to researching how to better teach writing (your instructor
might be one of them). Additionally, a few decades ago many of these scholars started dusting off old copies of Greek and Roman texts on rhetoric in their search for a way to teach courses like yours. What they
found was a rich history of theory and practice to aid student writers, and so more and more writing programs started to recover rhetorical theory for college writing courses.
That is why you find yourself in a writing or composition course that is using a book about rhetoric to
teach writing. Your university writing program or your individual instructor decided that rhetorical theory
offered a tangible answer to the question: “how can we teach writing?” The study of rhetoric hadn’t gone
away completely in academia, but rather different theories of teaching writing were fashionable for a long
time. In fact, there are many different ways to teach college writing skills. For instance, you may have
friends in different universities who are studying classic literature or oral communication to fulfill the same
requirements as your writing course.
What’s important to take away from this is not that “rhetoric” gets a bad rap and that it really means the
study of persuasion (and look how cool we are for knowing it now. It’s like we’re in a secret club). Rather,
it’s important to keep in mind that “rhetoric” can mean different things that are appropriate in different
situations. Your instructor or university has decided that rhetoric is a useful way to teach writing, and this
book is an invitation to you to explore what learning about rhetoric can mean for you as a student and
developing writer. If you’re asking yourself “what does rhetoric have that’s so great about teaching writing?”
the answer is—you guessed it—long and complicated. Nobody can answer that question for you, either. To
know how you answer that question for yourself, then, think about how the content of this book relates to
your daily life as a living, breathing, communicating rhetorician. The concepts described in this book and
by your instructor are not meaningless, superficial, or exchangeable. Learning about college level writing
through the study of rhetoric is different, sometimes way different, than writing instruction you have previously encountered. Think about what you can use from this book as a persuader—a rhetor—but also what
doesn’t quite fit or seem relevant, and you’ll be well on your way to answering “what is rhetoric?” for yourself.
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Why We Study Rhetoric
Or, What Freestyle Rap Teaches Us about Writing
By Kyle D. Stedman
The Web site eHow has a page on “How to Freestyle Rap” (“Difficulty: Moderately Challenging”), and
I’m trying to figure out what I think about it. On one hand, it seems like it would be against the ethos of
an authentic rapper to use a page like this to brush up on freestyle skills.
But on the other hand, the advice seems solid, encouraging the reader to follow an easy, 7-step model:
1. Learn the basics.
2. Just start flowing.
3. Write down some good rhymes ahead of time.
4. Work on your wordplay.
5. Practice at home in your spare time.
6. Have a rap battle.
7. Rap what you know.
(www.ehow.com/m/how_2034496_freestyle-rap.html)
The page addresses freestyle rap as an art that can be practiced effectively by anyone, as long as he or she
is willing to research, take risks, spend time developing the craft, practice with a community and for an
audience, and stay true to him- or herself (i.e., to “keep it real”).
And here’s the thing: I think of rhetoric the same way. That is, it’s an art that can be practiced effectively
by anyone, as long as the rhetor (the person who is communicating rhetorically) is willing to research, take
risks, spend time developing the craft, practice with a community and for an audience, and stay true to
him- or herself.
That’s right: Rhetoric is an art. But not necessarily in the way we think of art. The ancient Greeks called
art techne, a word they used to mean “a craft or ability to do something, a creative skill; this can be physical
or mental, positive or negative, like that of metalworking or trickery” (Papillion 149). Other examples of
techne? Ship-building, for one. [1] You’d better not muddle your way through the art of building a ship, or
you’ll ruddy well sink.
Rhetoric developed as an oral art, the art of knowing how to give an effective speech—say, in a court, in a
law-making session, or at a funeral. And if you muddled your way through a speech, not convincing anyone, not moving anyone, looking like a general schmuck in a toga, you’d ruddy well sink there, too.
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So, rhetoric is an art. But, of what? The shortest answer: communication, whether written, spoken, painted, or streamed
Now, how do you judge when communication has worked—that is, when it’s effective? In other words,
how do you know when someone has used rhetorical skills well?
That’s easy: when an audience says so.
• An anchor on a conservative news program makes a jab at President Obama. Conservative watchers
thought the jab was well deserved and well timed; it was rhetorically effective for them. Liberal watchers
thought it was a cheap shot; it was not rhetorically effective for them.
• A student writes an essay arguing that advertisements are so pervasive in the United States that he
can’t even go to the bathroom without seeing Coca-Cola’s logo. His roommate reads it, not thinking that
advertising is a big deal; he’s not convinced, so it’s not a rhetorically effective essay for him. But his teacher
reads it and thinks it’s cleverly argued and bitingly true. For her, it works and is rhetorically effective.
• Eminem ends a rap battle to raucous applause from most of the people in the club, but the old grandmother in the back thinks it was all a lot of noise.
Rhetoric can’t be judged completely objectively. It wouldn’t make sense to say that someone’s rhetoric was
“right” or “wrong,” although we might claim it can be “good” or “bad.” It all comes down to the audience.
You’ll notice that the above examples describe situations in which the rhetor is being persuasive in one
way or another. Another common definition of rhetoric: the art of persuasion. And persuasion is important—we’re constantly trying to convince others, either subtly or overtly, to understand our points of view,
and others are constantly trying to convince us to understand their points of view.
But I like to think of rhetoric as being about more than just persuasion. Rhetoric is also about making a
connection with an audience. It’s a series of techniques to help us share the way we see things with others.
And depending on whom I’m sharing with, I’ll use different techniques. I wouldn’t communicate my views
to my wife in the same way that I would to the U.S. president, or to Jay-Z.
The best rappers are surprising. Listening to them, you find yourself leaning over, laughing at unexpected
wordplay. You smile, get into the groove, listen more carefully, and later remember how much you enjoyed
it. The communication was effective.
I read Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance in my senior year of high school, but I didn’t really get it.
The author kept talking about rhetoric, and even after I looked up the definition, it didn’t make any sense
to me. Looking back, I think that’s ironic: the beating, blood-pumping heart of rhetoric is a consideration
of audience. Speaking or writing or composing something that works the way you want it to, for the audience you want it to work for. The author (Robert M. Pirsig), on the other hand, was thoroughly unrhetorical in his discussion of rhetoric.
But I don’t think senior-year me was the intended audience of Zen. If I had been, the author was a pretty
lousy rhetor, because he did not well enough explain what rhetoric means. After reading his book, I was
neither convinced nor riveted.
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However, when I read the book now, I’m moved. I understand and accept Pirsig’s views. Without the text
changing at all, I became his audience. I get it now.
So, why study rhetoric? The answer is the same as that of the question, “Why study freestyle rap?” Both
are a set of skills and techniques that can be learned and improved upon by studying methods that have
proven effective in the past.
“Why study painting?” Because by studying how others paint, you learn techniques that can make you a
more effective painter.
“Why study business?” Because by studying how others do business, you learn techniques that can help
you become a more effective businessperson.
Why study ship-building, or basket-weaving, or trickery, or any other subject that you might be able to
muddle through, but which you’d be much better at in practice, with some training and technique? Isn’t it
obvious?
Within the realm of communication, the same theory applies to rhetoric. Why not learn some techniques
that will increase the chance that your audience will think or feel the way you want them to after hearing,
reading, or experiencing whatever it is that you throw at them?
And that’s only thinking about you in the composer’s role. What about when you’re on the receiving
end, hearing, reading, or experiencing ideas that have been carefully crafted so that you’ll buy into them?
A scary list of rhetorically effective people: politicians, advertisers, supervillains. (You want rhetoric? Just
listen to the slimy words of the Emperor in Return of the Jedi, or the words Lord Voldemort beams into
everyone’s brains in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Part Two.) Studying rhetoric can also open your
eyes to the ways in which others wield their communication skills, for better or worse (in the cases of the
Emperor and Lord Voldemort, like evil weapons).
My wife to me, the other day: “Ugh. Carrie just wrote something inappropriate on her fiancé’s Facebook
wall again.”
Me: “What’d she say?”
My wife: “I don’t even remember. It was something all gushy and uncomfortable. I skimmed back a bit
and saw she’s been doing that a lot. Doesn’t she know that she can write messages that go just to him and
not the rest of us? She doesn’t have to post that stuff on his wall!”
As I thought about this conversation, I realized that Carrie (not her real name) was in some ways exemplifying a rhetorical failure. Yes, her fiancé, whom Carrie certainly intended to be the primary recipient, pro
ably found the message very rhetorically effective. That is, he surely felt the gushy emotions that she meant
for him to feel. Her message worked. How rhetorical!
But because a Facebook wall is to some extent public, others—hundreds of people—will read Carrie’s
post too. What is the intended message for them? If we trust and like Carrie (and if she’s lucky), then we
may think, “Oh, it’s sweet when people are public about their love for each other!” If we’re kind of sick of
Carrie, we might think, “She just plain doesn’t get that we don’t care about her digital smooches and hugs.”
And if we’re mad at her, we might think, “She’s publicly declaring her love to him because she wants us to
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feel bad that we don’t have the kind of true love that she has!” In short, after reading the message, most of
us would think either (A) “That’s nice!,” (B) “Oh, gross!,” or (C) “That hussy!”
Why study rhetoric? Because, communication is difficult, and even more difficult if we are not rhetorically aware.
We’re still beating around the bush when it comes to what rhetorical skills actually look like. Up to this
point, you could say, “You keep talking about these different collections of skills, but other than by freestyling, I barely have any idea how to go about being effective at this stuff.”
Among others, here are some of the decisions rhetors (including you as a composition student!) must
make:
• The basics (e.g., how to determine the best time and place to communicate, how to clarify what a communication is about, and how to learn about an audience)
• How to choose appropriate ideas and evidence to use for a given audience (e.g., freewriting, openminded research, and other forms of what we call “invention”)
• How to organize material presented to a given audience (e.g., as in a business report, a classical six-part
speech, or a thesis-driven research essay)
• How to shape the style of a message or argument in ways that will be both understandable and exciting for an audience (e.g., using rhetorical figures to liven up sentences or varying sentence length and type)
• What medium to use when communicating to a given audience (e.g., a speech, an essay, a video, a recording, a painting, a sticky note, a letter made from words cut out of magazines)
Yes, I keep writing the word audience over and over again. That’s because the audience is at the core of
any rhetorical endeavor. Remember? All of the considerations described above can be summed up in one
sentence: Thinking rhetorically means thinking about your audience. And that means communicating in a
way that doesn’t make you look stupid, mean, or confusing. And that means communicating in a way that
makes you look smart, nice, and clear.
It sounds obvious, right? I think so too. But then, why are people so bad at it?
The shortcomings of a failed rhetor are those of a failed freestyle rapper, too. He gets up to start a rap
battle and seems impressive at first (i.e., he has a strong ethos—a word we use a lot when analyzing communication from a rhetorical angle), but then things go badly when he gets the mic. He starts blundering
around, looking like he’s never done this before. (He should have followed eHow’s advice to “[w]rite down
some good rhymes ahead of time.”) In desperation, he lashes out at his opponent with attacks that seem
like low blows, even for a rap battle. The audience groans; he broke an unspoken rule about how mean
he can be. Rhetorical failure. He can tell that he’s losing the audience, so he changes his tactics and starts
blending together all kinds of words that rhyme. But he fails at this too, since nothing he says makes any
sense. Eventually, he’s booed off stage.
Why study rhetoric? So you can succeed in rap battles. I thought that was obvious.
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Works Cited
“How to Freestyle Rap.” eHow. Demand Media, n.d. Web. 15 July 2011.
Papillion, Terry. “Isocrates’ Techne and Rhetorical Pedagogy.” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 25 (1995): 149–63.
JSTOR. Web. 19 July 2011.
Pirsig, Robert M. Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values. New York: Morrow,
1974. Print.
[1] Thanks to Dr. Debra Jacobs for pointing this out to me.
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Logos: Appeals to Logic
By Emily Lane, Jessica McKee, and Megan McIntyre
“Logic is the anatomy of thought.” – John Locke
“Logos” is the appeal to logic. Logos isn’t logic like the formal logic in math, philosophy, or even computer science; it is the consistency and clarity of an argument as well as the logic of evidence and reasons.
In formal logic, in abstraction, the following is the case: if A is true and B is true and A is an instance of
B, then the repercussions of B will always be true. The problem, however, is that this kind of logic doesn’t
work for real-life situations. This is where argument comes into play. Formal logic would say that speeding,
for example, is a violation of traffic laws. A repercussion of violating a traffic law is a ticket; therefore, every
person who speeds gets a ticket. However, in real life, not in abstract theory, things aren’t that cut and dried.
Most people would not agree that all speeders, in every circumstance, should receive a ticket. In an argument about a real-life situation, the audience needs particulars to make their decisions. Sometimes there’s
an exception. Why was that person speeding? Well, if an eighteen-year-old is speeding to show off for his
friends, then yes, most people would agree that he deserves a ticket. However, if a man is driving his pregnant wife to the hospital, then maybe he does not deserve the ticket. One could, and probably would, make
the argument that he should not get a ticket.
Let’s examine how the appeal to logic would work in an argument for the speeding father-to-be.
Because arguments are based on values and beliefs as well as facts and evidence, it is logical that the
argument must coincide with accepted values and beliefs. The enthymeme is the foundation of every argument. Enthymemes have three parts: the claim, the reason, and the unstated assumption that is provided
by the audience. All three of these things must make sense to your audience in order for your argument to
be considered logical. The claim of an argument for the father-to-be could be something like, “This man
should not get a speeding ticket.” That’s it. The claim is pretty simple. It is your educated opinion on the
matter. The reason would be something like “because his wife is in labor in the backseat.” So the two stated
parts of your enthymeme would be, “This man should not get a speeding ticket because his wife is in labor
in the backseat.” Now, this seems obviously logical to us; however, what is our underlying value, our unstated assumption about this argument? Most of us would probably agree that a hospital is a better place to
give birth in than a backseat. That is the third part of the enthymeme. Your audience must agree that your
assumption is true in order for your argument to be considered logical. If your readers don’t have the same
assumption, they are not going to see your logic. You must find an enthymeme that works for your audience. The pregnant wife enthymeme is fairly easy to see. In more volatile claims and reasons, the unstated
assumptions can be trickier to identify and work out with your audience.
Reasons like “because his wife is in labor” are motivations for the driver’s actions, not evidence. Most
audiences need facts. Evidence is the facts. Both reasons and evidence are used in an appeal to logic; however, reasons cannot be your only support. Evidence as to why the man should speed might include studies
about the problems with births in difficult or dangerous circumstances, interviews with women who have
given birth in automobiles, and infant mortality rates for births that do not occur in hospitals. As you can
see, there are many different kinds of evidence you could provide for this argument.
Consistency means not changing the unstated or stated rules governing your argument. Consistency
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is essential to logic. Let us continue with the speeding example. If, for instance, you are arguing that the
infant mortality rate is too high for babies born outside the hospital and that the father is required to speed
for the safety of his unborn child, then you may not want to include evidence of the high infant mortality
rate in car crashes. Although this information may be part of the infant mortality rate, it goes against the
underlying assumption that speeding is acceptable because of the high risk of harming the baby if it is born
in the backseat.
So why should you care about logos? In your own writing, logos is important because it appeals to your
readers’ intellects. It makes you readers feel smart. Logos is the part of the argument where you treat your
audience like purely rational, “only the facts, ma’am” kind of people. Also, gaps, leaps, and inconsistencies
in logic, no matter how well developed the other appeals may be, can tear apart an argument in short order. This is the same reason you cannot ignore logos in others’ arguments either. All the appeals are linked
together; for instance, if you use as evidence an article that has leaps in logic, or relies only on authority and
emotions, this article could damage your own ethos as an author. It is important to remember that all three
appeals must be well developed and work together to make a good argument.
Identifying Logos
As you now know, logos can be defined as a writer’s or speaker’s attempt to appeal to the logic or reason
of her audience. Let’s look at some examples of logos that you might commonly find when reading texts of
various media:
• Statistics. When a writer employs data or statistics within a text, you can probably assume that he
or she is attempting to appeal to the logic and reason of the reader. For example, an argument in favor of
keeping abortion legal may cite the May 2011 Pew Research poll that found 54 percent of Americans in
favor of legal abortion. This figure makes a logical argument: abortion should be legal because the majority
of Americans support it, and in a democracy, the majority makes the decisions.
• Causal statements. When you see an “if-then” statement, with credible supporting evidence, the writer
is likely appealing to your reason. Consider an argument about lowering the drinking age from 21 to 18: a
writer might suggest that, if the legal drinking age were 18, then people between 18 and 21 would be less
likely to drive under the influence. If the writer offers evidence that the reason that some between the ages
of 18 and 21 drive drunk is that they fear calling a friend or parent because they have illegally ingested
alcohol, then this causal statement would be an appeal to a reader’s sense of reason.
• Relevant examples or other evidence. You might begin to think about logos as evidence that doesn’t
involve an appeal to your emotions. Even expert testimony, which would certainly be an example of ethos,
also could be an example of logos, depending on its content. For example, in a discussion about recent cuts
in education funding, a statement from the Hillsborough County, Florida, superintendent would be an
appeal to authority. But if that statement contained a discussion of the number of teachers and classes that
would have to be cut if the state were to reduce the district’s funding, the statement from the superintendent could also be an appeal to logic.
Fallacious Logos
• Appeal to Nature: Suggesting a certain behavior or action is normal/right because it is “natural.” This
is a fallacious argument for two reasons: first, there are multiple, and often competing, ways to define “na64
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ture” and “natural.” Because there is no one way to define these terms, a writer cannot assume his or her
reader thinks of “nature” is the same way he or she does. Second, we cannot assume that “unnatural” is the
same as wrong or evil. We (humans) have made lots of amendments to how we live (e.g., wearing clothes,
living indoors, farming) with great benefit.
• Argument from Ignorance: Assuming something is true because it has not been proven false. In a
court of law, a defendant is, by law, “innocent until proven guilty.” However, judges and jurors must hear
testimonies from both sides and receive all facts in order to draw conclusions about the defendant’s guilt or
innocence. It would be an argument from ignorance for a judge or juror to reach a verdict without hearing
all of the necessary information.
• Straw Man: Intentionally misrepresenting your opponent’s position by over-exaggerating or offering
a caricature of his or her argument. It would be fallacious to claim to dispute an opponent’s argument by
creating a superficially similar position and refuting that position (the “straw man”) instead of the actual
argument. For example, “Feminists want to turn men into slaves.” This statement fails to accurately represent feminist motivations—which can be very diverse. Most feminists agree in their goal to ensure women’s
equality with men. Conceptions of equality can vary among feminists, but characterizing them as menhaters detracts from their true motivations.
• False Dilemma: Assuming that there are only two options when there are, in fact, more. For example,
“We either cut Social Security, or we have a huge deficit.” There are many ways to resolve deficit problems,
but this statement suggests there is only one.
• Hasty Generalization: Drawing a broad conclusion based on a small minority. For instance, if you
witnessed a car accident between two women drivers, it would be a hasty generalization to conclude that all
women are bad drivers.
• Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (With This, Therefore Because of This): Confusing correlation with
causation—that is, thinking that because two things happened simultaneously, then one must have caused
the other. For example, “There has been an increase in both immigration and unemployment; therefore,
immigrants are taking away American jobs.” This statement is fallacious because there is no evidence to
suggest that immigration and unemployment are related to each other—other than that their rates increased simultaneously.
• Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (After This, Therefore Because of This): Assuming that because A occurred before B, A is the cause of B. This differs from the previous fallacy in temporality (A before B versus
A and B happening simultaneously).
• The Slippery Slope: We already noted that the slippery slope argument is often a way to scare readers
or listeners into taking (or not taking) a particular action. The slippery slope argument can also function as
a false invocation of logic or reason in that it involves a causal statement that lacks evidence. For example,
I might argue that if the drinking age were lowered from 21 to 18, vast numbers of college students would
start drinking, which in turn would lead to alcohol poisoning, binge drinking, and even death. This conclusion requires evidence to connect the legality of drinking with overindulgence. In other words, it does not
follow that college students would drink irresponsibly if given the opportunity to drink legally.
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Ethos: Appeals to Authority and Credibility
By Megan McIntyre and Jessica McKee
“Power is the most persuasive rhetoric.” – Friedrich Schiller
I’ve always wondered why candidates have to “approve this message”; I mean, if President Obama is on
camera talking about himself, then can’t I assume he approves the message? Why does he have to state that
he approves it at the end? There’s certainly a law that governs what must be said at the end of a political
advertisement, or else President Obama wouldn’t say exactly the same thing as every other politician at the
end of an ad, but there’s also an element of persuasion at work here. By appearing on camera saying that he
approves the content, the President is giving the ad credibility. It’s about him, his work, and his beliefs, and
by saying he has approved the ad, President Obama is saying, “You can trust this information about me.”
This appeal to credibility is known as “ethos.” Ethos is a method of persuasion in which the speaker or
writer (the “rhetor”) attempts to persuade the audience by demonstrating his own credibility or authority. I
think the best way to understand this kind of appeal to the credibility of the author is to look at the three
most common ways a rhetor attempts to demonstrate authority on a topic.
Intrinsic Authority
Intrinsic authority is authority that comes from the rhetor herself. It might come from her work experience or college degrees or generally good morality, or it might come from how well she demonstrates that
she can speak or write about her topic.
Aristotle, who coined the term “ethos,” said that “persuasion is achieved by the speaker’s personal character when the speech is so spoken as to make us think him credible.” This is true, he said, because an audience will “believe good men more fully and more readily than others.” For Aristotle, though, this kind
of persuasion shouldn’t derive from who the person is exactly; rather, it “should be achieved by what the
speaker says, not by what people think of his character before he begins to speak.” For us, however, in an
age in which Google is a click away, the speaker’s character and achievements have an impact on the way
we think about what she says. It’s unavoidable. But the person’s ability to speak authoritatively on her topic
is just as important.
Remember, though, that a rhetorical situation, in which a speaker or writer seeks to purposefully persuade her audience, is an artificial situation: an author shares only a part of herself with the audience. To
put it another way, as M. Jimmie Killingsworth, a scholar of rhetoric from Texas A&M University, does
in a 2005 article in Rhetoric Review: “The author’s position is not simply a personal account of himself or
herself. The author is a complex individual who selectively reveals (or invents) aspects of character pertinent
to the rhetorical work required at the moment” (251–52).
Borrowed Credibility
Sometimes, though, a speaker or writer doesn’t have enough of her own credibility to convince the audience. What should she do then? Well, this is usually when a rhetor borrows credibility from somebody else.
That’s one of the reasons it’s important to know how to cite credible sources. The sources we use when we
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write give us some of their credibility. As the Yale University Writing Center encourages students, “Incorporating other people’s ideas into your writing allows you to stand on their shoulders as you explore your
topic.”
Think, for example, about the way I quoted Aristotle earlier in this discussion. I’m a teacher, so I have
some authority. You’re reading the information in an open textbook, and that also gives me some credibility,
but those two things combined may not be enough to convince you that I’m an authority on the subject.
So, I borrowed credibility from the man who first wrote about ethos. I used quotes from Aristotle’s most
important book on rhetoric, and those quotes help establish my own credibility on the subject at hand.
“Oh, that makes sense.”
There is also, however, the credibility that comes from saying or writing something that the audience already believes or that reinforces the audience’s experience. We should treat this kind of ethos with a healthy
dose of suspicion. Just because something sounds right to you or makes you feel good about what you
believe does not mean that it is true.
Take, for example, the idea that the Founding Fathers of the United States were Christians. Many wellknown commentators and politicians have made this claim, and it has been generally accepted as the truth.
The statement has the authority that comes from being the conventional wisdom. The problem, however,
is that the Founding Fathers weren’t all Christians. Some of the most prominent members of this group,
including Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin, were actually Deists. They didn’t believe that Jesus was
God, which is a central tenant of Christianity, and wrote extensively about their Deism. (Refer to Benjamin
Franklin: Autobiography, Poor Richard, and Later Writings, edited by J. A. Leo Lemay, and David Holmes’s
The Faiths of the Founding Fathers for information about this.) There is a lesson in this for both audience
and speaker. It’s dangerous to accept something just because it sounds true. Credibility can’t be established
just by saying what the audience wants to hear.
Identifying Ethos
By now, you’ve hopefully gotten an idea of what ethos is: an attempt to persuade by appealing to authority or credibility. You might be wondering, though, what ethos looks like in writing or in speaking. Here
are a few examples:
• References to work experience or life experience related to the topic. When an author writing about
the stock market talks about his years working for an investment bank, that’s an appeal to credibility.
• References to college degrees or awards related to the topic. When your biology instructor makes
clear in the syllabus that he has a PhD in biology and that you’ll be using the textbook he’s written for the
class, he’s reminding you of his authority and credibility on the subject.
• References to the character of the writer. When a politician writes in a campaign brochure about his
years of public service and the contributions he’s made to the community, he’s letting you know he’s trustworthy, a good person, and a credible source of information about the community and the issues that affect
it.
• The use of supporting sources written by authorities on the subject. When a student writes a paper
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about why school hours should be changed and uses quotations from principals, teachers, and school board
members (all of whom know something about the topic), he’s borrowing their credibility and authority to
increase his own.
• References to symbols that represent authority. When a candidate gives a speech in front of an
American flag, he or she is associating him- or herself with the symbol and borrowing the authority it represents.
Fallacious Ethos
• Ad Hominem (Argument to the Person): Attacking the person instead of the argument. For example,
“You say I shouldn’t drink so much, but you drink every day.” The validity of the argument (drink less) can’t
be based on the behavior of the person making the argument. Instead, the validity of the argument should
be evaluated on its own terms—separate from the person making the claim.
• Argument from Authority: Claiming to be an expert and, on that basis, to be deserving of trust. It’s
important to remember that there are different kinds and levels of expertise: My weekend cooking class
doesn’t make me an authority on recipes, though I can honestly say I’ve studied cooking. So, I might be an
authority on some elements of cooking, but not all of cooking. When faced with an argument from authority, it is important to investigate the credentials of the speaker or writer.
• Appeal to Authority: Using a statement taken out of context as authoritative support. For instance, it
would be fallacious to use Malcolm X’s declaration “by any means necessary” to justify an oppressed group’s
violence against police officers. Such an assertion ignores the context, and therefore the complexity, of Malcolm X’s statement.
• Argument from False Authority: Using an expert in a specific field as an expert in all related fields.
For instance, if I am writing a paper about heart disease and I quote my chiropractor, Dr. Wallace, then
I would be making an appeal to fallacious ethos; despite being a doctor, she is not an authority on heart
disease.
• Appeal to Anonymous Authority: Using appeals to nonspecific groups (e.g., doctors, scientists, researchers, and so on). For example, “Research shows that all women are inferior to men.” Or, “Studies
indicate that all college students binge drink.” Neither of these statements offers a specific credible source,
so both claims lack authority.
• Inflation of Conflict: Using a conflict between two authorities as a reason to dismiss their arguments
and knowledge. For instance, it would be fallacious to assert that global climate change does not exist because two scientists disagree about its effects.
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Works Cited
Aristotle. On Rhetoric. Trans. W. Rhys Roberts. The Internet Classics Archive. Web. Atomic and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 13 Sept. 2007. Web. 4 July 2010.
Franklin, Benjamin. Benjamin Franklin: Autobiography, Poor Richard, and Later Writings. New York, NY:
Library of America, 2005. Print.
Holmes, David. The Faiths of the Founding Fathers. New York, NY: Oxford UP, 2006. Print.
Killingsworth, M. Jimmie. “Rhetorical Appeals: A Revision.” Rhetoric Review 24.3 (2005): 249–63. Academic Search Premier. Web. 11 July 2010.
Yale Writing Center. “Why Cite?” The Writing Center. Yale U, 2009. Web. 4 July 2010.
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Pathos: Appeals to Emotion
By Kendra Gayle Lee, Jessica McKee, and Megan McIntyre
“Let’s not forget that the little emotions are the great captains of our lives, and we obey them without realizing it.” – Vincent Van Gogh
Remember those after-school specials that aired on TV when you were a kid? They always had some
obvious moral (like “don’t drink and drive”). And they were often really emotionally driven. At the end of
the show, the camera would pan out, showing the protagonist alone and suffering for the poor decisions
that he or she had made. When you were a child, that sort of heavy-handed emotionalism was effective in
getting a point across. Now that you’re an adult, it becomes easier to feel frustrated, and even manipulated,
by an overload of emotion. Emotion, or “pathos,” is a rhetorical device that can be used in an argument to
draw the audience in and to help it connect with the argument. Relying too much on pathos, though, can
make your writing sound like an after-school special.
Pathos works in conjunction with logos (logic) and ethos (credibility) to help form a solid argument.
However, not every argument employs all three rhetorical devices. Each writer must choose which combination of rhetorical devices will work well for his or her writing and will suit the chosen topic. Used correctly, pathos can make a bland argument come alive for the audience. Pathos offers a way for the audience
to relate to the subject through commonly held emotions. However, it is important to determine when
pathos will be useful and when it will only serve to muddy the argumentative waters.
Take, for instance, a student who is writing an essay on human trafficking. Human trafficking—abducting or entrapping people (usually women and children) and subjecting them to horrific working situations—should be a subject that is already fraught with emotion. However, once the student starts working
on the paper, he notices that he has a collection of facts and figures from which the audience will easily be
able to disconnect. What the needs is to make the topic come alive for the reader. He needs to make the
reader feel sympathy and horror. Then he comes upon a first-person account of a teenager who was trafficked into the United States. By incorporating her account into his essay (with proper citation, of course),
he allows the reader to experience the teenager’s disbelief and fear. And by experiencing this emotion, the
reader begins to develop his or her own emotional response: sympathy, horror, and anger. The student has
helped the reader connect to his argument through the effective use of pathos.
Pathos becomes a liability in an argument when it is inappropriate for the subject matter or genre of
writing being used. For instance, if you are writing a letter to Publix supermarket to express your displeasure with its corporate response to migrant farmers’ call for a living wage, then a narrative encouraging
sympathy for the plight of the migrant worker might not be as effective as a straightforward statement
of purpose: if Publix doesn’t change its policies, you will take your business to a supermarket that is more
interested in supporting social justice.
An audience can also find an overload of pathos to be off-putting. For instance, after September 11,
2001, the majority of people in the United States experienced an overwhelming sense of anger and fear.
However, when references to 9/11 were used extensively in some of the 2004 presidential campaigns, many
people were outraged. Why? Because they felt as though their intense feelings about the tragedy of 9/11
were being exploited and cheapened by the candidates, and they were intentionally being made to feel fearful. They felt as though their emotions were being manipulated to obtain votes. In this case, an overload of
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pathos backfired on the candidates.
Understanding pathos is important for readers and for writers. As a reader, you want to be in tune with
the author’s use of pathos, consciously evaluating the emotions the author tries to elicit. Then you can make
informed decisions about the author’s motives and writing methods. As a writer, you want to be aware of
proper uses of pathos, paying close attention to both your subject matter and your audience. There is no
need to sound like an after-school special, unless, of course, you are writing for one.
Identifying Pathos
It’s probably clear by now what pathos does: it evokes an emotional response from a reader by appealing
to empathy, fear, humor, or some other emotion. Now let’s look at a few examples of pathos that you may
find in written, spoken, or visual texts:
• Anecdotes or other narratives. When a writer employs a narrative or anecdote, he or she is usually attempting to connect with the reader emotionally. For example, beginning an essay about human trafficking
by relaying the personal story of a victim captures the attention of the audience because it humanizes the
problem and draws on readers’ empathy.
• Images or other forms of media. When a writer uses images, songs, and other types of nontextual
media, he or she is often attempting to engage a reader’s emotions. Songs and pictures produce emotional
responses. For example, Toby Keith’s post-9/11 anthem, “Courtesy of the Red, White, and Blue,” seems to
embody the nation’s anger after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. While you may not agree with the song’s sense of
justice, the lyrics recall a painful time in our nation’s history. For many, that recollection prompts an emotional response.
• Direct quotations. Though quotations are used for a myriad of reasons, direct quoting from an individual who has been personally affected by an issue is usually an appeal to the emotions of a reader. For
example, if I were writing an essay about breast cancer and I quoted a cancer patient, that quotation would
be an attempt to humanize the topic and appeal to the sympathy of my readers.
• Humor. When a writer uses humor in order to illustrate a point, he or she is employing pathos.
Though there is logic to satirical humor (as used on The Daily Show or The Colbert Report), the main appeal
of such television shows is that they make viewers laugh.
Fallacious Pathos
• Argument by Dismissal: Rejecting an idea without providing a reason or explanation for its dismissal.
For instance, there is a tendency to cry “socialism” when faced with calls for a single-payer system in the
ongoing health care debate. Such a dismissal of the single-payer system may include the observations, “This
is America!,” or, “You are free to live elsewhere if you prefer.” While we do live in the United States and
people are free to live wherever they want, neither of these observations actually addresses the argument,
either for or against the single-payer system. The observer relies on the simple (and fallacious) dismissal of
the opposing viewpoint.
• Argument by Emotive Language: Using emotional words that are not supported by evidence and/or
are unconnected to the argument being made. For example, in abortion debates regarding a woman’s right
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to choose, the argument sometimes shifts from a discussion of medical or legal rights to a graphic description of the abortion process or extreme analogies between abortion and genocide. Most would agree that
genocide should be prevented and that the destruction of a fetus is a violent procedure, but these observations distract from the conversation about a woman’s medical and legal rights.
• Appeal to Pity: Drawing on irrelevant personal experiences or feelings in order to produce a sympathetic response. For instance, if I were writing about the necessity of universal health care and I included
a personal anecdote about falling ill in Canada and being unable to receive free health care, that anecdote
would be a fallacious appeal to pity. My personal experience, though interesting, does not illuminate the
issue of universal health care.
• The Slippery Slope: Suggesting that a particular argument or course of action will lead to disastrous
consequences without offering evidence. This fallacy usually produces an emotional response. A common
example is the assertion that legalizing gay marriage will lead to polygamy, bestiality, and/or pedophilia.
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Kairos: Appeals to Timeliness
By Kate Pantelides, Megan McIntyre, and Jessica McKee
“This is the right time, and this is the right thing.” – Sir Thomas Moore
“Kairos” is an ancient rhetorical concept that has gained importance in different disciplines over the centuries. So what is it? Kairos is knowing what is most appropriate in a given situation; for our purposes, let’s
think of it as saying (or writing) the right thing at the right time. Appeals to kairos in written form try to
make use of the particular moment—attempting to capture in words what will be immediately applicable,
appropriate, and engaging for a particular audience. Kairos is timeliness, appropriateness, decorum, symmetry, balance—awareness of the rhetorical situation or “the circumstances that open moments of opportunity” (Kinneavy; Sipiora; Vatz; Bitzer; Hill 217). Kairos is crafting serendipity, like when the sun comes out
at the end of a romantic comedy after all the conflicts have been resolved.
In Greek, both kairos and chronos literally mean “time,” but kairos does not mean “time” in the same sense
as used in contemporary English. In Greek, kairos represents a kind of “qualitative” time, as in “the right
time”; chronos represents a different kind of “quantitative” time, as in, “What time is it?” and “Will we have
enough time?” (Kinneavy; Stephenson). Kairos means taking advantage of or even creating a perfect moment to deliver a particular message.
Consider, for example, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech. The speech was
rhetorically powerful: it changed minds, persuaded people to support the civil rights movement, and served
as a powerful rallying cry for a generation of reformers. But the speech was so powerful in part because of
its kairotic moment: the timing and atmosphere of the speech lent themselves to powerful oratory. Together, the “where” (the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.), the “why” (the culmination of a
march on Washington by thousands of members of the civil rights movement), and the “when” (during the
centennial celebration of the Emancipation Proclamation, at a time of day when broadcast networks could
carry the speech live, and during a march which had drawn more than 250,000 people to the capital) created the perfect moment for King’s message to reach the largest number of receptive listeners.
Although kairos has long been a key word for many disciplines, within the study of writing, kairos has
been the topic of much debate in the last few decades. James Kinneavy is largely credited with reintroducing the importance of kairos into the discipline of Rhetoric and Composition and, thus, the composition
classroom. According to Kinneavy, kairos is “the appropriateness of the discourse to the particular circumstances of the time, place, speaker, and audience involved” (84). Other scholars suggest that “kairos refers
to a struggle, at the point of rhetorical intervention, between situational factors” (Sheridan, Michel, and
Ridolfo). Both definitions get at the elusive, jaguar-in-the-jungle nature of kairos. Kairos is so hard to pin
down because, as Phillip Sipiora suggests, it is “a dynamic principle rather than a static, codified rhetorical technique” (10). So, the rhetor must be “accomodative,” waiting for the right time, matching her text to
the precise moment in order to be most successful (Sipiora). It’s sort of the Goldilocks rule of writing: you
don’t want your message to be too big, too small, too soft, or too hard; it should be just right.
So far, kairos seems pretty slippery, a sort of “I’ll know it when I see it” kind of principle. In some ways,
kairos represents the ephemeral, “fleeting” nature of “the right time.” In terms of writing, we try to capture
the moment of balance, the kairotic moment, and thus move the audience by appealing to that specific
context.
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Because kairos is so tied to the particular moment, or rhetorical situation, it is hard to provide concrete
examples out of context. But a good way to think about kairos is to consider how rhetors try to persuade
audiences based on unique timing and current events. For instance, consider the way restaurants, bookstores, and various campus entities appeal to incoming freshman students. Vendors have signs declaring
“New to USF? Join this club to meet new people and learn about the campus!” and “First-year students,
this week only: $100 off your first month at this apartment building!” They reference the particular moment, first stepping onto a new campus, to persuade you to do everything from opening a new bank account and buying logo bumper stickers to ordering a dozen pizzas. Effective uses of kairos take advantage
of the particular time and place to make texts unique and give them a sense of immediacy.
Kairos is undoubtedly a pretty heady term, something ancient philosophers, modern rhetoricians, and
contemporary composition students have wrestled with. But it’s worth wrestling with. For your own writing, you can skillfully employ kairos by doing the following:
• Examine the rhetorical situation, the factors that create that particular moment.
• Consider the order and timing of your text.
• Be accomodative; appeal to each specific context.
By using kairos as a guiding principle for your own texts, you can bring interest and timeliness to your
writing projects. So when you begin to write, think of the moment that your writing will enter into—the
audience that will read it, the conversation that it joins, the history surrounding the topic, and the words
you use to craft your argument. Awareness and use of this knowledge create beautiful writing that, like
turning the key in your door at the end of a long day, seems perfectly timed, effortless, and just right.
Identifying Kairos
By now, you should know what kairos is: an attempt to persuade through appeals to timeliness. Here are
a few possible examples of kairos:
• Calls to “Act Now!” An appeal to some particular fast-approaching moment is often a rhetor’s attempt
to create a perfect kairotic moment for his or her message by creating a sense of urgency. You’ve likely seen
a commercial or infomercial that pleads with the viewer to “Call now!” to receive some important prize or
to avoid missing some sort of opportunity; this type of commercial or informercial employs kairos.
• The use of deadlines or goals. Such appeals to kairos are often seen as part of fundraising literature: by
connecting a reader’s or listener’s response to a particular deadline or goal, the writer creates urgency and
excitement.
• References to “current crises” or impending doom. Such references are prevalent in political and
social campaigns. Consider, for example, the large number of financial bills, laws, and investigations undertaken by legislative bodies throughout the country after the most recent economic recession. Lawmakers
were responding to and taking advantage of the kairotic moment created by the crisis in order to persuade
their fellow lawmakers and constituents to support a particular fiscal policy.
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Fallacious Kairos
• Red Herring: Introducing irrelevant facts or claims to detract from the actual argument. For instance,
our invasion of Iraq was predicated, in part, upon the connection between the attacks of 9/11 and Saddam
Hussein. The war was described by some as an appropriate response to the terrorist attacks on 9/11, but in
reality, the connection between Iraq and Saddam Hussein was a red herring. Hussein was not connected to
Al Qaeda, the terrorist network that perpetrated the attacks, or 9/11.
• Argument from Authority: We already noted that an argument from false authority involves a speaker
or writer claiming authority in a particular area without giving evidence of that authority. These claims
of authority are obviously connected to ethos, but depending on the argument, may also be connected to
kairos. For example, when a political candidate claims that, if action is not taken right now, the nation risks
ruin, he or she is identifying him- or herself as an expert on both the nature of the problem as well as the
timing.
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Works Cited
Hill, Carolyn Erikson. “Changing Times in Composition Classes: Kairos, Resonance, and the Pythagorean Connection.” Sipiora and Baumlin 211–25.
Kinneavy, James L. “Kairos: A Neglected Concept in Classical Rhetoric.” Rhetoric and Praxis: The Contribution of Classical Rhetoric to Practical Reasoning. Ed. Jean Dietz Moss. Washington, DC: Catholic U of
America P, 1986. 79–105. Print.
Kinneavy, James L., and Catherine R. Eskin. “Kairos in Aristotle’s Rhetoric.” Written Communication 11.1
(1994): 131–42. Print.
Peeples, Timothy, Paula Rosinski, and Michael Strickland. “Chronos and Kairos, Strategies and Tactics:
The Case of Constructing Elon University’s Professional Writing and Rhetoric Concentration.” Composition Studies 35.1 (2007): 57–76. Print.
Sheridan, David, Tony Michel, and Jim Ridolfo. “Kairos and New Media: Toward a Theory and Practice
of Visual Activism.” Enculturation: A Journal of Rhetoric, Writing, and Culture 6.2 (2009): n. pag. Web. 8 July
2010.
Sipiora, Phillip. Introduction. Sipiora and Baumlin 1–22.
Sipiora, Phillip, and James S. Baumlin, eds. Rhetoric and Kairos: Essays in History, Theory, and Praxis.
Albany: State U of New York P, 2002. Print.
Stephenson, Hunter. “(Re)Claiming the Ground: Image Events, Kairos, and Discourse.” Enculturation: A
Journal of Rhetoric, Writing, and Culture 6.2 (2009): n. pag. Web. 8 July 2010.
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Quick Reference Guide: Rhetorical Appeals
By Karen Langbehn
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Quick Reference Guide: Logical Fallacies
By Megan McIntyre and Jessica McKee
• Ad Hominem (Argument to the Person): Attacking the person instead of the argument.
• Argument from Authority: Claiming to be an expert, and on that basis, to be deserving of trust.
• Appeal to Authority: Using a statement taken out of context as authoritative support.
• Argument from False Authority: Using an expert in a specific field as an expert in all related fields.
• Appeal to Anonymous Authority: Using appeals to nonspecific groups (e.g., scientists, doctors, researchers, and so on).
• Inflation of Conflict: Using a conflict between two authorities as a reason to dismiss their arguments
and knowledge.
• Argument by Dismissal: Rejecting an idea without providing a reason or explanation for its dismissal.
• Argument by Emotive Language: Using emotional words that are not supported by evidence and/or
are unconnected to the argument being made.
• Appeal to Pity: Drawing on irrelevant personal experiences or feelings in order to produce a sympathetic response.
• The Slippery Slope: Suggesting that a particular argument or course of action will lead to disastrous
consequences without offering evidence.
• Appeal to Nature: Suggesting a certain behavior or action because it is “natural.”
• Argument from Ignorance: Assuming something is true because it has not been proven false.
• Straw Man: Intentionally misrepresenting your opponent’s position by overexaggerating or offering a
caricature of his or her argument.
• False Dilemma: Assuming that there are only two options when there are in fact more.
• Hasty Generalization: Drawing a broad conclusion based on a small minority.
• Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (With This, Therefore Because of This): Confusing correlation with
causation—that is, thinking that because two things happened simultaneously, then one must have caused
the other.
• Red Herring: Introducing irrelevant facts or claims to detract from the actual argument.
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Section 2: Crafting Arguments
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Section 2: Introduction
In Section 1: Understanding Arguments, we explored the nature of academic writing and looked at the
ways in which writers in college and beyond use language to communicate. By now, you know that academic writing most often takes the form of an argument and tries to convince the reader to think or feel
about a subject in a particular way. In this section, we will demonstrate how to construct your own arguments, focusing on basic skills that you will use over and over, not only in your academic career, but also in
your professional and personal life.
In keeping with our general philosophy that writing is a process, we present these skills in a specific
order, starting with those that writers use to generate ideas and continuing on to those that enable writers
to shape those ideas into meaningful and effective essays, reports, and papers. Sounds like a recipe, right?
However, because the process of writing is also recursive, the order in which these skills appear in the
textbook will not necessarily reflect the order in which you use each skill itself. Think of the articles in this
section as a toolbox, to which you can return again and again, instead of a recipe for writing success. Each
one addresses a different aspect of the writing process, and you might use the skill each talks about more
than once during your current writing project.
For example, although most academic writers begin with a period of research (see Chapter 4: Conducting
Research), move on to the creation of an organizing draft (Chapter 5: Drafting an Argument), and then
arrive at the point at which they feel ready to write a complete draft (Chapter 6: Constructing the Essay),
a writer might find it necessary to conduct a second round of research after her organizing draft is written.
Or another writer might realize, after reading over his intermediate draft, that one of his claims seems to
contradict the logic of his thesis. If the writing process were like a recipe, these writers would have to start
all over again at the beginning. Fortunately, that’s not the case. By learning to use the tools in this section,
you will gain something far more valuable than a simple formula for writing a successful college essay. You
will learn how to take control of your writing, how to organize and express your thoughts in language, and
how to communicate meaningfully with the world around you.
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Chapter 4: Conducting Research
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Research as Conversation
By Melissa Vosen Callens
Entering the Conversation
You may have heard your writing instructor refer to writing as a conversation, and your instructor may
have even asked you to read the following passage by Kenneth Burke.
In his book, The Philosophy of Literary Form, Burke writes:
Imagine that you enter a parlor. You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded you, and they are
engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly what it is about. In
fact, the discussion had already begun long before any of them got there, so that no one present is qualified to retrace
for you all the steps that had gone before. You listen for a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of
the argument; then you put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him; another comes to your defense; another
aligns himself against you, to either the embarrassment or gratification of your opponent, depending on the quality
of your ally’s assistance. However, the discussion is interminable. The hour grows late, and you must depart. And you
do depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress. (110-111)
But what did your instructor mean? Why did he / she ask you to read this passage? Let’s try a different
example.
Imagine you were invited to a friend’s party. You decide to go, but you arrive late. Instead of a parlor,
you enter your friend’s dimly-lit basement. At this party, you see some friends standing in a corner next
to a foosball table, arguing over which players your school’s football coaches should recruit next year. As
a devout fan, you have an opinion on the topic, but you quickly decide it would be rude to interrupt the
conversation that has been going on for quite some time before you arrived. If you interrupt, you know it
is highly unlikely you will be successful at making your point. You don’t want the group to think you are a
poor listener or rude. You want the group to agree with you, so you figure it is better to frame your opinion
after you get a better understanding of the group and their opinions on the topic. Before jumping into the
conversation, you seek answers to the following questions:
• What are other people saying? What reasons do they give to support their opinions?
• Do they feel strongly, or do they not care?
• What are the latest developments?
After you obtain answers to your questions, or at least most of them, you offer your thoughts. How can
the coaches not at least try and recruit the phenom from West Monroe, LA?
When you write a research paper, you are entering a conversation too, just like you did at the party. For
example, if you decide to write your final paper on why the federal minimum wage should be raised, it is
important to realize other people have written papers on this topic too and that it would be difficult to successfully convince your reader to agree with you if you completely ignore what is currently being discussed
by others. Just like the conversation at the party, you need to understand the greater context of your argument.
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When you go to do research to find out what others have said about raising the federal minimum wage,
you will notice there are other authors who have closely studied and carefully researched your topic. They
may even be experts from universities across the country or, in the case of minimum wage, work in the economics and banking industries. It is important that you draw on their work. You may also find people who
have expressed their opinion on the topic, but are not experts in the field, but their ideas can be important
too.
It is important to remember that you do not have to agree with everything others wrote, but in order to
develop an informed opinion, and persuade your reader, you will need to acknowledge what others are saying. According to the authors of They Say, I Say, Gerald Graff and Cathy Birkenstein, “Academic writing in
particular calls upon writers not simply to express their own ideas, but to do so as a response to what others
have said” (IX). In other words, you should explain how your ideas align or do not align with the ideas of
others. Not only will researching help you develop an informed option, citing professionals who you agree
with you can help make your argument stronger. Citing professionals who you disagree with you can be
important as well. It gives you a chance to explain why you think your argument is stronger, and it gives
you a chance to explain to your reader what you see flawed in the opposition’s argument. In addition, it also
shows that you acknowledge there are other ideas out there. It makes you sound knowledge and reasonable.
In summary, it is important to remember that writing is a conversation, but it is not a one-sided conversation. The product of your research should not simply be a summary of sources, nor should it consist
of your ideas alone. If you have ever been in a one-sided conversation, where the other person does all the
talking and fails to listen to anything you have to say, you know how annoying—and unproductive—the
situation feels. Each party needs to listen, and each party needs to contribute. When writing, you should
be creating a dialogue among perspectives: they say, I say. In addition, it is also important to remember that
the discussion continues even after you turn your paper in.
Successful writers do not write in a vacuum; successful writers engage the voices of others and let other
writers engage them. Your writing instructor will expect you to position your argument in relation to what
others have said in the field. Even the actual act of writing is a social act, just as social as the conversation
you had at the party. Even though it may not seem like it when you are alone in the library late at night
researching for your paper or in your dorm room writing your first draft, writing, and the concurrent act of
researching, is a very much a collaborative effort.
Research: A Collaborative Effort
In a similar argument, Karen Burke LeFevre views invention, the process of developing and refining an
argument, as a social act that is initiated by writers and concluded by readers. It is important to recognize
the role invention plays in the writing process; it also important to study how the individual inventor (or
author) and readers are interconnected in the process. Some call this interconnected process collaboration.
Collaboration can come in many different forms. Some papers are written by more than one author, a
more formal collaborative effort, while some texts are written by one author drawing on a variety of outside
sources such as a colleague, partner, or even a database. Many people call the latter collaboration as well.
While many view collaboration as the act of writing together and only writing together, there are other
ways to collaborate with, or seek the assistance of, other people when writing your paper.
Rebecca Moore Howard asserts that all writing is the result of a collaborative effort. Howard believes
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there are three types of collaboration used specifically in writing classrooms, like the one you are in now:
collaborative contributions to solo-authored texts, writer-text collaboration, and collaborative writing (Collaborative Pedagogy 59-67). Below is an explanation of each.
• Collaborative Contributions to Solo-Authored Texts: Collaborative contributions to solo-authored
texts are “most often used in writing classes for collaborative responses to individually drafted texts” (5960). An example of collaborative contributions to solo-authored texts would be peer review. In this case,
one person writes the text, but one or more persons give feedback on the draft.
• Writer-text Collaboration: Writer-text collaboration is when a writer draws on another text. While
this is most commonly referred to as citation or research, Howard argues that this too is an example of
collaboration because it is a dialogue between the author and text. It is a conversation. Traditionally, writertext collaboration has been viewed mostly as “quotation, paraphrase, summary, synthesis, research—or
plagiarism” (66). Howard argues that this is the least acknowledged type of collaboration.
• Collaborative Writing: If more than one person, however, writes a text, this would be an example of
Howard’s collaborative writing (Collaborative Pedagogy 62).
In your English course, you will be asked to do research for many of your assignments; in other words,
you will be expected to participate in writer-text collaboration. In order to do so, you must first determine
how to enter the conversation on your chosen topic, how to enter the parlor. By creating a dialogue between your work and the work of other authors, you are doing much more than simply entering a conversation; you are also extending a conversation as well.
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Works Cited
Burke, Kenneth. The Philosophy of Literary Form: Studies in Symbolic Action. 3rd ed. Berkeley and Los Angeles: UC Press, 1973.
LeFevre Burke, Karen. Invention as a Social Act. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1987.
Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say, I Say: The Moves that Matter in Academic Writing. New
York: W. & W. Norton & Co., 2007.
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Research as Discovery
By L. E. Cagle
When asked to picture a researcher, many people imagine a scientist in a white lab coat busily mixing
up smoky liquids or preparing tiny slides for a microscope. This stereotype is likely a far cry from the research you have been or will be asked to do for many of your classes, including this one. Instead of puttering around a lab, you will conduct your research in the library or online. Instead of beakers and slides, your
research tools are books and databases.
However, the classic image of a scientist in a lab does suggest something important about research,: that
there is a close connection between research and discovery. Many of us have heard the phrase “scientific
discovery” before. This isn’t surprising, considering that the goal of much scientific research is discovery. As
the classic quip attributed to Albert Einstein goes, “If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be
called research, would it?” In the sciences, research is consciously linked to discovery. Your research, even if
it isn’t scientific, can and should be a process of discovery, too.
You’ve probably heard before that writing an argument requires more than just sitting down and putting
words on paper. While you might already have an argument in mind, you also need to do research. Through
research, you can discover the relevant facts and most common arguments to ensure that you can make
your argument convincingly. While researching, you can also discover any misconceptions or logical flaws
that weaken the argument you already have in mind. Discovering those weaknesses gives you the chance to
address them, thereby also strengthening your argument.
In addition to supporting your argument, there’s another reason to approach research as a process of discovery. Discovering facts and arguments you didn’t already know also lets you reconsider the argument or
opinion you originally brought to your topic. In other words, research helps you develop your ideas in new
directions, or even change your mind.
The chance to discover new ways of thinking may be the greatest benefit research has to offer us. When
your research involves finding and reading texts on the topic you’re investigating, you get access to ongoing scholarly and popular conversations about ideas that play out across books, journal articles, newspapers,
websites, blogs, magazines, new media, and a variety of other outlets. Learning what others think about
something you care about can validate your interests and inspire further learning.
Discovering New Facts
New facts are research discoveries that provide you with support for your argument. Researching and
evaluating facts can help you ensure that you aren’t basing your arguments on unsupported assertions or
misinformed arguments. When you use facts from trustworthy sources, you bolster your credibility and
persuade your readers that you are a knowledgeable writer who has taken the time to discover relevant facts
and present them in the service of a strong argument.
Let’s look at an example of how discovering new facts can help you strengthen your argument and establish your credibility. Imagine that you’re shopping for a new car. You plan to take out a loan to pay for
the car, and you are asking a family member to co-sign on the loan. Before you ask your family member,
you want to be sure to have arguments ready about why buying a new car rather than a used car is worth
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the extra cost. As you research the loan options available, you discover that a loan on a new car will have a
lower interest rate than a loan on a used car. You plan to share this information when you ask your family
member to co-sign a loan; you know it strengthens your arguments about the benefits of buying new, and it
also highlights that you are knowledgeable and trustworthy, thus bolstering your credibility.
The new facts you discover can also lead you to modify your argument or even completely revise your line
of thinking and change your mind. Let’s return to our SUV vs. Prius scenario to see an example of how
discovering new facts can lead you to make a different argument than you originally had in mind.
Imagine again that you’re shopping for a new car. Although you like SUVs, you’re on a tight budget, so
you want a car that will save you money. Your friend who drives a Toyota Prius is always bragging about
how little she spends on gas, so you expect you’ll buy a Prius. Before going to the dealership, though, you
do a little research online to find out the total cost of ownership for the Prius. On Internet Autoguide’s
website, you discover that one of Toyota’s SUVs, this year’s FJ Cruiser, only costs a few thousand dollars
more to own than a new Prius over five years. This research suggests that maybe the Prius isn’t your only
low-cost option after all.
In this example, research into a topic has uncovered facts that cause you to revisit your original idea
about the topic. On the basis of these new facts, you may alter your car-purchasing plan. You certainly have
gained new insights into the topic of car ownership costs; these insights resulted from approaching research as a process of discovery.
Discovering New Arguments
Your research can also uncover lines of argumentation that you hadn’t yet considered when formulating your own view of a topic. These new lines of argumentation may support the view you already have of
a topic. Incorporating them into your arguments about a topic will strengthen your arguments and add to
your credibility by making it clear how knowledgeable you are.
Let’s return to our car-buying scenario. You recently purchased a used car because you wanted to spend
as little as possible. Your roommate says that was a bad idea, though, because a used car might cost you
more than a new car in repairs over time. You worry that buying used was a mistake, so you hop online to
do some research. On websites like edmunds.com, cars.com, and consumerreports.org, you discover that
experts writing about the cost of ownership of a car use lines of argumentation that include not only the
purchasing price and estimated maintenance costs, but also the cost of interest on loans, monthly insurance, taxes, and Department of Motor Vehicle fees. Including arguments about these additional costs allows experts to conclude that, typically, owning a used car that is not too old is cheaper than owning a new
car. These additional arguments strengthen your confidence in your purchase of a used car and give you a
way to respond to your roommate’s critiques.
New arguments, like new facts, can also lead you to change your mind about arguments you previously
agreed with. Let’s consider a scenario to illustrate the process of discovering new arguments which can
reverse your thinking on a topic or issue.
Imagine yourself again as the owner of a newly purchased used car. You aren’t loyal to any one car company, so you chose your car based on test drives of the used cars that were available at your local car dealerships. After hearing about your used car purchase, a friend comments that you should have bought a hybrid
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car because it would be better for the environment. This critique bothers you; you recycle regularly and
use energy-saving lightbulbs and appliances. You know that hybrid cars use less gas than most cars, which
is better for emissions and preservation of energy resources. But you wonder if your and your friend’s assumption that hybrid cars are better for the environment is true. If not, you don’t have to feel guilty about
getting a great deal on a used car.
So you decide to do some research. While searching online for “used car” and “environmental friendliness,” you discover a 2009 article in Scientific American titled “When Used Cars Are More Ecofriendly
Than New Cars,” which compares used cars’ and hybrid cars’ environmental impacts. The article reports
that some used cars have less environmental impact than hybrid cars because many used cars created fewer
emissions during manufacture. This idea of looking at total environmental impact, rather than just gas
usage, catches your interest. You open up the library database and begin searching for articles on “environmental impact” and “vehicles.” You discover the field of environmental impact assessment, which uses
concepts like life cycle analysis and system boundaries to determine how environmentally friendly various
products and technologies are. This field’s arguments about the need for a comprehensive definition of
environmental impact supports what you read in Scientific American about used and hybrid cars. With just a
few hours of research behind you, you can now explain to your critical friend that, because of the relatively
small amount of energy that went into your used car’s production, your car is actually more environmentally friendly than any new hybrid car.
You have changed your own mind on this topic, and have the opportunity to present a new line of argumentation to change your friend’s mind as well. Without research, you would not have known to consider
the arguments made by environmental impact assessment experts. Research allowed you to discover arguments that led you to a new way of thinking about a topic you previously had a different idea about.
Avoiding the Cherry-Picking Approach to Research
One of the main benefits of treating research as discovery is that it helps you avoid a cherry-picking approach to research. Cherry-picking is the practice of using research to find only those sources and quotes
that support what you already know or think and repeat facts and arguments you already have in mind.
Cherry-picking can happen when your mindset towards research prevents you from being open to discovering new facts and ideas that will shape and change the arguments you have in mind already.
Sometimes, of course, you do know that a specific fact will strengthen your argument, and you use the
research process to discover a credible source from which you can cite that fact. The trick is to find a balance between cherry-picking and disregarding the facts and arguments with which you are already familiar. Neither approach will allow you to grow your thinking on a topic while rooting your thinking in prior
knowledge, experience, and education.
Going Down the Rabbit Hole
Changing your mindset about research to focus on its potential for discovery can have unexpected consequences. When you view research as simply a task to be completed before writing, you may feel comfortable spending little time on the research step, even if it means your argument is not as strong or credible as
it could be. When research becomes a process of discovery, however, you have the chance to get truly interested by and caught up in the new ideas and arguments you discover. You might find yourself going down
the rabbit hole and spending more time on research than you ever have before. While this may seem like
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a risk to your limited time, remember that your research can pay off by presenting you with new facts and
ideas that can help you make more thoughtful arguments that represent your best thinking on a topic. The
more time you spend researching, the more opportunities you give yourself for discovery.
Summary
Research isn’t about finding sources that report things you already know and just need a citation for.
Rather, research is a process of discovering new facts, ideas, and arguments about whatever topic it is you’re
interested in. When you treat research as a process of discovery, you avoid the pitfall of cherry-picking
sources to cite in your arguments. However, you also run the risk of getting lost in your topic and spending
more time researching than you have for past writing projects. Just remember: that risk is worth taking if
you want to make your arguments stronger and if you want to be open to developing your ideas in response
to the many discoveries your research may turn up.
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Finding and Evaluating Sources
By Brogan Sullivan
Research in the Age of Information
We occupy a world awash in information. This was not always the case. Just a few centuries ago, only the
most elite scholars knew how to benefit from reliable, authoritative sources of data. With the advent of
public libraries, average citizens gained access to a wealth of information, a change that transformed the
ways in which the developed world created and made use of human knowledge. Today, the Internet has
further increased the scope of that access and the speed with which information becomes available.
But with added scope and speed comes increased complexity. The Internet makes the process of accessing
information easier, but it also makes it harder for the earnest seeker to find reliable sources of data. Anyone
with an Internet connection can publish content to the Web. The quality of that content varies considerably, and the sheer volume of it can seem daunting at first. How then should the student writer proceed?
Consult an Expert
Fortunately, as a college student, you have access to tools that the average citizen does not, the most important of which is your university library. The library should be your first destination when beginning any
new research project. Most university libraries have websites dedicated to helping you navigate the research
process, and all of them employ professionals who are specifically trained to assist the student writer with
any research-related questions. These librarians can help you learn how to use search strategies to locate
and access reliable, pertinent sources.
Shape the Search to the Project
The types of sources you need to consult will vary by project and will depend on the topic about which
you are writing. For example, if you were writing a movie review, you might consult sources that concentrate on the film industry. Periodicals like Entertainment Weekly or Variety would be a logical first stop. You
might also consult movie reviews from local or national newspapers, to see what other critics have already
written about the movie you’re writing about. If, on the other hand, you were writing a literature review
about a new medical technique, you would instead consult more rigorous sources, like peer-reviewed journals or technical manuals. Each topic will require a slightly different set of sources. Again, if you are unsure
which kinds of sources apply to a specific subject area, ask a librarian to point you in the right direction.
Go the Extra Mile
Don’t limit yourself. The sources that are easiest to find are often the most unreliable ones. Many student writers limit their search efforts to Google or Wikipedia. Unfortunately, as helpful as these sites are,
they are not reliable sources of information at the university level. Google searches the entire World Wide
Web, and yields results based on algorithms that are not designed for scholarly work. In other words, your
Google search might produce tens of thousands of results, but only one or two that apply to your subject;
not the most efficient use of your time. And since Wikipedia can be edited by any user with an account, the
information it provides is considered unreliable for scholarly work.
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Not only should you look beyond Google and Wikipedia, you should look beyond the Internet itself.
While a vast quantity of research material exists online or in electronic formats, a considerable amount still
resides only in print. Your library contains thousands upon thousands of books, newspapers, periodicals,
and other resources that do not reside on the Internet. Do not overlook these sources of material simply
because they require extra effort to find. Often, consulting a print source will make the difference between
a good paper and a great one.
Evaluate Your Sources
Finally, once you’ve gathered your sources, you should evaluate them for their applicability to your topic
and their quality. Just because a source mentions key terms that apply to your subject doesn’t mean that
it will prove useful for your project. Take the time to consider the following questions when choosing the
sources you will ultimately consult in your writing project. Begin with your initial list of possible sources
and try to narrow it down.
• Does this source seem relevant to my topic?
• Is this source timely? Does the information it provides still apply to the current situation?
Eliminate any sources that do not pass these basic criteria. Now that you have a narrower list of topics to
choose from, filter your sources even further using the checklists provided below.
Checklist for Evaluating All Sources
• Does this source seem reliable? What are the author’s credentials?
• Will my audience find this source reliable and persuasive?
• Does this source represent the best information possible? Does it merely summarize or interpret data I
might find in another source?
• Am I selecting sources that reflect a range of different opinions about or aspects of my topic? Can I
find at least one source that reasonably disagrees with the others?
• Can I verify the information in one source by consulting other sources? Does this source make claims
that do not stand up to the scrutiny of others?
Checklist for Evaluating Print Sources
For Books:
• Is the book published by a respectable press?
• Is the book broad enough in its focus and written in a style I can understand?
• Does the book relate directly to my working thesis, or is it only of tangential interest?
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• Do the arguments in the book seem sound, based on what I have learned about critical reading and
writing?
For Articles from Periodicals:
• Is the author’s name given?
• Is the periodical respectable and serious?
• How directly does the article speak to my topic and working thesis?
• If the article is from a scholarly journal, am I sure I understand it?
Checklist for Evaluating Electronic Sources
• What person or organization produced the website? A commercial entity, a nonprofit entity, a student,
an expert? Check the electronic address for clues about the site’s authorship. If there is a link to the author’s homepage, check it out to learn about the author. Does the author have an affiliation with a respectable institution?
• What is the purpose of the site? Commercial? Educational? Entertainment?
• Does the author provide citations for any fact-based data? Can you verify the credibility of these
sources?
• Is the site authoritative enough to count as credible?
• When was the site published? Has it been updated recently?
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Defining Evidence
By Eric Walsh
What is evidence?
When you think of the word “evidence,” what comes to mind? Typically, we think of evidence as something complex, like what might be utilized in a court of a law or uncovered by a great detective. However,
evidence can take a wide variety of forms. Even if you don’t realize it, you use evidence every single day,
dozens, if not hundreds, of times.
Consider the following statement:
You: Whoa, did you see that girl/guy/puppy? She/he/it is hot/ripped/the most adorable thing in the world. Look at her
legs/his arms/its itty bitty paws.
Your Friend: I see her/him/it. You’re right/wrong/still talking? You had me at “puppy.”
In this exchange, you have introduced a topic (the girl/guy/puppy); you have made a claim (he/she/it is hot/
ripped/the most adorable thing in the world); and you have attempted to support that claim with evidence
(her legs/his arms/its itty bitty paws). Your friend, in turn, has weighed the evidence, and decided whether or
not your argument was convincing. For our purposes, then, it may be useful to consider the following definition of evidence:
Evidence is anything that helps increase your authority (ethos) in a given rhetorical situation.
Recognizing the rhetorical situation
Not all evidence is created equal: just as your friends would most likely ridicule you mercilessly if you
tried to provide a list of statistics when judging someone’s attractiveness, a scientist would likely reject a
hypothesis if it were based solely on a sonnet. Put another way, one type of evidence may be perfectly convincing in some contexts, but fail utterly in others. Thus, when you are deciding what types of evidence to
use in your writing, you need to first define your rhetorical situation: the specific circumstances surrounding
that writing. To do this, ask yourself the following questions:
1. What is my topic? What do I actually want to write? What kind of authority do I have as a writer on
this topic?
2. Why do I have this purpose? Why do I want to write this?
3. Who is my intended audience? Who am I trying to convince of my statement, and what types of
people are they?
4. Where/when is this writing taking place: in what culture or context?
5. How, given the answers to the previous four questions, can I be as convincing as possible? How might
I make my writing more authoritative in the eyes of my readers?
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While the first four questions outlined above will help you understand the rhetorical situation in which
you are writing, the last question will then help you decide which types of evidence will be the most persuasive in that specific situation.
For example, the evidence you will want to use to convince your professor that your thesis is correct is
probably not the same evidence you would want to use on Facebook to convince a friend to go out to a
party. Similarly, the evidence you might use to convince that friend to go to a pool party is almost certainly
different from the evidence you’d use to convince that same friend to go to your grandmother’s birthday
party. It is crucial that you spend some time thinking about these five questions before any writing project
to ensure that you select your evidence appropriately.
Picking the right tool for the job
While it is hard to adequately list every possible form of evidence—since evidence is really just whatever
your audience would find convincing or authoritative—one way of thinking about evidence is to divide it
into two broad categories: referential and personal.
Referential evidence relies on outside sources to support your writing, bolstering your own authority via
the inherent authority of those references. Such evidence is often useful when you feel you may not be as
knowledgeable on a topic as your audience would expect, and therefore would want to cite another, more
well-versed opinion. You would also want to include referential evidence when you are striving to make
your writing more scientific or objective. Common examples of referential evidence in writing include the
following:
• Direct quotes: when you cite verbatim something that someone else has said
◊ Example: According to Dr. Smith, “Cats are superior to dogs.”
◊ Use When: you want to include an expert opinion, and you believe that the quote is so perfect that it
would be hard for you to paraphrase it
• Paraphrasing: when you cite what someone else has said, but rephrase it in your own words
◊ Example: Dr. Smith claims that cats are better than dogs.
◊ Use When: you want to introduce an expert opinion, but it doesn’t matter how that opinion was
precisely worded
• Summaries: a broader form of paraphrasing, in which you briefly describe someone else’s lengthy concept in your own words
◊ Example: This paper supports the opinion that cats are better than dogs.
◊ Use When: you want to speak generally about an expert opinion, or there is simply too much information to be more specific
• Statistics: verified numerical proof of an expert opinion
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◊ Example: 89% of Americans agree that cats are better than dogs
◊ Use When: your audience expects concrete data as support for a claim, such as in more scientific
contexts
Conversely, personal evidence comes from you, rather than an outside source. While this doesn’t necessarily make this type of evidence weaker than referential evidence, it does mean that you are asking your
audience to accept your own authority as adequate for the given rhetorical situation. As such, you would
typically see personal evidence relied upon more when you are discussing something personal or commonplace, and less in serious scholarship where your own opinion may carry less weight. Common examples of
personal evidence in writing include the following:
• Hypothetical examples: imagined scenarios that are related to a given topic
◊ Example: Imagine a world without cats; think of how depressing that would be.
◊ Use When: you want to help your audience envision the potential ramifications of an idea or event
• Anecdotes: personal stories that are related to a given topic
◊ Example: I’ve had both dogs and cats, and I’ve found cats to be much easier to care for.
◊ Use When: you want to demonstrate your authority on a given topic
• Figurative language: the poetic expression of an idea, such as a with a simile or a metaphor
◊ Example: Cats are as adorable as babies.
◊ Use When: you want to lend an idea more emotional weight (pathos), or help the reader better understand an idea by encouraging connections to other ideas
Of course, different types of evidence are not exclusive: you can mix and match both personal and referential evidence as much as you like, as long as they remain appropriate to your rhetorical situation. Indeed,
your paper will often be strengthened through the incorporation of multiple forms of evidence.
For example, if you need to write a paper on cancer, and you have a grandfather that died from cancer,
you may wish to include quotes from cancer researchers, in order to enhance the authority of your claims
via expert opinion, as well as personal anecdotes describing the experience, since those experiences also
lend you a certain degree of authority on the topic.
Practice makes perfect
Although it may seem weird to think about evidence being more than just what you quote or cite, considering the rhetorical situation of each piece of writing you do can help strengthen your ideas, ensuring
that your audience views them as authoritative, and thus, finds them more convincing. Below are several
different writing situations that you are likely to encounter at some point in your college career, or in the
course of your everyday life. For each, think about what type(s) of evidence might be most effective. Remember to first step through the questions provided above in order to consider the rhetorical situation
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before you decide on your evidence.
• A Composition research paper that asks you to defend a side on an issue of your choice
• An online review of a television show
• A personal blog entry about cooking
• A text message inviting a friend to come over
• An email to a professor asking for an extension on an assignment
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Summarizing and Paraphrasing
By Kristen Gay
When writing an academic paper, it is important for writers to refer to sources that can support and add
credibility to their claims. Perhaps the most obvious method for integrating such sources is to quote them
directly. Quoting does serve writers well in certain contexts, such as when the source’s exact wording is
important, or when the writer cannot state the message more concisely in his/her own words. On the other
hand, quoting excessively can detract from the writer’s voice and cause readers to get lost in the shuffle
between quotes from various sources. Instead of solely relying on quotes to represent ideas from sources,
writers can summarize and paraphrase to represent the source’s ideas in their own words. Both of these
methods are useful because they allow a writer to convey a source’s ideas without losing her voice. For example, think of a film critic’s role in reviewing a movie—the critic does not usually directly quote from the
script; instead, he or she simplifies and condenses specific plot points in his or her own words and describes
the overall theme of the entire work. The purpose for the review is not to retell the story—since readers can
go see the movie themselves if they want to know the entire plot—but rather, to make a claim or state an
opinion about certain aspects of the story as it translated into film.
When someone begins to tell a long-winded story, it is not uncommon to hear someone else (perhaps
an unwilling listener) say that the storyteller does not “know how to make a long story short.” What the
person is asking for in such a situation is the gist or general point of the story—they do not want to hear
the details or the entire sequence of events as much as they want to know the point or outcome of them.
Essentially, this person’s comment asks the storyteller to summarize her point. Summarizing can be very
useful in writing situations when the reader only needs to know the main point or idea from a source being
referenced.
Summarizing a source means that a writer captures the source’s main idea and/or overall thesis, or synthesizes the writer’s argument. A writer might choose to summarize a source if he or she wants to give
readers a general idea of the entire source’s point, meaning, or idea. For example, a writer may summarize
an entire book’s main theme, a general plot for a movie, or an overall argument for a speech. Summaries are
not usually tied to a specific lines or pages in the text; instead, they tend to represent the work as a whole.
Summaries are most useful when writers want to convey general or overall meaning without relying on
a specific passage or moment within the text. For example, imagine that I want to summarize Harry Potter
and the Sorcerer’s Stone by J.K. Rowling. As a summary of the entire plot of the book, I might write:
In Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone, a young orphan learns that he is a wizard. Because of this new knowledge,
he enters the world of wizardry, where he makes new friends, demonstrates courage, and resists dark magic.
This summary provides a broad overview of the entire book. But notice that the summary focuses on the
specific points that I want to stress, as the writer. If I wanted to, I might summarize the book in terms of
the theme of friendship, or magic, or something else altogether—like the use or abuse of power. Thus, summaries allow writers to take a main point from a source and tailor it to fit their context. This ensures that
the summary supports or illustrates a point that the writer is making.
In other situations, you might hear or read a specific passage that is interesting but could be stated in
more clear or concise terms. Or, the phrase might make sense to you—as a person with some expertise on
a given topic—but it might need to be translated for a different audience who lacks such expertise. As a
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writer, it is your job to consider which statements from sources might be confusing to a reader who lacks
the full source’s context, and to restate this information in your own words in order to clarify the point
while limiting the use of jargon and reducing wordiness. Using a source in this way is an example of paraphrasing.
Paraphrasing a source means that a writer focuses on local, “smaller picture” ideas and restates them in
her own words. For example, a writer may take a complex sentence in a paper and restate it more clearly.
Or, a writer may take an entire paragraph from a book and restate the ideas within that section more concisely—perhaps the main idea from this short excerpt could be restated in one sentence. Paraphrasing
should reference a specific section of text and should capture the main point or idea from the text; however,
the wording should belong to the writer. Changing one or two words does not mean that a quote has been
paraphrased. The wording should be significantly changed in order for the writer to have successfully paraphrased a given section of text.
Paraphrasing is useful in situations in which a writer wants to simplify or translate the meaning of a
specific sentence or paragraph for a reader. For example, consider the following original sentence and paraphrase:
• Original sentence:
“Gender is the repeated stylization of the body, a set of repeated acts within a highly rigid regulatory frame that
congeal over time to produce the appearance of substance, of a natural sort of being” (Butler 45).
• Paraphrased sentence:
Judith Butler argues that gender does not exist as such—instead, repeated performances of “man” and “woman”
create the illusion of gender (45).
Notice that the first sentence assumes a shared knowledge on the part of the reader—that they should
understand what “regulatory frame” means, for example. The second sentence clarifies the original sentence’s point, which means that the writer does not have to explain the unnecessary jargon from the original quote. The second sentence also makes a more pointed claim: Judith Butler argues that gender does not
exist. Perhaps this claim from Butler will be useful for a point about gender stereotypes, for example, in the
writer’s paper. Paraphrasing allows writers to more quickly connect the source to their own claim because
it offers a pointed explanation of a particularly useful section. This also enables readers to better understand
how the source’s information relates to the writer’s argument.
Overall, summarizing and paraphrasing can be useful strategies for incorporating sources into papers and
supporting your ideas as a writer. They can help the writer maintain the focus on her own voice, and they
can also help readers to better understand information from sources. Perhaps the most important strategy
for incorporating ideas from sources is to think carefully about whether quoting, summarizing, or paraphrasing will be the best method for integrating evidence.
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Works Cited
Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble. New York: Routledge, 1990. Print.
Rowling, J.K. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone. New York: Scholastic, 1999. Print.
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Chapter 5: Drafting an Argument
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Formulating a Thesis
By Andrea Scott
You’ve probably heard many times that a good essay needs a strong thesis. But what does this really
mean? Let’s start with a definition. A thesis is
The main idea that is at the center of your work. A thesis should summarize the one thing that a text is attempting to assert or prove. It is often one or two sentences in the introduction of a paper that clearly and concisely tell a
reader what the paper is “about” (“Thesis”).
In other words, the thesis statement crystallizes your paper’s argument. But what makes a thesis “good”?
Well, for one, a strong thesis is arguable. This means two things. First, it goes beyond merely summarizing
or describing to stake out an interpretation or position that’s not obvious and that others could challenge
for good reasons. Second, a good thesis is arguable in the literal sense that it can be argued, that is, it can
be supported through a thoughtful analysis of your key source or sources. If your argument lacks evidence,
readers will think your statement is an opinion or belief as opposed to an argument, which always rests on
evidence.
Why do I need an arguable thesis?
It helps to back way up and think more broadly about why readers of academic writing value the arguable thesis. What larger purpose does it serve? And why is this function important? Knowing the answers
to these questions helps writers understand their readers who bring a set of expectations to texts. The better
you can anticipate the expectations of your readers, the better you’ll be able to persuade them to consider
seeing things your way.
Academic readers (and readers more generally) read to learn something new. They want to see the writer
challenge commonplaces, either everyday assumptions about issues in the world or truisms in the scholarly
literature. In other words, academic readers want to be surprised so that their thinking shifts or at least becomes more complex by the time they finish reading your essay. Good essays problematize what we think
we know and offer an alternative explanation in their place. They engage critically with what we think we
understand and leave their reader with a fresh perspective on a problem.
We all bring important past experiences and beliefs to our reading of texts, objects, and problems. You
can harness these observational powers to engage critically with what you are studying. The key is to be
alert to what strikes you as strange, problematic, paradoxical, or puzzling about your object of study. If you
can articulate this and a claim in response, you’re well on your way to having a strong arguable thesis.
How do I write an arguable thesis?
It may seem obvious but all good writing has a purpose or motive for existing. The thesis is an argumentative response to this problem. This is why it seldom makes sense to start a writing project by stating the
thesis. The first step is to articulate the question or problem your paper addresses.
Readers will be surprised by your argument, and will recognize your thesis as arguable, if you use the introduction to set up a problem, puzzle, or question. Your thesis statement, which appears at the end of the
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introduction, is your particular stance on this problem. Articulating a problem or question helps invest your
reader in your paper’s thesis. It helps your reader see why your thesis is important and what problem or issue it helps us see in a new light.
Here are some possible ways to introduce a conceptual problem in your paper’s introduction. Experiment
with adapting one to match your assignment and interests.
1. Challenge a commonplace interpretation (and your own first impressions).
• How are readers likely to interpret this source or issue? What might intelligent readers think at first
glance? (Or, if you’ve been given secondary sources or have been asked to conduct research to locate secondary sources, what do other writers or scholars assume is true or important about this primary source or
issue?)
• What does this commonplace interpretation leave out, overlook, or under-emphasize?
2. Help your reader see the complexity of your topic.
• Identify and describe for your reader a paradox, puzzle, or contradiction in your primary source(s).
• What larger questions does this paradox or contradiction raise for you and your readers?
3. If your assignment asks you to do research, piggyback off another scholar’s research.
• Summarize for your reader another scholar’s argument about your topic, primary source, or case study
and tell your reader why this claim is interesting.
• Now explain how you will extend this scholar’s argument to explore an issue or case study that the
scholar doesn’t address fully.
4. If your assignment asks you to do research, identify a gap in another scholar’s or a
group of scholars’ research.
• Summarize for your reader another scholar’s argument about your topic, primary source, or case study
and tell your reader why this claim is interesting. Or, summarize how scholars in the field tend to approach
your topic.
• Next, explain what important aspect this scholarly representation misses or distorts. Introduce your
particular approach to your topic and its value.
5. If your assignment asks you to do research, bring in a new lens for investigating your
case study or problem.
• Summarize for your reader how a scholar or group of scholars has approached your topic.
• Introduce a theoretical source (possibly from another discipline) and explain how it helps you address
this issue from a new and productive angle.
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Drafting the Thesis
Once you have a sense of your paper’s purpose—the particular conceptual problem it addresses—you’re
ready to craft your thesis in response. A good thesis will be focused—that is, it will be focused on your object of study (as opposed to making a big claim about the world).
Here is an example of one way to limit your topic. Try experimenting with this rubric if you need help
articulating your thesis:
By examining __________________ [topic/approach], we can see ____________________ [thesis—the claim
that’s surprising], which readers might otherwise miss. This is important because ___________________________
(Simpson “Five Ways of Looking at a Thesis”).
Here are some other ways of getting started:
At first glance it appears that ________________ [commonplace interpretation], but when we look more closely
at _____ [evidence] we can see _____________ [surprising interpretation].
Although ____________ [commonplace interpretation], __________________ [counterintuitive response].
Notice how all of these sample rubrics invite writers to make statements that challenge easy or obvious
interpretations. They present alternative viewpoints that help the reader recognize the thesis as an important intervention.
A quick caveat: there are lots of ways of drafting a thesis statement. Rubrics like the ones above can help
you warm up and you can adapt them or discard them when you find the best way to articulate your paper’s
main claim.
Examples of Arguable Thesis Statements
Below you’ll find examples of arguable thesis statements.
A paper that only analyzes a primary source:
“By examining the role of so-called freaks in the film Sixteen Candles, we can see that the film defines its protagonist as “normal” by setting her apart from characters that are represented as “others,” which is important because it
helps us understand how popular culture is preoccupied with policing the boundaries of normalcy.”
Notice that the thesis statement does something unexpected. Instead of focusing on Molly Ringwald’s
character, the protagonist, the writer chooses to focus on how the film defines her normalcy in relation to
characters that are minor and represented as outcasts. This is the writer’s particular intervention that’s interesting, surprising and arguable.
Others could also disagree with it. Someone could argue, for example, that Molly Ringwald’s character is
herself an outsider—that she’s not defining herself against so-called freaks, but is one herself, which makes
us empathize with the film’s outsiders (as opposed to identifying ourselves against them).
And finally, the writer explains why the thesis is important. The larger issue at stake for this writer is
that the film helps us see how popular culture plays a social role in defining for viewers what’s normal and
what’s not. The essay’s conclusion will address this larger point, situating the paper’s local thesis statement
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into a global debate about how popular culture conditions our responses as viewers.
A research paper that engages with multiple sources:
“By analyzing Sixteen Candles through the lens of Georg Simmel’s writings on fashion, we can see that the protagonist’s desire to be fashionable is the expression of her desire to be recognized as an individual and accepted as a
member of the group. This is important because it helps us see that the film is not merely a superficial teen movie
about high school cliques, but rather a deep investigation of the ambivalent yearnings of middle class youth to fashion themselves as both special and normal.
Even though this thesis statement appears in a research paper, the same principle is at work. The writer
has opted to say something new by using the sociologist George Simmel’s writings on fashion to explain
the protagonist’s desire to distinguish herself by belonging to the popular crowd. Notice how the writer addresses an interesting paradox in the film—between the need to belong and the need to be seen as different
and unique. Simmel’s writings help her articulate this claim.
She claims that the thesis is important because it gives us a more complex interpretation of the film and
its engagement with class and youth culture.
Testing Your Thesis
You can test your thesis statement’s arguability by asking the following questions:
• Does my thesis only or mostly summarize my source? If so, try some of the exercises above to articulate a problem to which your thesis responds.
• Is my thesis arguable? Can it be supported by evidence and is it surprising and contentious? If not,
return to your sources and practice the exercises above.
• Is my thesis about my primary source or case study or is it about the world? If it’s about the world,
revise it so that it focuses on your primary source or case study. Remember: you’ll need solid evidence to
support your thesis.
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Works Cited
“Thesis.” Glossary. Writing Commons. University of Southern Florida, n.d. Web. 27 June 2013.
Simpson, Erik. “Five Ways of Looking at a Thesis.” Connections: A Hypertext Resource for Literature. Grinnell College, n.d. Web. 27 June 2013.
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Thesis Models
By Brianna Jerman
The purpose of a thesis statement is to summarize the main idea of the paper and inform readers what
to expect when reading. Even though all thesis statements have these goals in common, they do not take
on a single form or follow a simple formula. This is because the construction of a thesis statement largely
depends on the purpose of the paper. Before writing a thesis statement, students should think carefully
about what the assignment is asking them to do, what their agenda is for writing their paper, or what kind
of essay they will be writing.
Analytic essays and thesis statements
When students are asked to analyze something, they are being asked to think about and explain what
something means, how or why something is effective or not, or what purpose something serves. Analysis
requires a person to fully understand a concept by breaking it down into parts and then evaluating how the
parts work either separately or as a part of a system. In an analytic essay, writers provide their interpretation
or make a claim about what their analysis illustrates. Therefore, an analytic thesis statement should clearly
state what the author will be analyzing and the conclusion of this analysis.
For example, if an assignment asks students to analyze how a specific image or ad campaign reflects the
goals of a company or organization, a thesis statement for this essay should include the name of the advertiser and a statement about how one or more details from the images reflect the specific goals of the
organization. One such thesis statement might sound like: “Using the image of a human body in place of
an animal body in several provocative situations, PETA forces viewers to associate animals with humans in
order to communicate their message that animals should be treated as equal to humans and should therefore not be eaten.” This thesis statement clearly states the thing that is being analyzed—an image used in
several PETA advertisements—and what the author concluded about this image through his or her analysis—that PETA uses this image to communicate their stance that animals and people should be treated
equally. Readers then know what to expect when reading the essay.
Expository essays and thesis statements
Expository essays describe or explain something like a concept, process, place, person, or event without
positing an argument or making a judgment about the topic. In this kind of essay, the writer’s purpose
might be to present new information, add to an existing conversation, or clarify what other writers have
said. When constructing an expository thesis statement, writers should begin by identifying the topic they
are discussing, what they will be explaining, and why this conversation in important to readers. This will
help the author decide what information needs to be included in the essay and will help the author construct an appropriate thesis statement.
An expository thesis statement should clearly state the goal of the paper by relaying the topic and what
the author will be explaining. For example, an essay that explains Florida’s new texting and driving laws
might include a thesis statement that says, “Florida’s lawmakers seek to enforce a strict no texting while
driving policy by tacking on additional fines when traffic violations occur while driving.” This thesis statement tells readers that the essay is going to explain more about how this new law works. While an expository thesis simply provides the factual explanation of the laws, an analytical essay might methodically
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examine the Constitutionality of the laws.
Argumentative essays and thesis statements
An argumentative or persuasive essay takes a position on an issue or asserts a claim and then uses various
rhetorical strategies to support that position or claim. Usually, the purpose of an argumentative paper is to
persuade readers to agree with the writer’s point of view. An argumentative thesis statement, then, clearly
states the author’s position or argument and when possible, includes a brief list of the major supporting
points. For example, a sample argumentative thesis statement might say, “Pharmaceutical companies should
not use animals to test medications because these tests do not provide accurate enough results to outweigh
the economic and ethical costs that come with animal testing.” This thesis statement clearly establishes the
author’s position on the topic of animal testing that they will argue in the rest of their paper.
Proposal argument essays and thesis statements
Sometimes arguments come in the form of proposing a solution to a problem. In a proposal argument essay, writers address an issue and suggest a possible way to fix it. Proposal argument essays work to convince
readers that the proposed solution is effective and realistic. There are two types of proposal arguments: A
practical proposal argument seeks to solve a more local or simple problem with a tangible solution. For
example, if a certain school is having a problem with weapon-related violence, a practical solution might
be to install metal detectors at all access points and increase police presence. This is a practical proposal
because there is a very clear cause-effect relationship between the action and its effect and because the resources needed to enact this solution are measurable in terms of cost and supplies.
A policy proposal argument, however, works to solve more large-scale issues that might require changes to
policies, procedures, or ideologies. Solutions to these kinds of issues may not have a simple, clear, or measurable effect on the problem, and it may not be possible to accurately measure the resources necessary for
enacting the solution. These kinds of arguments are thus more complex. For example, there isn’t a simple
solution to decreasing the unemployment rate in the United States. Many people think that the simple
solution is to increase the number of available jobs, but there may be additional barriers such as the kinds
of jobs we need to add and the qualifications of those people who are unemployed. The solution may be to
add more jobs, but a policy proposal also suggests a method for enacting this solution.
Whether writing a practical or policy proposal, authors should construct thesis statements that clearly
communicate the issue at hand and the author’s solution. For example, one such thesis statement might
be: “In order to protect patients’ rights and ensure ethical treatment, donors should be able to track these
samples as they are used for research and should be compensated if these samples are used for monetary
gain.” This thesis statement clearly alerts readers to the issue at hand and briefly lays out the author’s proposed solution.
Clearly, each type of thesis statement serves a distinct purpose. It helps indicate to readers whether the
work is explaining a place, event, or theory; analyzing a system or concept; or trying to persuade the audience to feel a certain way about an issue. Writers need to construct their thesis statements according to
their purpose so that readers can clearly identify the writer’s goal and follow their thoughts throughout the
essay. Thus, an experienced writer will carefully assess their purpose for writing before composing a work.
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Making and Supporting Claims
By Brogan Sullivan
You’ve picked a topic, done your research, identified some helpful sources, and generated a working thesis. So what now? Do you just plunge into writing your paper, assuming that the right words will come to
you in the right order? You could try it; some writers are blessed with the ability to write as they think. But
for most of us, a little preliminary planning can make the difference between a passable essay and one that
sparkles with life. In fact, some writing instructors will ask you to turn in an organizing draft before you
write a full draft of your paper. This might be as simple as an outline or flowchart detailing the basic premises and general organization of your argument. But even if your instructor doesn’t ask you to do this, it’s a
good idea to spend some time organizing your thoughts before you set out to write your first draft. If you
follow the steps listed below, you might just save yourself a lot of time in the long run.
Know Your Purpose
In Understanding Claims, you learned that all claims can be divided into three categories: claims of fact,
claims of value, and claims of policy, and that each type of claim functions differently from the others.
Because each claim tries to argue the truth of a different kind of statement—that is, each type of claim has
a different purpose—the nature of your claim affects the choices you will need to make as you draft your
paper. For example, if I want to convince my readers that global warming will cause sea levels to rise in
the next 50 years (a claim of fact), I will need to ask and answer a certain series of questions. If I want to
persuade them that we as citizens owe it to the next generation of citizens to do everything in our power
to halt global warming (a claim of value), I will need to ask an entirely different set of questions. And if I
want to argue that the United States needs to develop alternative energy sources to combat the effects of
global warming (a claim of policy), a third series of questions becomes necessary. If you don’t know which
type of claim your paper is making, you won’t know which questions to ask or how to answer them to your
reader’s satisfaction.
Often, the choice of which type of claim your paper will make will be decided for you. For example, your
instructor may ask you to write a paper that argues for or against a certain law (a claim of policy). Or she
may ask you to write an essay that defends your preference for one film over another (a claim of value). In
many cases, you will have the freedom to choose for yourself. Either way, keep the nature of your claim in
mind as you flesh out your argument.
Question Your Assumptions
In order to meaningfully communicate with other human beings, you have to assume quite a lot. At the
most basic level of discourse, face-to-face conversation, you take it for granted that your conversation partner knows the meaning of the words you use. For more complex communication, you often assume other
things: that your audience shares certain historical knowledge with you (what the phrase “9/11” means, for
example), or that you have certain ethical values in common (that it is wrong to enslave other human beings). You can see that without resorting to assumptions at least occasionally, conversations would take a lot
of time. Assumptions are, by their very nature, rhetorical shortcuts.
The problem is, assumptions can often backfire. For example, let’s say you’re trying to convince an acquaintance how amazing the latest blockbuster action film was. You describe the explosions and chase
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scenes in lovingly graphic detail; you talk about how believable the computer-animated aliens were; you
hint at an intense, climactic standoff without giving away too many spoilers. But this whole time, you’ve
been assuming that your acquaintance likes action films. If he doesn’t, your argument won’t even get off the
ground. By the same token, in academic writing, you can’t always rely on your assumptions.
To begin with, check your thesis statement for hidden assumptions that might derail your audience’s
ability to understand or accept your argument. Do you use any confusing key terms in your thesis statement? If so, you might need to simplify your language. At the very least, you will need to explain the confusing terms in the body of your paper. Do you assume that your audience shares your aesthetic, cultural,
social, or religious values? If so, you might need to alter your argument so that it doesn’t rely so strongly on
those values.
You should also examine the assumptions you make in order to ensure your argument is sound. A weak
thesis statement often fails because one or more of the assumptions that operate underneath it is faulty
or illogical. Catching problematic assumptions before you write your first draft ultimately helps you make
your argument stronger.
To see how the process of questioning your assumptions works, let’s take a look at a sample thesis statement:
Solar power is the best alternative to fossil fuels because it relies on an inexhaustible source.
This thesis statement looks sound. It makes a clear, arguable claim (that solar power is the best alternative
to fossil fuels) and offers a compelling reason (the sun is an inexhaustible source of energy). But let’s examine the underlying assumptions that the claim implies:
1. We need to find an alternative energy source to fossil fuels
2. Solar power is a viable alternative to fossil fuels
The first statement seems like a fairly safe assumption. A large amount of research exists to support the
idea that fossil fuels do not represent an infinite source of energy. Furthermore, history has shown that obtaining access to fossil fuels like oil and coal comes at a significant cost to the environment. As long as you
incorporate evidence to back up this assumption in your paper, you can move on to the second assumption.
The second assumption is more problematic. Even the most cursory examination of the current literature
will show that the technology to completely replace fossil fuels with solar power doesn’t yet exist, and that
even if it did, the overall cost to convert the power infrastructure would be unrealistically expensive. Unfortunately, this assumption is not strong enough to support your claim.
However, you don’t have to scrap your thesis and start from scratch. In fact, by identifying this problematic assumption, you have given yourself the chance to make your thesis stronger. Instead of claiming that
solar power is the best alternative to fossil fuels, you could alter the wording of the thesis to embrace a more
realistic claim:
Developing better and less expensive solar power technology is an essential step towards replacing fossil fuels
because, combined with other alternatives like wind and hydroelectric power, solar power ultimately represents a
cheaper, safer, and more plentiful source of energy.
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This claim is not only more realistic but also much more complex than the original. It acknowledges the
current problems with solar power and admits that the solution to the fossil fuel problem is far from simple. But it also demonstrates the potential benefits of adopting your solution, and anticipates at least one
possible objection to your original claim. By increasing the complexity of your claim, you have made your
entire argument potentially stronger.
Appeal to the Audience
In Chapter 3: Rhetoric, you learned how other writers use rhetorical appeals in their arguments. At this
stage of your drafting process, you get to use the same tools to shape your claim toward your audience.
Each appeal uses a different set of tactics, but they work together to persuade the reader. Using logos, pathos, and ethos in concert, you decide how best to support your claim.
Using Logos
Logical appeals demonstrate the reasoning behind your claim. They show how one idea leads to another
through causality: x causes y, which then causes z. If you think that the previous statement looks like an
algebraic equation, you’re absolutely right. The language of pure logic is essentially mathematical. However, you don’t need an advanced degree in math to use logical appeals; in fact, you use logos every day. For
example, let’s say you’re trying to convince your parents that you need a new car. You might tell them that
your old car keeps breaking down, and reason that making payments on a new car would be cheaper overall
than the monthly mechanic bills you’ve been racking up. Congratulations; you’ve just used logos!
Logical appeals generally follow two patterns of reasoning, inductive and deductive. Although they often
work in concert in any single argument, it’s helpful to know the difference.
• With inductive reasoning, you reason from specific instances to general conclusions. (Every time you
turn your key in the ignition, your car makes a brief series of clicking noises. You reason that you have a
bad starter.)
• With deductive reasoning, you reason from general premises to a specific conclusion. (It’s cheaper to
buy a new car than to keep on fixing an old one. My car keeps breaking down. Therefore, I need a new car.)
A logical appeal is any collection of words, pictures, or ideas that tries to establish either an inductive or
a deductive chain of reasoning between one state of affairs (my old car keeps breaking down) and another
(my parents need to buy me a new car). There are a lot of ways to make logical appeals, but the following
represent some of the most common ones:
• Clear statements that show your premises and how they lead to your conclusion
• Examples that establish historical precedents that support your idea
• Examples that use narrative to demonstrate the consequences of accepting or rejecting your idea
• Citation of reliable authorities who support your idea
• Demonstration of a cause-and-effect relationship that leads from the current situation to your idea
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• Visuals (infographics, charts, photographs, schematics, etc.) that help your audience picture abstract or
hard-to-process information
Let’s take a look at logos in action. For your claim about solar power as a necessary alternative to fossil
fuels, you might begin your argument by clearly stating your premises and how they lead to your conclusion (fossil fuel reserves will eventually run out; solar power, along with wind and water power, will never
run out; therefore, we need to find a way to replace fossil fuels with these alternatives). You might then
cite authorities who support your premises (Professor Y from X University has claimed that fossil fuel
reserves will run dangerously short by the year 2050). You could follow this expert opinion with a discussion of what effects the lack of fossil fuels will have on the economy and quality of human life. You might
then turn to demonstrating how turning to alternatives like solar and wind power can mitigate these effects, using an infographic to chart the gradual retooling of the infrastructure year by year. All of these are
examples of logical appeals.
Using Pathos
Pathos, the appeal to emotion, attempts to persuade the audience to accept a claim by causing an emotional response. Logos demonstrates the reasons why a claim is true; pathos makes the audience want to
do something about it, to act on that knowledge, to believe in it. You use pathos when you appeal to your
roommate’s sense of team spirit to get her to join you at a home football game or get a friend to go to the
gym with you by reminding him how good he felt after the last workout.
In academic writing, emotional appeals are most effective for claims of value and policy because the success of such claims relies on the audience’s validation. Claims of fact seek merely to establish the truth of
something, to generate data that can then join the pool of general human knowledge. Claims of value and
policy go further; they ask the audience to participate, either through belief or action, and nothing motivates belief and action as effectively as genuinely felt emotion.
However, because of their power to motivate action, emotional appeals should be used responsibly. A
fine line exists between appealing to an audience’s emotions and manipulating the audience for your own
purposes. Emotional appeals can express truth, but they can also distort it. When you make an emotional
appeal, ask yourself if your intent is to help your audience understand the issue or to distract them from
it. An ethical emotional appeal sheds light on your argument, encourages your readers to see the issue in
a new and interesting way, or helps them understand how the issue affects them personally. An unethical
emotional appeal clouds the argument, tries to divert the readers’ attention from an unpleasant aspect of
your claim, or actively misleads them.
Some of the most common ways to appeal to an audience’s emotions include:
• Concrete, specific, descriptive details that paint a verbal picture for your reader; don’t rely on abstract
concepts
• Figures of speech, like metaphors, analogies, and similes, are powerful because they make comparisons
between your topic and something else that help the reader understand what you’re trying to say
• Citations from people affected by the issue (such people count as reliable authorities for the purpose of
emotional appeals; after all, they’ve lived through what you’re talking about)
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• Examples that use narrative to engage the readers’ emotions
• Visuals that elicit an emotional response
Let’s look at pathos in action. Say you’re writing a paper about the damage oil drilling does to the environment. After coming up with your logical appeals, you might decide that you need to help the reader
imagine what an oil spill looks and feels like, and why it might matter to her. You might describe dead fish
floating on the water and the iridescent slick of petroleum glistening on the surface of the water. You could
then use a pertinent metaphor to put that image in perspective: “An oil spill is like a shroud; it hides the
dead from view so you can’t see what it looks like. Underneath that slick of oil, every living thing in the water is slowly suffocating.” You might quote a fisherman, whose business has been ruined by the oil spill, and
include a photograph of him on his boat, looking out over the water. Each of these elements is designed
to elicit an emotional response from the reader. None attempt to mislead the reader or manipulate unwarranted sympathy; instead, they help the reader understand the issue on an intimate level.
Using Ethos
Ethos refers to your credibility and trustworthiness as a writer. It’s helpful to think of ethos as a set of
responsibilities you owe to the reader. For example, you owe it to your reader to cite only the most reliable
sources on an issue; you owe it to your reader to treat those who oppose your point of view fairly and to
avoid distorting their position; you owe it to your reader to distinguish between your own ideas and those
of others. These obligations are part of your ethos, and they are mostly passive; that is, you don’t actively use
them in the same way you use logical or emotional appeals. Instead, you simply abide by them.
However, you can actively establish ethos through other means. The most common ones are listed below:
• Demonstrate knowledge. If you are writing about a topic you have experience with, you can include
this information in your argument, thus establishing yourself as a reliable authority.
• Try to find common ground with the opposing side; by doing so, you establish yourself as fair-minded
and open to the ideas of others.
• Include and respond to one or more counterarguments, treating the opposing side’s argument with as
much dignity as you do your own.
• Practice full disclosure. If you changed your mind about something while drafting your argument, admit it in your paper. If you are consciously limiting the scope of your discussion in the interest of space or
clarity, make sure you clue the reader into the omission and what effect it might have on your claim. If your
disclosures are honest (and they appear early in your argument), you build ethos.
Let’s look at ethos in action. Say you’re writing a paper on the benefits of buying organic produce from
local farmers. You spent a year working on your uncle’s organic farm, and you have firsthand knowledge of
the process. You might describe your year on the farm with a brief narrative, and then move on to a short
statement of how that year changed your own beliefs about buying and supporting organic farms. You
could then admit that buying organic produce is very expensive and probably out of reach for many if not
most working families. Playing off that admission, you might then spend some time talking about how
federal agriculture subsidies work and suggesting that these subsidies might be effectively redistributed to
reward farmers for growing organic produce. Throughout this argument, you built and maintained ethos by
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balancing your desire to prove your argument with your duty to treat both your reader and those who oppose your view fairly. In so doing, you strengthened your own argument.
In Summary
We’ve covered a lot of ground in this section. Hopefully, by now, you realize that much of the writing
process happens long before you start typing your first draft. In fact, for many writers, this is the hardest
part of that process. But if you work diligently, it’s also the most rewarding, because most of the work is
already done. After drafting your thesis, determining the nature of your claim, checking your assumptions,
and coming up with rhetorical appeals to support your claim, you most likely have pages and pages of
material from which to choose. You’ve seen your claim grow from a single statement to an entire argument,
and hopefully gained valuable insight into your topic along the way. You’re ready to write your first draft.
Good luck!
Checklist for Making and Supporting Claims
• Determine the nature of your claim (fact, value, or policy)
• Identify and evaluate the assumptions your claim implies
• Revise and refine your claim if your assumptions are weak or faulty
• Generate logical appeals
• Generate emotional appeals (if appropriate)
• Check to make sure your claim does not violate your ethos
• Generate ethical appeals
• Review your claim
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Considering the Opposing Side
By Stephanie Phillips
The Importance of Using a Counterargument
While researching and formulating an argumentative essay, it is important to consider counterarguments.
A counterargument is a claim that opposes your own claim. If I want to argue, for example, that women
should be allowed to play in the National Hockey League (NHL), I would want to look for a source that
reveals why women are currently not allowed to play in the NHL. It would be difficult to make an argument in favor of a co-ed league without understanding why women are currently excluded. Thus, finding,
understanding, and utilizing a counterargument is important in order to get a complete picture of the complex issue you are arguing for or against and strengthens your credibility as an author.
Let’s look at an example of an argument and counterargument about women playing in the NHL:
In 1992 Manon Rhéaume, a Canadian ice hockey goaltender, took the ice for the Tampa Bay Lightning,
a National Hockey League team. Rhéaume became the first, and currently only woman to play in an NHL
game. Though she was moved to the minor league system after her short appearance, Rhéaume became an
example for women playing in a “league of their own,” suggesting that women could feasibly compete with
men’s athletic abilities. Rhéaume’s example of breaking the gender boundary in professional sports put the
issue of discrimination by professional athletic associations in the spotlight. Women are given ice, jerseys,
and teams, but they are segregated from their male counterparts.
While the story of Rhéaume’s game with the Lightning suggests the possibility of developing an argument in favor of co-ed professional sports, it would be unfair to make the assumption that women are
unjustly excluded without first understanding why women are excluded. Women’s ice hockey has identical
rules to men’s hockey with one glaring exception: women are not allowed to body check or hit an opponent. The no-checking rule makes it harder for women to compete at a professional level. Women are not
allowed to check due to the supposed physical differences between themselves and male athletes. While it
is possible for women athletes to achieve a large, muscular body type, in many cases men will still have a
height and weight advantage over the female players, which would make body checking extremely dangerous in a co-ed league (Beacham).
These physical differences would exist across many different sports, making competition unequal, no
matter how skilled a female player may become. The issue of women playing in a professional sporting
league, then, is a very complicated one, and any argument in favor of coed sports would have to address this
complexity. I began this discussion about women playing professional hockey to demonstrate how complex
an argument can become when we consider counterarguments. The counterargument to my point about
discrimination in the NHL is that women playing in a checking league would face considerable physical
danger. In this case, the counterargument makes a very good point about why women should be excluded.
As a writer, you may even find the counterargument convincing. This is okay and shows that your ability to
analyze and consider evidence is becoming more mature. Showing your readers that you have considered
all viewpoints about your argument will only increase the strength of your argument and your reliability as
a writer.
Allowing the counterargument space within your paper will also show that you are confident about your
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own argument. For example, I respect the viewpoint of those who wish to exclude women from professional sports because of the large injury risk. The article I have been referencing, however, has not changed
my opinion as a writer or a female athlete and I still feel that sports will inevitably include a risk of injury
whether all female, all male, or co-ed. I am confident enough about my own argument that I could include the counterargument to show that I am aware of the opposing viewpoint. If I am able to incorporate
the counterargument within my paper, my argument will be strengthened because I will be able to show
my awareness of other ideas while also defending my ideas against the opposition. Ignoring the opposing
viewpoint within your paper could lead your readers to wonder if your exclusion of the opposition indicates
a lack of confidence in your argument or a lack of research and could weaken your position. Arguments,
such as women’s right to play in professional, male athletic leagues, are complex, multi-sided arguments
that cannot adequately be discussed by focusing solely on your own opinion of the matter. Integrating a
counterargument demonstrates both confidence in your argument and your maturity as a writer to research
and integrate the opposing viewpoint while working with complex arguments and opinions.
Addressing the Counterargument
Confronting a counterargument about a topic we are personally invested in can be difficult because,
instinctively, we have a bias against the counterargument. As a female hockey player, I want to believe that
women are just as skilled as men. The truth is, however, that physically, women are built a little differently,
and this may cause some issues when integrating professional sporting leagues. It would feel very natural for me to call the counterargument “ridiculous” because I disagree with it. However, disrespecting the
counterargument by simply dismissing it would discredit me as a writer; it would show that, although I
found a counterargument, I was not open to the new information that this opposing viewpoint suggested.
Therefore, when approaching a counterargument, you should keep an open mind. You should ask yourselves:
• Who is making this argument and what group of interests is the author representing?
It is helpful to know about the person (or people) making the counterargument. Is the author a male,
is he an athlete, is he attributed to a particular religious or political group? For the sake of my argument
about women in sports, it would be helpful to consider the gender of the author and whether he or she is
accurately representing the viewpoints of male or female athletes.
• Who is the author’s audience?
Based on the author’s rhetoric, does it sound like he is appealing to a particular group of people? Try to
consider how this knowledge would be relevant to your piece. Is the author writing to persuade children, or
people of specific religious or political affiliations?
• What point is the author trying to convey to this audience?
We want to identify what message the author wants to convey to his audience. This means identifying his
arguments and his reasons for making this argument.
• What methods does the author use to convey this message?
Is the author using sources or examples to prove his point? When talking about women playing ice hockey, for example, it might be helpful to see whether the author of your counterargument offers any examples
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of women being badly injured due to co-ed competition. You can also consider what kinds of evidence
(outside statistics or studies) the author uses and how he uses these points to support his argument. For
example, the article I consulted when researching counterarguments against women playing in the NHL
interviewed female ice hockey players who support gender-segregated leagues. In the case of this counterargument, the author’s inclusion of these interviews greatly strengthens his argument because he has now
given support from both male and female athletes for his argument.
When approaching the counterargument, considering the above questions will help to keep an open
mind. You always want to make sure that you treat the counterargument with respect. Your goal as a writer
is, of course, to formulate your own opinion on a subject, but this does not mean that you use harsh or
inappropriate rhetoric to refer to the opposing viewpoints. When discussing a counterargument in an essay, give it enough space to adequately disclose its perspective. Discuss the counterclaim with empathy and
understanding and try to identify a place or time in which this counterargument would be valid.
Integrating a Counterargument
When integrating a counterargument, you don’t want to allow the counterargument to take up the entire
essay and overshadow your own argument. Transitioning phrases such as “however,” “although,” “conversely,” or “on the other hand” will help to indicate where you are beginning a discussion about the counterargument and when you are transitioning back to your own argument. Consider the following introduction
to a counterargument:
While many women feel discriminated against for not being allowed to compete at a professional level, many doctors and coaches believe that the physical risk associated with women and men competing together are too great.
This sentence shows a transition from an argument about why women should be allowed to play in professional sporting leagues, to an introduction of the counterargument. I used the word “while” as my transitory word to indicate to my reader that I am transitioning between ideas. Moving from the counterargument section back into my argument in favor of gender equality may sound something like this:
Although women are typically smaller than men, and competing with them athletically comes with a high risk of
injury, female athletes understand these risks and believe that their skills will outweigh the possibility of becoming
injured.
This sentence shows a segue, or transition, from the counterargument back to the argument that women
accept the possibility of injury and still want the chance to play professionally with men. Here, I used the
word “although” as my transition word. Notice that my transition back to my personal argument did not
discredit the counterargument. My transition actually acknowledges that the counterargument has a point
and, while it was considered, I still believe in my side of the argument and will continue to develop my
claim that women should be allowed into sporting leagues with men.
Combining our knowledge about how to address a counterargument, let’s look at an example of the entire counterargument section:
While many women feel discriminated against for not being allowed to compete at a professional level, many doctors and coaches believe that the physical risks associated with women and men competing together are too great.
In an article titled “To check or not to check? Women’s hockey debates,” author Greg Beacham interviews women
hockey players, one of whom claims, “Do we really need to see girls crushing each other? I really like my teeth,
and I think one day in a wedding photo, having no scars would be a bonus” (qtd. in Beacham). The female hockey
player interviewed is five foot four and less than 200 pounds, which is far smaller than most male ice hockey players.
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Beacham also cites to female athletes who feel that their skill on the ice is not diminished by the no checking rule.
Women hockey players, claims Beacham, are not interested in playing in a checking league due to the associated
physical risks. Without checking, these women athletes still perform at a very high level, without the risk of injury,
and clearly demonstrate that they are exceptional hockey players and athletes.
This paragraph about a counterargument to why women should be allowed to play in professional men’s
hockey leagues addresses the counterargument respectfully and considers Beacham’s point of view as relevant. I used examples and arguments from Beacham’s article to show instances during which Becaham’s
claim that women should not play in a checking league would be valid. I try to demonstrate that I am empathetic to the views that Beacham, and others who are against women in checking leagues, express.
Addressing a counterargument in your essay only demonstrates your abilities as a researcher and writer. If
your views evolve and change from reading and considering the counterargument, this only shows the maturity of your viewpoints because you are able to consider multiple possibilities for your topic. In summary,
when integrating the counterargument, remember to:
• Use transitional words and phrases
• Attempt to empathize with the conterargument
• Always be respectful toward the counterargument
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Chapter 6: Constructing the Essay
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Considering Audience, Purpose, and Genre
By Dr. Dianne Donnelly
Let’s say you’ve been assigned a paper in which you’re asked to stake a claim on a particular issue and
argue from an informed position. Consider first, that whatever you write—be it an email, a text, a letter, an
editorial, a journal article, a speech, an essay, or even a multimodal piece—you face some kind of rhetorical
situation which impacts all of the contexts in which you write. In simpler terms, the rhetorical situation is
that circumstance which requires a response (written, visual, or spoken) which is targeted to a specific audience. Some refer to the elements of the rhetorical situation as the context. For the scope of this chapter, the
context is broken down into the following areas of consideration: purpose, audience, and genre. If you want
to write a compelling piece, there is no getting around the rhetorical demands of this trilogy. The bottom
line is that in all writing, there is a purpose, an audience, and a genre, and because your rhetorical situation
influences what you say about your topic, why you say it, and how you say it, all writers should not only be
cognitively aware of the circumstances under which they write, but also prepared to make purposive audience-based decisions that impact the structure, style, and tone of their writing, as well as what content to
include and what to leave out.
So while you’re thinking about your topic, you also want to be productively assessing your rhetorical situation by asking yourself three searching questions: (1) What do I hope to accomplish in my writing? (2)
Who will I write to and keep in mind as I form my argument? (3) What form or genre should I choose in
order to be most effective? Nearly every decision a writer makes is driven by the rhetorical elements: purpose, audience, and genre; each element depends on the others, none of the elements can be left out of a
writer’s consideration, and all of the elements work together in determining the effectiveness of a piece of
writing.
Purpose
All communication has some purpose in mind; this intent is why we choose to communicate in the first
place; why we choose to express ideas, to inform someone, to explain something, to explore a topic, and/
or to persuade particular people. With this in mind, purpose refers to the concrete function of your document and what you hope to accomplish. For example, when the purpose of a writing project is to inform
someone(s) about a particular topic, your audience is not prompted to act upon the information. In other
words, what readers opt to do with the information you provide is not a primary concern of the document’s
purpose. Rather, the goal is to assure that your audience knows and understands the specifics that you share
with them. There is practicality to this kind of writing. Your readers receive some new knowledge associated with the explanation of a topic, and their knowledge base increases because you’ve provided them with
factual data and objective information. The expository essay is an example of a document whose purpose is
to inform.
Some documents instruct their audience on the ways in which to perform a particular task, to use a device, to apply a concept, or to complete a process analysis. Specifically, the purpose of instruction in this
context is to help others learn, and typically, the decisive design of this kind of writing includes sequential
steps and visual elements (i.e., flow charts, diagrams, images) to illustrate and enhance the clarity of the
tasks. A procedure or technical manual is an example of documents that instruct.
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one to change her mind, or to call persons to take some particular action. These documents present credible
arguments and counterarguments which are reinforced by evidence and supporting details. The persuasive
essay and call-to-action letter are examples of documents that convince.
Although the rhetorical aims of your document will likely focus on one main purpose, your document
can serve more than one purpose. You might, for example, plan to inform and persuade your audience.
Key Questions to Ask When Thinking about Purpose:
1. What are you trying to accomplish in your writing? What do you want your audience to know? What
do you want to persuade your readers to do? What do you want to explain to your target population?
2. As part of your purpose, what do you want your readers to get out of your document?
3. What does the purpose of your document ask from you as a writer? For example, how might you demonstrate your credibility as someone who is qualified to address the topic and fulfill the document’s
purpose?
4. What kinds of explanations or arguments will you make?
5. What genre best helps you to achieve your purpose?
6. How will your choice of medium and document design help you achieve your purpose?
Audience
It is troublesome, but understandable when student writers think of their instructor as their primary
audience. Even when an audience is hypothetical, it is critical for student writers to identify a “real” audience outside of the college classroom so that they can have a focused audience in mind as they write. Consider that while your teacher may be a secondary audience, she will approach your document from a reader
response perspective, making concerted efforts as she reads, to appreciate the primary audience that you
intend for your work.
Even when your audience is hypothetical, it’s difficult not to consider your audience when you focus on
the purpose of your writing. In part, this is because you need to understand how the audience to whom you
are appealing affects your document’s purpose, what impels your audience to read your document in the
first place, what expectations and outcomes they have that you can satisfy, and what your audience will do
with the information you give them.
Moreover, critical areas to consider when you think about audience are content, language, and tone.
When you know your audience, you have a better understanding of what to include in your writing and
what to leave out, what to emphasize and what to understate. Being aware of your audience positions you
to assess what areas need to be extended; what kinds of arguments, counterarguments, explanations, and
evidence to use; and what terms need to be defined, or in some case, re-defined for your audience. Knowing
your audience can only help you with decisions regarding your document’s syntax (the sentence structure of
your language), diction (word choices), key target language, and tone.
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For example, if you want to encourage readers to feel good about a particular solution or model, you
would employ positive language and an optimistic tone. On the other hand, if you want your readers to be
concerned about something or to be enraged about an issue, you would use language that shifts the tone
of your writing accordingly. It’s important to anticipate how your readers will respond to the language and
tone of your writing. Keep in mind that if you intentionally alarm readers about an issue, it’s always important to counterbalance that concern with some legitimate resolve. Similarly, if you’re asking your readers to
take some particular action and you’re providing justification for that action, choose language that respects
your readers’ multiple intelligences. Otherwise, your writing will take on a negative ranting or preachy tone,
and no one wants to be harangued unnecessarily. Furthermore, be cognizant of key words that have negative connotations – you don’t want to upset or agitate your audience and risk being unheard because your
audience has turned away from your conversation.
Finally, while your message and purpose to inform or persuade may be the same for two different audiences (i.e., college students and senior citizens or drivers who text and parents who transport toddlers in
car seats), the other variables discussed above (the content, language, and tone) will likely be significantly
different as you analyze how each audience would respond to your writing.
Key Questions to Ask When Thinking about Audience:
1. Who is your audience?
2. What is your relationship to this audience?
3. What does your audience want/need from your document? What do you want your audience to want/
need from your document? How might you anticipate how your audience’s goals may align or misalign
with your own goals?
4. What does your audience know about your topic? What do they believe? What are their preconceived
notions?
5. What has previously been said about your topic? What content will you include and what should be
left out? What content should be emphasized and what should be understated?
6. What types of appeals (logos, ethos, pathos, kairos) will be most effective with your audience? Why?
7. How will your audience react to what you say in your document and how you say it? How do you want
your readers to react? What syntax, diction, language, and tone will influence your readers? How will
your readers respond to figurative language? Will you adopt an informal, academic, humorous, satirical,
or conversational style? How will your style decisions impact your audience’s response?
8. Beyond your primary audience, what additional readers or unintended audience might engage with
your conversation? Who are these possible stakeholders and what factors should you keep in mind
regarding these readers?
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Genre
A genre specifies the type of communication that you will use to convey your message to your audience.
Sometimes the genre type is determined by the communication situation (i.e., your boss asks you to specifically complete a project proposal for the possible expansion of services within a particular demographic
area), or the genre is preselected for you (i.e., you’ve been assigned to write an academic essay). In academia
and in the real world, the genre choice is often discipline specific (i.e., Genres associated with literary
fields include poems, stories, novels. Standard genres within professional writing include memos, proposals, progress reports, letters, reports, presentations. Genres in the realm of engineering include lab reports,
posters and presentations, scientific journal articles, and so on). Writers of these documents must meet
standards and expectations of the field/audience, and the documents must adhere to specific format and
content rules.
In other cases, the communication situation offers some leeway as to how you might convey your message. For example, you may be asked to persuade your audience to take some action, but you have some
choice as to how you will convey that information (i.e. essay, letter, video, brochure, website, infographic,
etc.). Regardless of the communication situation, your genre choice is defined by the nature of your audience and the purpose of your message, so it is important to understand the characteristics of the audience
and the kinds of documents your audience would have access to and generally prefer, as well as the genre
expectations of the document you plan to deliver.
While the college persuasive essay is not a rigidly-defined genre, there are some standard conventions
associated with the form. The essay opening introduces the topic and narrows the focus of the essay to
include a clear, specific, contestable and insightful thesis/claim. Body paragraphs begin with strong topic
sentences and include relevant/credible evidence and supporting points that propel the thesis forward. The
conclusion highlights the argument’s main points and offers the reader something to think about or a way
to respond to the argument going forward.
Key Questions to Ask When Thinking about Genre
1. What types of documents would your audience likely have access to or prefer? For example, college
students would likely prefer a digital document over, say, a Power Point or brochure.
2. Where would your audience most likely locate the information you present? In a journal, a bulletin, a
website, a blog/vlog, a YouTube video, a newspaper, snail mail?
3. Does the communication situation define the document type or does the communication situation
provide some leeway as to how you will convey your information?
4. How does your genre choice support the message you want to convey?
5. What are the expectations of the document you plan to deliver?
As you become more and more integrated into your field of study, you will find your real world full of
communication situations that call for particular responses. Assessing your rhetorical situation by thinking
about your purpose, by identifying your audience and appealing to their expectations and needs, and by
considering what genre will be best for your message—will position you as a strategic, credible, and effective writer who has a solid plan for what she hopes to accomplish, how she will reach her audience, and the
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ways in which her genre choices will support her ideas.
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Classical Argument Structure
By Jacob Lauritzen
As a college student, it is important to develop a healthy level of skepticism for what you read and what
you are taught. Unlike high school, where students are usually expected to believe whatever their teacher
tells them, university-level work often asks students to question ideas more thoroughly. This process of
analysis will help you to form opinions that you can support with evidence. You may also be asked to apply this healthy distrust to what you read and to the topics that you research as you write. This article will
discuss a process of analysis and argumentation attributed to Aristotle called Aristotelian logic or classical
argumentation. I will review in some detail the core ideas of Aristotle’s Rhetoric, focusing on a number of
key points, namely, how to structure an argument and use rhetoric to appeal to your audience’s senses of
ethics, emotion, and logic. As you study and learn to use argumentation, you will find yourself seeing those
around you differently, like I did. You will learn to recognize how others use rhetoric when they speak and
write, and you will also learn how to use this information to make your own informed decisions in your
academic and professional life.
Aristotle’s Rhetoric
In Rhetoric, Aristotle’s treatise on the art of persuasion, the philosopher identifies three types of appeals
to consider when reading or writing an argument. These appeals are ethos, pathos, and logos. He writes,
“The first kind [ethos] depends on the personal character of the speaker; the second [pathos] on putting
the audience into a certain frame of mind; the third [logos] on the proof, or apparent proof, provided by
the words of the speech itself ” (bk. 1, ch. 2). When you reason through an argument, it is important to recognize how each of these categories affects your reasoning. For instance, a speaker may present a very compelling case logically (logos), but if I know that he has lied in the past, I may have a hard time believing
him. This is because his credibility (ethos) has been harmed by his unethical actions. Then again, a speaker
may present flawed logic, but we may be predisposed to believe him or her because we have an emotional
connection (pathos) to something the speaker has said.
Aristotle continues by outlining a structured approach to presenting an argument. This structure is commonly known as classical argumentation. Using rhetorical appeals (ethos, logos, and pathos) in conjunction
with classical argumentation to tailor how you present your argument by considering what credibility, logic,
and emotion will best appeal to whom you are writing or speaking is an effective means for persuading a
reader or an audience. In fact, it is likely that you have learned to utilize many of these appeals and perhaps
even a similar structure when you have tried to persuade others in the past. This article will attempt to help
you to recognize what you already know about persuasion and to improve upon it by using classical argumentation.
In terms of college composition, classical argumentation can be a guide for formulating one’s arguments,
typically to persuade a reader or audience. As a college student, it is important that you learn to understand
and use classical argumentation in your classes to evaluate arguments that you read, to argue for or against
them, and to make your own persuasive arguments. What many students do not recognize is that they
already use argumentation everyday. Argumentation is at the root of how we make and defend our decisions. We use argumentation when we go out to eat, watch TV, or even get ready in the morning. Classical
argumentation uses a more defined structure though, a structure that when followed can help one to reason
through issues logically, and to argue our cases persuasively to others. Aristotle outlines four steps a speaker
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should follow when structuring an argument: introduction, statement, argument, and conclusion.
An argument does not need to necessarily follow this order, but it must include each step. This structure
may seem familiar. Throughout high school you may have been taught the five-paragraph essay structure.
You likely learned that your first paragraph should include an introduction (step one) to the topic and
should include a thesis statement (step two) outlining your main points. The next three paragraphs make
up the body of your essay and should provide additional details and examples to support your argument
(step three). Your final paragraph, or your conclusion (step four), should restate your thesis statement and
summarize how you proved your point. The five-paragraph essay uses the four core steps of classical argumentation. Aristotle’s structure, though, often goes into more depth. As part of arguing one’s main point,
one should also respond to any opposing viewpoints. We’ll discuss this in more detail as we discuss argument.
Introduction
When making an argument, begin by first introducing your topic to your audience. Aristotle writes, “You
may use any means you choose to make your hearer receptive; among others, giving him a good impression
of your character, which always helps to secure his attention” (bk. 3, ch. 14). Before you begin to make your
argument, you must establish your ethos on the subject. You can make a “good impression of your character” by using an appropriate tone for your subject matter, using correct subject-specific vocabulary, and by
demonstrating your credibility to speak on the subject. For example, as an English teacher, I have ethos to
speak about reading and writing. At the beginning of this essay, I discosed that I had attended graduate
school. This suggests that I have studied this subject at length, but notice that I didn’t spend too much time
establishing my credentials. If I continued to outline my resume, it would distract from the purpose of this
essay. Aristotle explains further that the purpose of the introduction is “to show what the aim of the speech
is” (bk. 3, ch. 14). Therefore, your introduction should frame the argument to establish your credibility and
to prepare to reader to believe you.
In your introduction, you may also use pathos to appeal to your reader’s emotions. Aristotle writes, “The
appeal to the hearer aims at securing his goodwill, or at arousing his resentment, or sometimes at gaining his serious attention to the case” (bk. 3, ch. 14). As you introduce the topic, consider who will be your
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audience. What can you say to gain their goodwill? Politicians provide the classic example of this tactic.
When President Barack Obama was reelected in 2012, pundits credited his win to his campaign’s “micro
targeting” of voters. Instead of blanketing swing states with just one message, the Obama campaign created many different advertisements and then targeted which TV, radio, and Internet markets would receive
which messages based on their research of the voters in those areas. For example, voters Orlando or Tampa
may not see the same ads as voters in Miami. In essence, the campaign staff gambled on the idea that they
could focus Obama’s message specifically to the concerns of their audience. Their gamble worked. Consider
what you can do to micro target your audience. What do you know about them that you can reference to
earn their goodwill? The better you can develop and maintain your ethos and pathos throughout your argument, the more likely you are to achieve your ultimate goal of persuading your reader to your viewpoint.
Statement
Once you have introduced your topic, you should clearly state what your viewpoint on the topic is. Your
teachers may also call this statement a thesis statement or claim. A clear thesis statement will typically
begin with a statement of the topic and continue with your comment on the topic. Be careful as you write
your thesis. Think of it as your promise to your reader. This is what you aim to prove throughout the course
of your paper. Be careful to not promise more than you can prove.
For example, if I am writing a paper on a hot topic issue such as gun control, I would want to be careful
in how I word my thesis. If I were arguing in favor of additional gun control, my sample thesis might read
something like this: “Additional restrictions on gun ownerships will prevent the terrible school shootings
we have seen in the past several years.” It is okay to set a lofty goal, but there is no way that this particular
result could be proven in the course of a typical college paper. Instead, I may want to limit the scope of
my promise by qualifying my statement. For instance, I may instead write, “Additional restrictions on gun
ownership will help law enforcement to prevent mentally unstable persons from owning weapons.” This
statement does not promise that “mentally unstable” persons will not be able to get a hold of weapons, but
rather that it will help law enforcement to prevent this. Being specific helps the reader to know exactly
what you aim to prove and what you will or will not be addressing.
As you craft your thesis, you should also take care to make it debatable. A debatable thesis will be a statement that can be disputed by at least one opposing viewpoint. This is important because it helps you to
answer your reader’s inevitable question, “So what?” For a reader to care about your topic, he or she needs
to have a reason. If your thesis is too obvious or seems of little importance, your reader may ask herself, “So
what?” You should prepare for this by answering her question in advance. Whether the reader agrees with
your viewpoint or not, by making your thesis debatable, you help to answer why your viewpoint is significant, and as such, you give her a reason to continue reading.
In classical argumentation, you should reference your thesis frequently to remind your reader what you
argument is and to relate all examples back to your thesis. Aristotle explains, “Even if you travel far from
your subject, it is fitting, rather than that there should be sameness in the entire speech” (bk. 3, ch. 14). By
maintaining this sameness throughout your paper, you help your reader to follow how each example you
provide relates back to your original claim. It also helps to maintain your reader’s attention and the overall
flow of your paper. For example, if I were writing about gun control, I may begin my paper by explicitly
stating what my thesis is. As my paper continues, it may be necessary to discuss specific problems with gun
control in great detail. This may seem like I am “travel[ing] far from [my] subject,” but if I restate all or part
of my thesis statement as I make more specific claims I am still helping my reader to how each detail con-
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nects back to and ultimately proves my thesis statement.
Argument
The body of your paper should be focused on proving your argument. As Aristotle writes, “A speech has
two parts. You must state your case, and you must prove it” (bk. 3, ch. 13). You may accomplish this through
any number of examples (stories, facts, testimonials, etc.) that lead your reader through a logical progression of reasoning that, in turn, convinces them of your claim. In this part of your paper, you will need to use
logic. This is the most complicated of Aristotle’s appeals. Learning how to reason through an idea to discover “truth” is not a simple process. It takes time and practice. Above all, it needs to make sense.
There are many ways that you can organize your ideas logically. Aristotle writes, “A statement is persuasive and credible either because it is directly self-evident or because it appears to be proved from other
statements that are so. In either case it is persuasive because there is somebody whom it persuades” (bk. 1,
ch. 2). In other words, a statement is persuasive because its logic is “self-evident” or because your examples
identify and support the logic in the statement. For this reason, you will want to use the best examples
possible. At the same time, you should also be careful not to misrepresent your examples. Many novice
students fall victim to this. They may promise more than their evidence supports, or they may misrepresent
an opposing viewpoint’s claim. These mistakes in logic are called logical fallacies. If your reader is observant, he or she may recognize these mistakes and view them as attempts to trick them, in turn hurting your
ethos as a writer.
Think of the story of the boy who cried wolf. It was his responsibility to watch the sheep for his village.
This was an important responsibility, but there was some danger to it. If a wolf were to attack the sheep, it
would threaten both the livelihood and food supply for the community. As such, they had a simple warning system in place to protect the sheep. If a wolf were to attack the sheep, the boy was to cry out “Wolf !”
to warn the village. One day, the boy decided it would be fun to play a trick on the village. He cried “Wolf !”
and fearing for the sheep and the boy, the villagers came. They were upset that the boy had tricked them,
but when he cried wolf again, they still came. By “crying wolf ” a second time, he lost his credibility within
his community. Naturally, a day arrived when a wolf actually came, and despite the boy’s cries, the villagers
did not come. The boy was killed.
This is an extreme example, but it explains the point clearly. As a writer, you need to always maintain the
highest level of credibility possible. The logic of what you say has no merit if you cannot be trusted. The
same goes for the sources you use. If you quote a source, the author’s credibility will become yoked with
yours. If your source is not credible, your reader may begin to question you as well.
It is important as a writer that you address opposing viewpoints logically. There are many effective ways
to do this. Aristotle explains, “An argument may be refuted either by a counter-syllogism or by bringing in
an objection” (bk. 2, ch. 25). In other words, you can respond to an opposing viewpoint by presenting an
example that either disproves it or by pointing out an error in its logic.
Here it is important to note that what one writes and actually believes are not always the same. There is
a measure of performance in anything that we do, especially when trying to persuade a reader. This is also
true when refuting opposing viewpoints. Aristotle explains, “The refutation is not always genuine: it may be
spurious: for it consists in showing not that your opponent’s premise is not probable, but only in showing
that it is not inevitably true” (bk. 2, ch. 25). For example, a refutation of an argument may not focus on ev-
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erything that an opposing viewpoint argues. Instead, it may focus on one specific aspect of it, perhaps, one
that is easy to disprove. Think of this as creating reasonable doubt in the logic of an opposing viewpoint.
A refutation is not only your opportunity to prove your point in response to other viewpoints, but also an
opportunity to create doubt in the probability of the opposing viewpoint. Politicians are especially prone
to do this when discussing the beliefs of an opponent. Again, as effective as this may be rhetorically, you
should be careful to not misrepresent your opponent’s viewpoint.
It is important to note that classical argumentation uses logic and reasoning to prove a point. Once an
author or speaker lies or misrepresents information to prove a point, he or she is no longer using reason.
You may present a viewpoint that you don’t actually believe, but this is not the same as lying. So long as you
rely on logic and reasoning in your own arguments, you will never have to distort known truths to persuade
your reader. If you find though the course of your own reasoning that your viewpoint is incorrect, you may
need to consider changing your viewpoint.
Conclusion
When you feel that you have effectively proven your thesis statement and therefore kept your promise to
your reader, then you are ready to conclude your argument. Aristotle calls this the epilogue. He identifies
four parts to an epilogue:
You must (1) make the audience well-disposed towards yourself and ill-disposed towards your opponent, (2)
magnify or minimize the leading facts, (3) excite the required state of emotion in your hearers, and (4) refresh their
memories. (bk. 3, ch. 19)
A conclusion is not simply a summary of what you have already said. It is also an opportunity to outline
your argument in such a way that you explain to your reader how you proved your point. By approaching
it this way you will again utilize your own ethos, logos, and pathos to “make the audience well-disposed
towards yourself.” As you restate your thesis, you can focus on points that are especially important. This will
“magnify or minimize the leading facts” that Aristotle refers to, but also “refresh their memories” of these
important details. As you continue to utilize ethos and pathos you will also “excite the required state of
emotion in your hearers.”
Taking Your Case to Court
Though classical argumentation can be complicated, it follows a simple structure. Begin by introducing a
topic and making a clear statement about your viewpoint on the topic. Follow your statement with a logical
argument and end it with an effective conclusion. This same structure appears in any trial you may see on
a TV crime show. The trial will begin with opening statements. These are the introductions. In their introductions, each side will explain what they wish to prove throughout the trial. This is equivalent to your thesis statement. They may even introduce some of the evidence that they will use. As the trial progresses, each
side will call witnesses to the stand. It is the job of these witnesses to use their expertise to give information to help each side make their case. Both sides will be allowed to ask questions. This is the point in your
argument where you use examples, quotes, and other information to prove your point. You will also need to
respond to any evidence that may seem to contradict your point. At the end of a trial, each side then gives
their closing arguments. This is the point where you, in your conclusion, will summarize your main point,
your evidences, and explain how each of these supports your main point. It is then up to the reader, who
acts, in a way, like a jury of sorts, to decide whether she will agree with you or not.
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As you practice using classical argumentation, you will find that you will be able to use reasoning to form
articulate and persuasive arguments. You will recognize how authors and speakers use rhetorical appeals to
persuade you, and as such, you will be better prepared to support or refute their arguments in return.
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Works Cited
Aristotle. The Rhetoric. Trans. W. Rhys Roberts. Ed. Lee Honeycutt. Eserver.org. Iowa State U, 27 Sept.
2011. Web. 21 Feb. 2013.
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Tracing a Logical Progression
By Brianna Jerman
Recently, Apple, Inc. released its AppleMaps application as the new default GPS for mobile devices
like the iPhone and iPad. Users were eager to try the software out because the company’s products have a
reputation for efficiency and ease, but unfortunately, they were left disappointed. Following the directions
of the GPS, users were led past a turn that came up too quickly, sent in the wrong direction on a one-way
road, taken on unnecessary detours, left to backtrack to roads they had already been down, or guided to the
wrong location. With these and other issues, users quickly abandoned the App and went back to the more
efficient and effective GoogleMaps. Many people claimed that GoogleMaps was better because it had the
most recent information about street closures, traffic patterns, and route times, but ultimately, users said
that the directions were clearer and easier to follow. Drivers always got to their destinations in a timely
manner and without taking unnecessary detours or missing a turn.
Just like any good GPS system, writers are responsible for leading readers through our argument and
providing a path that is easy to follow. When constructing an argument, we need to think from the perspective of the reader and make sure that we give clear directions so readers wind up “in the right place”.
Keeping this in mind in the planning, drafting, and revising stages of the writing process, authors can work
on constructing an effective essay that is organized according to a logical progression and contains clear
connections from one point to the next. In order to write an effective essay that the reader can clearly and
easily navigate, writers use a few key tactics to help an essay flow better:
Tell readers where they are headed
A well-constructed thesis statement acts as a “map overview” of sorts. It tells readers where they are
headed and briefly explains how they will get there by summarizing the main argument of the paper. With
the final destination in mind, readers can more easily follow the discussion of the essay. One way writers
can help readers along the way is to remind them of their final destination. This means that authors should
clearly relate the points made in each paragraph back to the thesis. In the prewriting or planning stage,
think carefully about the information readers need to know and why this information is necessary to the
main argument of the paper. When writing the essay, writers should state this connection as clearly and
directly as possible. Doing so will help the audience understand why each paragraph is important and keep
them headed in the right direction.
Follow the most efficient path through the argument
Trustworthy GPS devices usually provide users with two or more routes to choose from, but they always
default to the most efficient path to the destination. This route avoids detours and roundabout directions,
and it brings drivers to their destinations in the shortest or quickest way possible. Writers should seek to
do the same when writing an essay. They can do so by identifying the most logical path through the argument and avoiding unnecessary conversations. Directly stating the connection between a supporting point
and the thesis (as suggested above) also ensures that an author is not taking the reader off course, and it
guarantees that all points are necessary to the overall discussion.
A lot of factors can cause an author to unintentionally lead their readers astray. Sometimes the research
process can lead down a rabbit hole of information and the author herself is led away from the central ar131
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gument. Or, a point may seem like it is pertinent to the subject because it is somehow related to the broad
topic of the paper, when really it’s not necessary. When we include ideas or claims in a paper that are not
immediately or directly related to the thesis, readers might lose focus on the main argument or end up lost.
A skilled author thinks clearly about which ideas are necessary and why they should be included in the
paper.
Make sure points are logically ordered
When giving directions to a destination, as GPS devices are supposed to do, it’s vital that every turn be
relayed to the driver in the correct order. If a driver misses a turn, he or she will most likely end up lost
or having to turn around to get back on course. In a paper, the author needs to make sure that supporting
points are logically ordered. This means the author needs to think about what the audience needs to know
first, especially if one point or argument is reliant upon another point. For example, if a paper is arguing
for a multifaceted approach to reversing the rise in teenage pregnancy rates, the writer will need to inform
readers of the number of teen pregnancies that result from improper use of contraceptives before they
argue that education courses on safe sex practices are necessary to solving the problem. This way, readers
understand the reason for this part of the solution and are thus more likely to agree with this point right
away than if they are told later on in the essay that improper use of contraceptives contributes greatly to
the number of teen pregnancies.
Laying out a logical path through an argument is easiest to do in the planning stages of writing through
outlining. Writers can use this space to determine a logical order for their paper and decide what “turns” or
“stops” are necessary. This means that writers need to think carefully about the relationships between supporting points and need to be able to articulate such relationships as they guide the reader from one point
to the next.
Use road signs
When driving, road signs indicate to drivers what is ahead. Sometimes these signs say that an exit ramp
is approaching or that a road detour will help drivers get from one road to the next. These signs help drivers move easily and quickly forward through their journey. In a similar way, writers can help move readers
forward through an argument and make connections from one point to the next by using segues and transitions. Segues indicate a shift in the discussion while simultaneously pointing out how one idea or paragraph is related to another. Transition words can be used within a paragraph to show how two thoughts or
sentences are connected.
Tracing a logical progression through a paper and developing the flow of an essay can be achieved by
keeping in mind the above advice at various stages of the writing process. During the planning stage, writers should outline major points in an essay and consider why each point is necessary to the overall argument. In the writing stage, authors should start by constructing a clearly worded thesis statement and
should directly state the connection between the thesis and supporting points throughout the essay. Finally,
in the writing and revision stages, writers can include transitions and segues to help lead readers from one
point to the next. Following these steps, authors can direct readers through even the most complex arguments.
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Constructing Paragraphs
By Ella Bieze
You Can Stand Under My Umbrella
The umbrella is an amazing tool.
I know what you’re thinking. If this is an essay about constructing paragraphs, why are we talking about
umbrellas? Well, when imagining the construction of an essay, it sometimes helps me to think of an image
rather than a bunch of words strung together. When I think of the relationship between my thesis statement and the paragraphs that support it, I imagine an umbrella. Depending on who you talk to, different
people have different names for the various parts of an umbrella. I usually describe the parts of an umbrella
by their functions: “that thing that pops it open,” “that knob at the top,” “the nylon web part that keeps you
dry,” or “the metal prongs that hold it open.” However, I recently learned that these things have much more
official names than the ones I’ve given them. “That thing that pops it open” is called a “spring.” “The knob
at the top” is called the “ferrule.” “The nylon web part that keeps you dry” is called “the rib,” and “the metal
prongs that hold it open” are called “stretchers.” Here’s a simple and handy diagram of all these fun pieces:
Source
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The reason I mention all these different parts is because I think of the different parts of my essay as these
different parts of an umbrella. The thesis statement could be described as the tube in the middle of the umbrella, ending at the top of the umbrella with the ferrule. It’s the center of the umbrella, the thing that all
the other parts attach to. But a thesis statement alone doesn’t make an essay, just like a tube with a ferrule
at the top doesn’t make an umbrella. A tube with a ferrule at the top won’t protect me from the tropical
storm outside my window right now.
The parts of an umbrella that keep us dry, the parts that make an umbrella an umbrella, are the ribs
and the stretchers. If we were to imagine your essay as an umbrella, your paragraphs are the ribs and the
stretchers. Without the paragraphs, your essay is just a tube in the air, and that won’t do anybody much
good. But with ribs and stretchers, you’ve got length, depth, coverage, and you’re nice and dry.
Much like an essay, a paragraph should have a beginning, a middle, and an end. These are the bare bones
of a paragraph; these are its ribs.
Your paragraph should start with a topic sentence. Like a thesis statement, your topic sentence tells the
reader what to expect. If you had to sum up your essay’s content in a single sentence, that sentence would
be your thesis statement. If you had to sum up a paragraph’s content in a single sentence, that sentence
would be the paragraph’s topic sentence. Your paragraph, and therefore your topic sentence, might be informative, it might be argumentative, or it might explain a counter argument. Whatever the case may be,
a reader should be able to read your topic sentence and know what the whole paragraph will be about. If,
after you’ve written your paragraph, you go back and read your topic sentence and you find that your topic
sentence doesn’t accurately sum up your paragraph, you have two choices: (1) revise your topic sentence so
that it more accurately captures the content of your paragraph, or (2) revise your paragraph so it more accurately reflects your topic sentence. Either choice is fine. It’s up to you as an author to decide which choice
is the right one for your essay. Now that we’ve discussed how to begin your paragraph (with a topic sentence), let’s move on to the middle.
The middle of your paragraph contains the evidence you provide to support your topic sentence. You can
read more about evidence in “Defining Evidence,” but for the our purposes, let’s just say that evidence is
what authors use to give credibility, or ethos, to their claims. When making a claim, it always helps to be
able to point to somebody else and say, “Look! She’s an expert in her field and she agrees with me.” This
kind of evidence lends credibility (ethos) to your claim, it adds depth to your paragraph, and it strengthens
your overall umbrella. I mean, essay. So your paragraph now has a beginning and a middle, but it still needs
an end.
I like to use the end of a paragraph to transition my reader smoothly into the next paragraph. Typically
I do two things when I end my paragraphs: (1) I look backwards and (2) I look forwards. By that I mean,
I remind my reader what I’ve been discussing in this paragraph and why it’s important, or it how connects
to my thesis statement. That’s me “looking backward” at the paragraph I’ve just finished. Then I “look forward,” and hint to my reader what’s coming next. This kind of transition helps ease your reader through
your essay as you shift from one idea to another. It helps them keep up with your train of thought.
Let’s take a look at the paragraph above on topic sentences and review the bare bones necessary to make
an effective paragraph. First, we need a topic sentence that tells us what the paragraph is going to be about.
In this particular paragraph, the topic sentence is, “Your paragraph should start with a topic sentence.” Can
a reader read this sentence and get a sense for what the whole paragraph will be about? Yes. This topic sentence indicates to me that the subsequent paragraph will be discussing the importance of topic sentences
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and their relationship to the paragraphs they precede. Second, the middle of the paragraph should provide
evidence to support the topic sentence. Does the paragraph above do this? Yes. In this particular case, there
is a discussion of the reasons that topic sentences are important, and some suggestions for writers who
find that their topic sentences don’t accurately reflect the content of their paragraphs. The middle of the
paragraph above develops the notion that paragraphs should begin with topic sentences; rather than just
stating that it is important, this section of the paragraph discusses why it is important to begin paragraphs
with topic sentences. And third, does the end of the paragraph transition the reader smoothly into the next
paragraph? Yes. First it “looks back” and reviews what has just been covered (“Now that we’ve discussed
how to begin your paragraph”) and then it hints at what will be addressed in the next paragraph (“let’s
move on to the middle”). When constructing your own paragraphs, remember that like any good essay, a
paragraph should also have a beginning, a middle, and an end. But as we’ve discussed above, these are just
the bare bones of an essay. Just like effective umbrellas are not made solely of ribs, effective paragraphs are
not made solely of these bare bones. Something is still missing.
Let’s return to my umbrella metaphor briefly. If the beginning, middle, and end of a paragraph are its
ribs, what are the stretchers? Remember, the stretchers are the nylon covers that actually keep us dry.
Stretchers are the things that give our umbrellas fun colors or patterns like neon green, or black and white
polka dots, or, as I have on my umbrella, purple zebra stripes. The stretcher is the flair, the style, the thing
that makes an umbrella an umbrella and, not only that, but also makes it your umbrella. In your paragraph,
the stretcher is your voice, your style, your tone, and your word choice. It’s made up of the little things you
do to make your essay your own, to keep your reader interested, to make your writing yours. This part is just
as important in constructing a successful paragraph as having an accurate topic sentence, effective evidence,
or a smooth transition at the end.
There is a tropical storm raging outside my window right now. The wind is blowing, the rain is coming
down hard, the lightning is bright and the thunder is loud. If I were to go outside, I wouldn’t do it without
my trusty purple zebra striped umbrella. And if a single part of that umbrella was weak, I could probably
still stay partially dry, but I might have water dripping on my shoulder, or part of my umbrella might be
flapping in the wind. I’d much rather have all the pieces there and doing their jobs just like they’re supposed to. The same goes for your essay. A thesis statement will help get you started, but it’s not a full essay. You need paragraphs to support those ideas, to help your reader move through your essay successfully.
It’s easy to do, too; just make sure you have all the pieces there, and then add some purple zebra stripes. I
mean, style.
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Constructing Paragraphs: The Nuts and Bolts
These articles originally appeared at WritingCommons.org, a peer-reviewed open education resource for writers.
Understand how to organize information in paragraphs so readers can scan your
work and better follow your reasoning.
Unlike punctuation, which can be subjected to specific rules, no ironclad guidelines exist for shaping
paragraphs. If you presented a text without paragraphs to a dozen writing instructors and asked them to
break the document into logical sections, chances are that you would receive different opinions about the
best places to break the paragraph. In part, where paragraphs should be placed is a stylistic choice. Some
writers prefer longer paragraphs that compare and contrast several related ideas, whereas others opt for a
more linear structure, delineating each subject on a one-point-per-paragraph basis. Newspaper articles or
documents published on the Internet tend to have short paragraphs, even one-sentence paragraphs.
If your readers have suggested that you take a hard look at how you organize your ideas, or if you are unsure about when you should begin a paragraph or how you should organize final drafts, then you can benefit by reviewing paragraph structure. The following guidelines can give you some insights about alternative
ways to shape paragraphs.
Note: When you are drafting, you need to trust your intuition about where to place paragraphs; you don’t want
to interrupt the flow of your thoughts as you write to check on whether you are placing them in logical order. Such
self-criticism could interfere with creativity or the generation of ideas. Before you submit a document for a grade,
however, you should examine the structure of your paragraphs.
Paragraphs often follow a deductive organization.
Your goals for the opening sentences of your paragraphs are similar to your goals for writing an introduction to a document. In the beginning of a paragraph, clarify the purpose. Most paragraphs in academic and
technical discourse move deductively--that is, the first or second sentence presents the topic or theme of
the paragraph and the subsequent sentences illustrate and explicate this theme. Notice, in particular, how
Chris Goodrich cues readers to the purpose of his paragraph (and article) in the first sentence of his essay
“Crossover Dreams”:
Norman Cantor, New York University history professor and author, most recently, of Inventing the Middle Ages,
created a stir this spring when he wrote a letter to the newsletter of the American Historical Association declaring
that “no historian who can write English prose should publish more than two books with a university press--one for
tenure, and one for full professor. After that (or preferably long before) work only in the trade market.” Cantor urged
his fellow scholars to seek literary agents to represent any work with crossover potential. And he didn’t stop there:
As if to be sure of offending the entire academic community, Cantor added, “If you are already a full professor, your
agent should be much more important to you than the department chair or the dean.”
Paragraphs use inductive structure for dramatic conclusions or varied style.
While you generally want to move from the known to the new, from the thesis to its illustration or restriction, you sometimes want to violate this pattern. Educated readers in particular can be bored by texts
that always present information in the same way.
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For example, notice how Valerie Steele’s anecdotal tone and dialogue in the opening sentences of her essay on fashion in academia prepare the reader for her thesis:
Once, when I was a graduate student at Yale, a history professor asked me about my dissertation. “I’m writing
about fashion,” I said.
That’s interesting. Italian or German?”
It took me a couple of minutes, as thoughts of Armani flashed through my mind, but finally I realized what he
meant. “Not fascism,” I said. “Fashion. As in Paris.”
“Oh.” There was a long silence, and then, without another word, he turned and walked away.
Fashion still has the power to reduce many academics to embarrassed or indignant silence. Some of those to whom
I spoke while preparing this article requested anonymity or even refused to address the subject. (“The F-Word.” Lingua Franca April 1991: 17–18.)
Paragraphs are unified by a single purpose or theme.
Regardless of whether a paragraph is deductively or inductively structured, readers can generally follow the logic of a discussion better when a paragraph is unified by a single purpose. Paragraphs that lack a
central idea and that wander from subject to subject are apt to confuse readers, making them wonder what
they should pay attention to and why.
To ensure that each paragraph is unified by a single idea, Francis Christensen, in Notes Toward a New
Rhetoric (NY: Harper & Row, 1967), has suggested that we number sentences according to their level of
generality. According to Christensen, we would assign a 1 to the most general sentence and then a 2 to the
second most general sentence, and so on. Christensen considers the following paragraph, which he excerpted from Jacob Bronowski’s The Common Sense of Science, to be an example of a subordinate pattern because
the sentences become increasingly more specific as the reader progresses through the paragraph:
1. The process of learning is essential to our lives.
2. All higher animals seek it deliberately.
3. They are inquisitive and they experiment.
4. An experiment is a sort of harmless trial run of some action which we shall have to make in the real
world; and this, whether it is made in the laboratory by scientists or by fox-cubs outside their earth.
5. The scientist experiments and the cub plays; both are learning to correct their errors of judgment in a
setting in which errors are not fatal.
6. Perhaps this is what gives them both their air of happiness and freedom in these activities.
Christensen is quick to point out that not all paragraphs have a subordinate structure. The following one,
which he took from Bergen Evans’s Comfortable Words, is an example of what Christensen considers a coordinate sequence:
1. He [the native speaker] may, of course, speak a form of English that marks him as coming from a rural
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or an unread group.
2. But if he doesn’t mind being so marked, there’s no reason why he should change.
3. Samuel Johnson kept a Staffordshire burr in his speech all his life.
4. In Burns’ mouth the despised lowland Scots dialect served just as well as the “correct” English spoken
by ten million of his southern contemporaries.
5. Lincoln’s vocabulary and his way of pronouncing certain words were sneered at by many better educated people at the time, but he seemed to be able to use the English language as effectively as his critics.
Paragraphs must logically relate to the previous paragraphs.
Readers also expect paragraphs to relate to each other as well as to the overall purpose of a text. Establishing transitional sentences for paragraphs can be one of the most difficult challenges you face as a writer
because you need to guide the reader with a light hand. When you are too blatant about your transitions,
your readers may feel patronized.
To highlight the connections between your ideas, you can provide transitional sentences at the end of
each paragraph that look forward to the substance of the next paragraph. Or, you can place the transition
at the beginning of a paragraph looking backward, as Valerie Steele does in the following example:
Can a style of dress hurt one’s professional career? True to form, most academics deny that it makes any difference whatsoever. But a few stories may indicate otherwise: When a gay male professor was denied tenure at an Ivy
League university, some people felt that he was punished, in part, for his dress. It was “not that he wore multiple
earrings” or anything like that, but he did wear “beautiful, expensive, colorful clothes that stood out” on campus. At
the design department on one of the campuses of the University of California system, a job applicant appeared for
her interview wearing a navy blue suit. The style was perfect for most departments, of course, but in this case she was
told--to her face--that she “didn’t fit in, she didn’t look arty enough.”
Another bit of evidence that suggests dress is of career significance for academics is the fact that some universities (such as Harvard) now offer graduate students counseling on how to outfit themselves for job interviews. The
tone apparently is patronizing (“You will need to think about an interview suit and a white blouse”), but the advice is
perceived as necessary.
The phrase “another bit of evidence” beginning the second paragraph refers back to the topic sentence
that began the first paragraph, “Can a style of dress hurt one’s professional career?”
When evaluating your transitions from paragraph to paragraph, question whether the transitions appear
too obtrusive, thereby undercutting your credibility. At best, when transitions are unnecessary, readers perceive explicit transitional sentences to be wordy; at worst, they perceive such sentences as insulting. (After
all, they imply that the readers are too inept to follow the discussion.)
Vary the length of paragraphs to reflect the complexity and importance of the ideas expressed in them.
Different ideas, arguments, and chronologies warrant their own paragraph lengths, so the form of your text
should emerge in response to your thoughts. To emphasize a transition in your argument or to highlight an
important point, you may want to place critical information in a one- or two-sentence paragraph.
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Paragraphs are influenced by the media of writing.
As much as any of the above guidelines, you should consider the media and genre where your text will
appear. For as much as paragraphs are shaped by the ideas being expressed, they are also influenced by the
genre of the discourse.
For instance, newspapers and magazines produced for high-school educated readers tend to require much
shorter paragraphs than those published in academic journals. When evaluating how you have structured
your ideas, however, pay attention to whether you have varied the length of your paragraphs. Long chunks
of text without paragraph breaks tend to make ideas seem complicated, perhaps even inaccessible to less
educated audiences. In turn, short paragraphs can create a list-like style, which intrudes on clarity and
persuasive appeal. Because long paragraphs tend to make a document more complicated than short paragraphs, you should question how patient and educated your readers are.
Paragraphs flow when information is logical.
Paragraphs provide a visual representation of your ideas. When revising your work, evaluate the logic
behind how you have organized the paragraphs.
Question whether your presentation would appear more logical and persuasive if you rearranged the
sequence of the paragraphs. Next, question the structure of each paragraph to see if sentences need to be
reordered. Determine whether you are organizing information deductively or according to chronology or
according to some sense of what is most and least important. Ask yourself these five questions:
1. How is each paragraph organized? Do I place my general statement or topic sentence near the beginning or the end of each paragraph? Do I need any transitional paragraphs or transitional sentences?
2. As I move from one idea to another, will my reader understand how subsequent paragraphs relate to
my main idea as well as to previous paragraphs? Should any paragraphs be shifted in their order in the
text? Should a later paragraph be combined with the introductory paragraph?
3. Should the existing paragraphs be cut into smaller segments or merged into longer ones? If I have a
concluding paragraph, do I really need it?
4. Will readers understand the logical connections between paragraphs? Do any sentences need to be
added to clarify the logical relationship between ideas? Have I provided the necessary forecasting and
summarizing sentences that readers will need to understand how the different ideas relate to each
other?
5. Have I been too blatant about transitions? Are all of the transitional sentences and paragraphs really
necessary or can the reader follow my thoughts without them?
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How to Write an Engaging Introduction
By Jennifer Yirinec
In what ways does your opening engage your reader?
Writers who produce engaging openings keep their audience in mind from the very first sentence. They
consider the tone, pace, delivery of information, and strategies for getting the reader’s attention. Many
teachers generally recommend that students write their introductions last, because oftentimes introductions are the hardest paragraphs to write. They’re difficult to write first because you have to consider what
the reader needs to know about your topic before getting to the thesis. So, I, like other instructors, suggest
writing them last—even after the conclusion—though it’s always a good idea to write with a working thesis in mind. Here are some general principles to consider when writing an introduction.
Avoid opening with cosmic statements.
Think about the term “cosmic.” What does it mean? “Far out.” Do you want your introductions to be
“far out” (in a bad way)? Then avoid beginning your papers with a cosmic statement—a generalization, an
overly broad idea. Publishers say that the first one or two sentences make or break a submission: if the first
two sentences are poorly written or are uninteresting, they won’t keep reading. Consider what your target
audience would think if the first two lines were so broad that they really meant nothing at all. Here is a
list of a few phrases that signify cosmic statements and that are often seen in the emerging level of student
writing:
• From the beginning of time . . .
• Ever since the dawn of time . . .
• Since man first walked the earth . . .
• There are two sides to every issue.
• There are many controversial issues over which people disagree.
That’s just a short list; there are many more cosmic phrases. But you can see from these examples that
they preface statements that are so broad that they will either lead into an incorrect or bland statement
or will disconnect the reader from the real point that you want to make. Let’s take the first cosmic phrase
from this list and finish it:
From the beginning of time, people have been tattooing each other.
Though the writer might think this is a good broad statement to introduce a paper on tattooing practices,
it’s too broad—not to mention historically incorrect. How might we revise this cosmic statement so that
it’s more engaging?
Tattooing practices have widely varied over the past few centuries.
Though still pretty broad, this statement is at least accurate. Consider, though, how we might draw the
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reader in even more:
Imagine you’re in a tattoo parlor, and you’re about to get a tattoo for the first time. You look over and see the tattoo
artist coming at you with a piece of glass. How would you feel? Well, tattooing practices have only become standardized in the last two centuries.
By incorporating narrative into the introduction, the writer can engage the reader and entice him or her
to continue reading. Note that narrative doesn’t suit all genres of writing, though. (See “Employing Narrative in an Essay” for more information.) More formal assignments may ask you to construct an introduction without figurative language or narrative. Think about the requirements of your assignment and your
rhetorical situation when crafting your introduction.
Avoid opening with a dictionary definition.
Just like it’s important to avoid using cosmic statements in your introductions, it’s also important to avoid
starting your papers with a dictionary definition. If your paper topic is abortion, for instance, your reader
doesn’t need to know what Merriam Webster considers abortion to be; he or she needs to know what
broader idea will lead him or her to your thesis. So don’t look to dictionary.com for a snazzy opener; you
won’t find one there.
Wade your reader in to your paper.
Before writing the first line of your introduction, it’s a good idea to write out the thesis. You will need to
build up to that thesis statement: the purpose of the introduction paragraph is to give the reader the information he or she needs to understand the thesis statement.
Why is it important to gradually move your reader through your introduction toward your thesis? Let’s
say that you’re showing your friend this great new lake you’ve discovered. When you reach the edge, do you
push your friend in or do you wade into the lake with him? Perhaps you’d push your friend in, but you don’t
want to shove your reader into your paper. You want to wade him or her into your paper, gradually taking
him or her to the thesis statement.
If you write your introduction paragraph last, you will be familiar with your argument and its direction.
You can then use this knowledge to structure your introduction paragraph, asking yourself questions like,
“What details do I include in my body paragraphs (so that I avoid bringing my reader in to the paper too
soon)?” and “What background information, either about the greater conversation surrounding this topic
or about the topic’s historical context, might my reader need to appreciate my thesis?”
Let’s take a look at an example of an introduction paragraph that shoves the reader into the paper:
Tattooing practices have varied widely over the past few centuries. Indeed, tattooing has become much safer.
Whereas in the nineteenth century tattooing was performed with sharp instruments like glass in countries such as
Africa, in the twenty-first century tattooing is performed with sanitary needles.
This introduction can’t really stand on its own as a paragraph, anyway; it’s far too short. How might we
add material to this paragraph (revise it) so that it gradually brings the reader to the thesis?
Imagine you’re in a tattoo parlor, and you’re about to get a tattoo for the first time. You look over and see the tattoo
artist coming at you with a piece of glass. How would you feel? Well, tattooing practices have only become stan-
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dardized in the last two centuries. In fact, in the nineteenth century, some tattoo artists used sharp instruments like
shards of glass to mark the skin. Yet with the public focus in the modern world on health and healthful practices,
tattooing practices have evolved accordingly. Whereas in the nineteenth century tattooing was performed in unsanitary, dangerous ways, in the twenty-first century tattooing is performed with sanitary needles, demonstrating a shift
in ideas regarding health in public opinion.
Whereas the first introduction galloped into the thesis statement, this paragraph wades the reader into
the paper. Guiding the reader toward your thesis statement will also help him or her better understand the
context for your particular topic, thereby giving him or her a greater stake in your writing.
Ultimately, then, I suggest you practice writing your introduction last. If it doesn’t work for you, then
switch back to writing it first. But writing it last may help you avoid writing two introduction paragraphs
or foregrounding your argument too much. Overall, consider the progression of ideas in your introduction:
you should move from global to local, from the general (but not over-generalized) to the specific (your
thesis statement).
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How to Write a Compelling Conclusion
By Jennifer Yirinec
In what manner have you reiterated your ideas?
What have you left your reader to think about at the end of your paper?
How does your paper answer the “So what?” question?
As the last part of the paper, conclusions often get the short shrift. We instructors know (not that we
condone it)—many students devote a lot less attention to the writing of the conclusion. Some students
might even finish their conclusion thirty minutes before they have to turn in their papers. But even if
you’re practicing desperation writing, don’t neglect your conclusion; it’s a very integral part of your paper.
Think about it: Why would you spend so much time writing your introductory material and your body
paragraphs and then kill the paper by leaving your reader with a dud for a conclusion? Rather than simply
trailing off at the end, it’s important to learn to construct a compelling conclusion—one that both reiterates your ideas and leaves your reader with something to think about.
The Reiteration
In the first part of the conclusion, you should spend a brief amount of time summarizing what you’ve
covered in your paper. This reiteration should not merely be a restatement of your thesis or a collection of
your topic sentences but should be a condensed version of your argument, topic, and/or purpose.
Let’s take a look at an example reiteration from a paper about offshore drilling:
Ideally, a ban on all offshore drilling is the answer to the devastating and culminating environmental concerns that
result when oil spills occur. Given the catastrophic history of three major oil spills, the environmental and economic
consequences of offshore drilling should now be obvious.
Now, let’s return to the thesis statement in this paper so we can see if it differs from the conclusion:
As a nation, we should reevaluate all forms of offshore drilling, but deep water offshore oil drilling, specifically,
should be banned until the technology to stop and clean up oil spills catches up with our drilling technology. Though
some may argue that offshore drilling provides economic advantages and would lessen our dependence on foreign
oil, the environmental and economic consequences of an oil spill are so drastic that they far outweigh the advantages.
Since the author has already discussed the environmental and economic concerns associated with oil
drilling, there’s no need to be passive about the assertion; the author thus moves from presenting oil spills
as a problem to making a statement that a ban on offshore drilling is the answer to this problem. Moreover,
the author provides an overview of the paper in the second sentence of the conclusion, recapping the main
points and reminding the reader that he or she should now be willing to acknowledge his or her position
as viable. Though you may not always want to take this aggressive of an approach (i.e., saying something
should be obvious to the reader), the key is to summarize your main ideas without “plagiarizing” yourself
(repeating yourself word for word). Indeed, you may take the approach of rather saying, “The reader can
now, given the catastrophic history of three major oil spills, see the environmental and economic consequences of oil drilling.” For more information about summary, please refer to the textbook piece on incorporating sourced material into your essays.
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As you can thus see, reiteration is not restatement. Summarize your paper in one to two sentences (or
even three or four, depending on the length of the paper), and then move on to answering the “So what?”
question.
Leaving Your Reader with Something to Think About: Answering the “So what?”
Question
The bulk of your conclusion should answer the “So what?” question. Have you ever had an instructor
write “So what?” at the end of your paper? You might have been offended, but the instructor was not saying that he or she did not care about your paper; rather, he or she was pointing to the fact that your paper
leaves the reader with nothing new to think about. You cannot possibly spend an entire paragraph summarizing your paper topic, nor does your reader want to see an entire paragraph of summary, so you should
craft something juicy—some new tidbit that serves as an extension of your original ideas.
There are a variety of ways that you can answer the “So what?” question. The following are just a few of
the available conclusion strategies:
The Call to Action
The call to action can be used at the end of a variety of papers, but it works best for persuasive papers,
such as social action papers and Rogerian argument essays (essays that begin with a problem and move toward a solution, which serves as the author’s thesis). Any time your purpose in writing an essay is to change
your reader’s mind or you want to get your reader to do something, the call to action is the way to go. Basically, the call to action asks your reader, after having progressed through a brilliant and coherent argument,
to do something or believe a certain way. Following the reiteration at which we previously looked, here
comes a call to action:
We have advanced technology that allows deepwater offshore drilling, but we lack the advanced technology that
would manage these spills effectively, As such, until cleanup and prevention technology are available we should, as
gatekeepers of our coastal shores and defenders of marine wildlife, ban offshore drilling—or, at the very least, demand a moratorium on all offshore oil drilling.
This call to action requests that the reader—remember, you need to identify your audience/reader before
you begin writing—consider a ban on offshore drilling. Whether the author wants the reader to actually
enact the ban or just to come to his or her side of the fence, he or she is asking the reader to do or believe
something new based upon the information he or she just received.
The Contextualization
The contextualization places the author’s local argument, topic, or purpose in a more global context so
that the reader can see the larger purpose for the piece—or where the piece fits into the larger conversation. Whereas writers do research for papers so that they enter into specific conversations, they provide
their readers with a contextualization in their conclusions so that they acknowledge the broader dialogue
that contains that local conversation. For instance, if we were to return to the paper on offshore drilling,
rather than proposing a ban on offshore drilling (a call to action), we might provide the reader with a contextualization:
We have advanced technology that allows deepwater offshore drilling, but we lack the advanced technology that
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would manage these spills effectively. Thus, one can see the need to place environmental concerns at the forefront of
the political arena. Many politicians have already done so, including So-and-so and So-and-so.
Rather than asking the reader to do or believe something, this conclusion answers the “So what?” question by showing the reader why this specific conversation about offshore drilling matters in the larger conversation about politics and environmentalism.
The Twist
The twist leaves the reader with a contrasting idea to consider. For instance, if I were to write a paper that
argued that the media was responsible for the poor body image of adolescent females, I might, in the last
few lines of the conclusion, give the reader a twist:
While the media is certainly responsible for the majority of American girls’ body image issues, parents sometimes
affect the way girls perceive themselves more than the media does.
While this contrasting idea does not negate the writer’s original argument (why would you want to do
that?), it does present an alternative contrasting idea to weigh against the original argument. The twist is
kind of like a cliffhanger, as it’s sure to leave the reader saying, “Hmm . . .”
The Suggestion of Possibilities for Future Research
This approach to answering the “So what?” question is best for projects that you want to turn into a larger, ongoing project—or, if you want to suggest possibilities for future research for someone else (your reader) who might be interested in that topic. This approach involves pinpointing various directions which your
research may take if someone were to extend the ideas included in your paper. Remember, research is a
conversation, so it’s important to consider how your piece fits into this conversation and how others might
use it in their own conversations. For example, if we were to suggest possibilities for future research based
on this recurring example of the paper on offshore drilling, the conclusion might end with something like
this:
I have just explored the economic and environmental repercussions of offshore drilling based on the examples we
have of three major oil spills over the past thirty years. Future research might uncover more economic and environmental consequences of offshore drilling, as such consequences will become clearer as the effects of the BP oil spill
become more pronounced.
Suggesting opportunities for future research involve the reader in the paper, just like the call to action
does. Who knows, the reader may be inspired by your brilliant ideas and may want to use your piece as a
jumping-off point!
Whether you use a call to action, a twist, a contextualization, or whether you suggest future possibilities for
research, it’s important to answer the “So what?” question so that your reader stays interested in your topic
until the very end of the paper. And, perhaps more importantly, leaving your reader with something juicy
to consider makes it more likely that the reader will remember your piece of writing. Why write just to end
your paper with a dud? Give your conclusion some love: reiterate and then answer the “So what?” question.
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Citing Your Sources
By Stephanie Phillips
Before you begin learning how to properly integrate sources into an essay, it would be helpful to consider
a sample topic to work with. Let’s imagine that you are writing an essay on how overfishing has been depleting and altering the ocean’s ecosystems. The first step in writing this paper would be to research and
accumulate evidence about this topic. Since you are probably not an expert on marine life or how marine
ecosystems work, consulting peer-reviewed sources will help to support your claim about overfishing. For
the sake of your overfishing essay it would be helpful to be able to talk about what kinds of fish are becoming extinct due to overfishing or what statistics show about which oceans are suffering the most. From this
type of evidence you would then be able to make your initial claim about overfishing more detailed because
you will be able to support that claim with facts from expert sources.
While you may be able to find interesting evidence that proves your initial claim that overfishing is both
depleting and altering marine ecosystems, you want to make sure that your own voice and ideas are not lost
within the paper. It is possible in research based essays to rely too heavily on outside sources. This can be
avoided by varying the ways in which you cite your sources: for example, you can summarize or paraphrase
information from the evidence and use fewer direct quotations. Furthermore, when you do quote a source
directly, you should follow up the quote with analysis that helps to show how that evidence further supports your argument.
Direct Quotations
The first and most recognizable way to integrate research into an essay is through a direct quotation from
your research. Let’s imagine that while researching the topic of overfishing you come across an article that
says, “a population won’t remain robust if most of its members are caught before they get a chance to reproduce.” This quote would help to further your argument because it shows that the human population is
catching too many fish too quickly and these populations are not being given a chance to repopulate. The
first thing we will want to do with a quote (as you can see above) is to put it in quotations marks. The quote
will also need to be integrated into the sentence. This means that we need to place an attributive tag (or an
introduction) before the quotation. For example:
Janet Raloff, author of the article “Empty Nets,” claims, “a population won’t remain robust if most of its members are
caught before they get a chance to reproduce” (361).
This quote is now on its way to being properly integrated into your essay. The introduction of the author
and the article that the quote came from (shown in italics) is called an attributive tag. By using an attributive tag you have introduced the quote and not just blindly inserted it into your paper. Also, note that the
quote is within quotation marks and followed by a proper MLA citation. A citation should consist, in most
cases, of the author’s last name and the page number that the quote came from – (Raloff 11). In the case
of the Raloff quote, however, the author was introduced within the attributive tag and so I did not need to
repeat the author’s name within the end citation. Notice that the period at the end of the sentence comes
after the citation and not between the quote and the citation.
Now that you have introduced Janet Raloff ’s article into your essay you no longer have to refer to her by
her full name or continue to name the article, “Empty Nets,” that you are citing from. It is now acceptable
to simply say, for example, “Raloff also indicates,” or, “Raloff states.” Your readers will know that you are
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still using the same Raloff article, unless told otherwise, and you have already introduced Raloff by her full
name so you do not need to reintroduce her each time you cite from her article. It would not be acceptable,
however, to refer to Raloff by her first name within your paper. Authors should be referred to only by their
full names or their last names.
It is also possible to change information within the quotation if, for instance, you need to change the
tense being used in the quotation to make it agree with your sentence or you need to make the subject plural. While it is acceptable to change the author’s original wording, any changes you make must be indicated
with brackets – [ ]. For example:
If fishing industries continue to overfish, the multiple marine life “population[s] won’t remain robust if most of its
members are caught before they get a chance to reproduce” (Raloff 361).
To make the Raloff quote fit within my sentence, I needed to make “population” plural. While Raloff
originally said “population,” I was able to make the quote plural by adding the “s” in brackets. The brackets
show which part of the quote I changed so that readers will be able to distinguish between our changes
and the original quote. Keep in mind, however, that altering too many aspects of a quote can indicate that
you may need to rephrase your introductory sentence or that the quotation needs to be paraphrased. If you
begin altering the entirety of the quotation, the quotation will no longer be seen as the original author’s direct words. Direct quotations are good for quoting material that you think the direct source stated in such a
precise way that a summary would not do that quote justice.
It is also important to follow a quotation with analysis. After the Raloff quote, for example, you might
want to continue talking about how Raloff ’s claim contributes to your argument about overfishing. Inserting a quotation that is not followed by analysis is referred to as a dropped quotation. A dropped quotation
can oftentimes be seen as simply “filler” in your essay. This means that your quotation was inserted only to
add length to the paper that replaces your own voice. Adding an interpretation and analysis of the quotation you have inserted indicates to your reader that you have chosen the quotation with a clear purpose and
that you understand the quotation. This is your essay so it is beneficial to ensure that the reader can clearly
distinguish your voice. You should not rely solely on the voice of the authors you are quoting to make your
argument for you.
Blocked Quotes
Blocked quotations refer to the insertion of long direct quotes into your paper. Different writing styles
use different systems for determining when a blocked quotation should occur. MLA format, for example,
asks that when you are using a quote within your paper that is five lines long, or more, you need to format
that quote as a blocked quote. This method of quote integration is best used for lengthier papers where
you will have more room to develop your ideas while still using large quotes. In small papers, however, a
blocked quote can take up too much room, crowding out your own voice. Blocked quotes should not be
used to add length to your paper and, like dropped quotations, are oftentimes seen as adding “filler” to your
paper.
A blocked quotation in MLA style may look something like this:
Be sure to indicate a blocked quotation with the use of a colon. You will then indent the blocked quote to the right
of your paper and single space the entire quote. Notice that a blocked quote does not need quotation marks around
it and that when you give the MLA citation you will put a period before the citation but not after. When you finish
the blocked quote you can return to your own text to analyze the quotation and its role within your essay. (Phillips 2)
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Paraphrasing, Summarizing, and Avoiding Plagiarism
While direct quotations rely on the exact wording used by an outside source, paraphrasing and summarizing are other methods of integrating borrowed ideas into your paper. Summarizing involves putting the
main idea(s) in your own words and is typically shorter than the original text you are borrowing from. In
many cases, a summary involves a brief overview of the entirety of an overall work. For example, you can
provide a brief summary of a book or article, leaving out specific details, and focusing only on the broad,
main ideas and concepts necessary for your argument. Similarly, paraphrasing a quotation allows you to
highlight main ideas from a quote without inserting the entire quotation into your paper. Paraphrasing and
summarizing are great techniques that allow you to borrow ideas or information from a source in your own
words while still citing that source.
For example, a direct quotation from the Janet Raloff ’s article, “Empty Nets,” states:
“Species that have unusually long maturation periods have suffered disproportionately. Bluefin tuna, for example,
take from 5 to 8 years before they reproduce, and various rockfish take from 13 to 28 years. Many sharks take decades to reach sexual maturity. And although sharks are captured for both their meat and fins these animals have the
dubious distinction of being so troublesome to fishing operations that fleets harvesting other species also kill them.
Clearly, a population won’t remain robust if most of its members are caught before they get a chance to reproduce.”
(Raloff 361)
The above quotation is very long and would take up a large amount of space in your essay. For this reason,
it would be better to paraphrase the information. For example, you might write:
Janet Raloff claims that marine species cannot remain intact if they are being caught before they have a chance to
reproduce. Many species, such as Bluefin Tune and Sharks, take a long time to reach sexual maturity and are suffering because they are caught before they can repopulate (Raloff 361).
When I paraphrased the information from the Raloff quote, I focused on the main idea that I wanted my
reader to take away from the Raloff section and I put the information in my own words. My paraphrased
section highlights the main idea I want my reader to focus on while eliminating some of the unnecessary
details from the direct quotation. Further, by stating that Janet Raloff claims, I am indicating that, though I
am not quoting, the information is being borrowed from another source. If I neglect to give credit to Raloff
here, I would be plagiarizing.
Plagiarism is a serious offense that occurs most often in papers when credit is not properly given to an
outside source. Plagiarism can occur when:
• A citation is not given for a quotation,
• Credit is taken for an idea that came from another source, or
• Summarized information is not properly cited.
For these reasons, it is always important to make sure that you are citing both quoted and paraphrased
materials properly.
While you may not be an expert on overfishing, you are able to write a convincing and thorough essay in
support of diminishing the harmful effects of overfishing because you have access to great essays and books
by experts. Marine biologists and fishing industries have published information about the perceived effects
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of overfishing on marine ecosystems and would both provide great source material (statistics, data, explanations, first-hand accounts, etc.) that would be helpful in writing an essay about overfishing. Being able to
cite to sources within your paper shows that you have done your research on what other people are saying
about your topic and you are now ready to enter into the discussion about the topic yourself.
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Works Cited
Raloff, Janet. “Empty Nets: Fisheries May Be Crippling Themselves by Targeting the Big Ones.” Science
News: Magazine of the Society For Science and the Public 167 (2005): 360-362. Web.
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Document Design
By Laura Ewing
Why We Must Format
Margins and headers and quotation marks—oh my!
The list of issues to consider when formatting an academic essay can be daunting: “How wide should
the margins be? Which header goes on which page? What should I underline, italicize, or center?” It often seems easier to just ignore formatting rules, worry about content, and hope for the best—but there are
reasons that essays need to be formatted. For this course, you will follow the guidelines established by the
Modern Language Association (MLA). The discipline of English, in general, requires the use of MLA
style for formatting essays and documenting sources. But before we consider MLA style, let’s discuss how
properly formatting an essay improves your credibility as a writer and makes it easier for your reader to follow your ideas.
Imagine that a job candidate walks into an interview at a bank wearing dirty jeans and an old tee shirt.
He hasn’t brushed his hair or teeth, and he hasn’t showered in days. He’s probably not so great to look at,
and people likely won’t take him very seriously, right? Now, imagine that you walk into an interview for
that same job in a pressed suit—with neatly combed hair and fresh breath. You’re much more likely to be
taken seriously and considered for the job.
Formatting your essay is a lot like polishing your appearance for a job interview. The formatting of an
essay, like the appearance of a job candidate in an interview, is likely the first thing your readers will notice—and first impressions count. In a properly formatted paper, page numbers and citations, for example,
are easy to find. Also, use of proper spacing and a readable font like Times New Roman allows readers to
concentrate on the content that you worked so hard to develop.
If your essay is printed in the standard 12-point Times New Roman font, with one-inch margins, double-spaced lines, and indented paragraphs, your readers will have an easier time focusing on your argument.
Providing your name, your instructor’s name, your class and section information, and the due date (in this
order) in a header on the first page of your essay helps the instructor identify necessary assignment specifics. Including your last name and the page number in the upper right-hand corner of each page allows
readers to easily recognize where they are in terms of your argument.
Why We Must Cite
When formatting your essay, you must consider not only how you physically set up your paper but also
how you acknowledge the sources you use through citations. MLA citations provide readers with the information necessary to immediately identify the sources you quote, paraphrase, or summarize in your essay
and to seek out those sources on their own (which would demonstrate your audience is truly interested in
your paper topic—and this is your goal).
Acknowledging source material through MLA citations—both in the text of your essay and in your
works-cited page—helps to ensure you’re not plagiarizing another writer. Proper citations do not simply
serve to identify the source of outside knowledge or information—they also demonstrate to readers that
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you’re comfortable with them checking that you’ve accurately and fairly represented source material. Additionally, citations enable your readers to find additional information on your topic, beginning with the
sources you uncovered through research. Furthermore, they create a strong sense of credibility for you as a
writer and demonstrate support for your ideas.
To create a works-cited page using MLA style, you need a few key pieces of information from your
source. First, look for the title of the work—whether it be an article, book, poem, song, or television show.
Then, check if there is an author listed. In some cases, the author of the work might not be immediately
apparent; you may have to dig through the material to find his or her name. In some cases, the work might
not have an attributed author at all. Remember though, including sources in your paper helps to build your
own ethos as a writer, and sources with attributed authors are typically more reliable and credible than
sources without attributed authors. So, it is best to locate and use material with a specific author. In addition to locating the title and author of the work you wish to cite, you also need to determine what person
or organization published the work: Is your source a newspaper article from the New York Times or a song
produced by Virgin Records? Is your source a Web site published by a university or a corporation? Additionally, when was your source published? You may be reading an article in 2012, but it could have been
written in 1999. On a Web site, the publisher and date of publication are often found when you scroll
down to the bottom of any given page. This information will help readers locate the source if the need (or
desire) arises. Depending on the medium of your source, you may also need to gather other information in
order to craft a proper citation. So, be sure to review the MLA documentation tab of your handbook and/
or consult a reliable online source such as the Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) Web site (owl.english.
purdue.edu) for specific guidelines.
Practice writing at least one citation—do you have all the information you need? Be sure to format your
citation like those in the example. Formatting your essay and citing sources may seem like superficial stages
of the writing process, but both are very important—they help to make your essay credible and easy to
read. Just proceed one step at a time, and the result will be a well-formatted, well-documented, and professional essay. Taking the time to make sure your essay is properly formatted and your evidence documented
will help your readers and will show that you really care about the quality of your work.
Following are annotated excerpts from a sample student essay. Refer to these excerpts when formatting
your own essays and documenting your own sources.
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Section 3: Revisiting Arguments
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Section 3: Introduction
In Section 2: Crafting Arguments, we explored the tools that writers use to craft meaningful, logically
sound, convincing arguments. By now, you have researched a topic you’re interested in, come up with
something compelling and arguable to say about it, and written your essay. So what now? Can you simply
call it a day and move on to the next project?
Probably not. No matter how much work you spent reading source material, making annotations, hammering out an insightful thesis, drafting a logical outline, and writing the essay itself, chances are that you
overlooked a vague topic sentence, or missed an opportunity to follow through one of your claims through
to its logical conclusion, or failed to provide enough information about your topic. The truth is, all writers
are human, and all humans make mistakes.
Fortunately, academic writing is never about getting it right the first time. The word essay, which refers
to the basic unit of academic writing, comes from the French verb essayer, which literally means, “to try”
or “to attempt.” At its most basic level, the essay is an attempt to say something meaningful with language.
So when your instructor asks you to write an essay about something, she is actually asking you to try to say
something meaningful about it. In other words, the notion that you might fail to do so is inseparable from
the task itself.
However, just because failure is assumed, that doesn’t mean you should just accept it and move on. In
the introduction to Section 2, we suggested that the writing process is recursive, meaning that it is cyclical.
When a professional writer completes a draft of an essay, she knows she’s not finished. Instead of sending it
off to her publisher immediately, she will take a day or two to rest and then revisit her essay, trying to read
it as though she hadn’t written it, looking for logical fallacies, organizational problems, awkward phrases,
and so on. This part of the writing process is called “revision.” Notice that the word contains another word
inside it: the word “vision.” When a writer revises, she literally tries to see the essay again with fresh eyes.
Once she identifies problematical areas, she tries to fix them.
Often, the writer will be fortunate enough to have an editor or be part of a writing group. If so, she can
use the knowledge and experience of such people to catch errors or issues she didn’t see during her own
revision period. We call this part of the writing process “peer review.” Luckily, your English Composition
course incorporates a peer review process, and so your own writing will automatically benefit.
In this section, we will explore these two parts of the writing process in more detail. In Chapter 7: Peer
Review: Using Feedback for Revision, we take a look at peer review, discovering not only how to interpret
the feedback you receive from your peers, but also how to write helpful peer reviews in return. In Chapter
8: Revision Techniques, we go over the revision process, identifying key strategies you can use to make your
essays stronger.
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Chapter 7: Peer Review: Using Feedback for Revision
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Why is Peer Review Effective?
By Lauren Cutlip
Writing is meant to be read, and writing is meant to communicate. Sometimes, though, what we mean
to say in our writing is not what we communicate to our readers. This fact speaks to a paradoxical power
dynamic between writers and readers: A writer controls the words he or she puts down on the page, but
ultimately the reader holds the power of interpretation.
Peer review provides you with a reader for your work, an audience that gives you the opportunity to see
what your writing communicates to someone else. Though you ultimately make the decisions about how
to develop and present your own writing, the peer reviewing process gives you the opportunity to see what
others see when they read your work, to learn if what others see is reflective of your vision, and to determine ways to alter your writing to bridge a gap if one exists.
We can link the principles of peer review in the composition classroom to the kind of practice that takes
place outside this setting. For example, you may recognize the same concept behind peer review in more
familiar terms like “collaborative learning” or “the wisdom of the crowds.” Accredited universities like
Montana State University and Harvard Medical School are beginning to place more students in collaborative study groups in which students bounce ideas off one another before settling on a proposed answer to a
mathematical question or a mock medical dilemma. In these settings, peers provide one another feedback,
and the process informs and leads to new knowledge and more robust outcomes. We share the same goals
in the peer review process in our First-Year Composition classrooms.
Peer review asks that you provide feedback to your classmates relating to the planning, drafting, and
revising components of the writing process. This chapter offers strategies for effective and dynamic peer
review processes in the composition classroom. Carefully reading and responding to someone else’s writing
may feel uncomfortable at first; your inclination might be to provide only praise or suggestions for correcting what you see as surface issues. While it’s important to point out what is working well in a peer’s writing
(and to note why), and while it is somewhat useful to note where you see grammatical or mechanical problems, it is also critical to let the writer know where you, as a reader, might have been bogged down with too
much information, felt you needed more clarity, been uncertain of purpose, gotten lost, or slowed down, as
well as any other issues that affect the scope of the writing and the way it is read. Writers appreciate helpful
and specific feedback, which is why it is important for you to both praise successes and offer concrete suggestions for consideration as a writer re-envisions his or her work.
Tips for Peer Reviewing
Your instructor might give you special instructions for peer review in class, which you should always
follow. As such, some of the strategies described below will not be applicable to all peer review situations.
Even so, you can rely on the concepts behind these strategies to get the most out of your peer review experience in class or at home with a friend.
For the Writer
Think of the peer review process not just as an opportunity for revision of ideas and words already written, but also as an opportunity for invention, for the development of central ideas or support for the points
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you already have made. Likewise, do not think of peer review as part of simply revising a nearly finished
paper, but rather as part of developing your paper.
If you have the opportunity to speak with your peer reviewer, be sure that you ask specifically for the kind
of feedback you’d like to receive. For example, if your reviewer spends a lot of time correcting grammar
errors and you are interested in feedback on more global issues like organization, be sure to communicate
this. If you are not receiving thoughtful and constructive feedback, do not simply blame your reviewer for
poor reviewing skills; take charge of your own peer review by directing the reviewer to more specific areas
as is possible.
Finally, while it is important to be open to your peer’s responses, remember that you as the writer have
final say over your paper. Though understanding a reader’s perspective will be helpful, do not feel obligated
to make every change suggested. You have ownership of your writing, and final decisions about your paper
are ultimately up to you.
For the Reviewer
As you read your peer’s paper, keep in mind the prompt to which the paper responds. Does the writing
meet the expectations of the assignment? Pay attention both to the writer’s purpose and how well ideas are
developed. Also, pay attention to how well the writer fulfills the purpose of the given assignment.
More specifically, with your instructor’s guidance, you’ll learn to re-view your peer’s writing by using the
FYC rubric tool, an assessment tool that considers the basic and critical thinking components of effective
writing and measurable outcomes of the writing assignments of your composition course.
Peer Review Exercises
Here are several suggested exercises to get the most out of the peer review process:
1. Read your peer’s paper aloud, and at the end of each sentence stop and summarize the main point so
far. Then, predict what might logically come next. Ask yourself if the summary is reflective of what
actually exists on the page. Are there any missed connections? This exercise will help identify opportunities for elaboration or missing transitions.
2. Write a descriptive outline of the paper being reviewed. Many traditional peer review worksheets will
ask you to complete this activity. Read each paragraph, scanning for fundamental elements like the
thesis statement, topic sentences, main points, sub points, evidence, and so on. Note these elements in
the margins of the paper. This exercise asks the reviewer to show the writer what the piece “does,” not
just says—how it progresses from one point to the next, what those points are, and how they are organized. This exercise is a great way to identify important missing elements and to evaluate the essay’s
organizational structure for flow and cohesion.
3. Play Peter Elbow’s “Believing and Doubting” game: First, pose as someone who fully believes the ideas
espoused in the text you are reviewing, and provide suggestions for developing and strengthening the
paper’s main points. Then take the position of a skeptic, presenting counterarguments and challenging
the writer’s ideas. Use this game to spot holes in logic or to strengthen main ideas with additional support.
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4. Review the piece for tone or voice. In this exercise, rather than searching for opportunities for improvement, reviewers should jot down terms that express the tone or voice they sense from the piece.
Words like “distant,” “argumentative,” “judgmental,” or “flowery” will help writers get a sense of how
the piece feels when read by an outsider.
The peer review process is a reciprocal experience that affords you an opportunity to get helpful and
specific feedback from your peers and to offer constructive input to the other writers in your writing community.
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Works Cited
“Collaboration Makes Better Researchers.” Center for Biofilm Engineering. Montana State U, 4 March
2008. Web. 2 June 2011.
“Curriculum Overview and Organization.” Harvard School of Dental Medicine. Harvard U, n.d. Web. 2
June 2011.
Elbow, Peter. Embracing Contraries: Explorations in Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1986.
Print
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Stop Searching for Errors: How to Read Holistically
By Jennifer Yirinec
The majority of students who enter my classroom are obsessed with finding grammatical errors in the
works of their peers. How do I know? When doing their peer reviews, they focus almost exclusively on
grammatical and typographical errors (typos)—or “local” issues. The major problem with this approach is
that most students are not grammar experts. In fact, many of the grammatical suggestions I’ve seen given
during peer reviews are incorrect. This is not to say that mentioning a recurring grammatical error is unhelpful when doing a peer review, but this is to say that your focus, as a student reviewer, should not be on
the grammatical and typographical errors, as your peers should be able to spot these kinds of errors after a
second read-through. Rather than looking for grammar mishaps, you should pay attention to more global
issues: focus, organization, evidence, and even style (notwithstanding grammar). After all, these are the sections that really count on the rubric, right?
Part of the reason why students spend so much time searching for these surface errors is that grammar
issues seem easier to note than more holistic problems in a writer’s essay. Realistically, it’s possible that
many readers have not been taught to identify such issues or have not practiced a lot of peer review from
this perspective, and so it takes a bit of training and a concerted effort to learn how to focus on the whole
of a paper. Perhaps, though, many students would like to address global issues in their peers’ writing but are
unsure of how to do so. Here are some tips that may help you, as a peer reviewer, read a classmate’s work
holistically
• Read the draft through once before marking anything. Even if you spot a blatant grammar no-no,
keep reading. Resist the urge to circle it!
• While reading through the draft a second time, underline or highlight your peer’s thesis statement.
Then, write one- or two-word annotations next to the body paragraphs that capture the main point of
each. Highlighting the thesis statement and jotting down these notes will help you to see the progression
of the writer’s points (organizationally and focus-wise).
• When using a peer review worksheet like the ones provided in this textbook, never just give a “yes”
or “no” answer. Even if you think that such an answer would be sufficient, it won’t really help your reader.
Rather than saying “yes” to the question, “Do all paragraphs have topic sentences?” praise your peer for specific topic sentences that you found particularly rhetorically effective. If you say “no” to this question, point
your peer to specific paragraphs that lack topic sentences. You may even choose to suggest potential topic
sentences (e.g., “I think your main point in this paragraph is such-and-such. If this is the case, how about
this for a topic sentence . . . ?”).
• Before commenting on the paper in its entirety (like noting paper organization), address paragraph
organization. Taking the paper apart, examining and providing feedback on each paragraph by itself, will
later help you—and your peer—to consider paper organization.
• When considering stylistic issues, underline and then annotate the paper. Merely answering the
questions on a peer review worksheet will not really help your peer if he or she does not know the specific
lines or sentences you’re referencing.
◊ Underline instances of passive voice. If a recurring issue, make a note on the peer review worksheet
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about your peer’s use of passive voice.
◊ Underline or highlight, in a different color, sentences that bog you down as a reader (ones that are
wordy, choppy, or unclear). Then refer your peer to this color on your peer review worksheet.
• When considering evidence-related issues, highlight the author’s claim; then, underline the entire
bit of evidence (including the introduction and analysis of material, if that material is from an outside
source). Then, place the introduction of the evidence in parentheses, bracket the source material (e.g.,
the quote or paraphrase), and circle the analysis of the source material. That way, you will be able to tell
whether or not each claim has support and whether or not that support is effectively integrated into the
paper.
Ultimately, it’s important to be willing to read through your peer’s draft more than once: once without
marking anything, once while only annotating, and each subsequent time for a specific purpose (e.g., to
identify paragraph organization, paper organization, use of evidence, use of active voice). Peer reviews are
time-consuming—yes! Instructors may even allot full class periods to them or will cancel a class meeting
so that students can use the online peer review tool. We, as instructors, do this for a reason: We want you
to be able to provide constructive feedback to your peers. And you care about what your classmates think,
right? Give the kind of helpful response that you would prefer to receive. Trust me, your peers want feedback from you, even if (and generally, especially if ) that feedback takes the form of constructive criticism.
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Writing Helpful Peer Reviews
By L. E. Cagle
Writing helpful peer reviews can be a challenge, especially when you’re still working to understand and
complete an assignment yourself. Nonetheless, simply by virtue of being a peer writer, you are completely
qualified to write a helpful peer review.
You are familiar with the writing assignment, and you have been reading for years. Having written your
own draft of the assignment, you understand some challenges your peer might have faced while writing.
You know what your instructor has said about the assignment, and you may even have access to the grading rubric your instructor will use. You have lots of experience reacting as a reader and understanding this
specific writing situation, both of which you can use to write a helpful peer review.
Making Peer Reviews Helpful for You and the Writer
There are many reasons to participate in peer review. Broadly speaking, peer reviews can be helpful for
the reviewer completing the review as well as for the writer whose work is being reviewed. The act of reading someone else’s work, thinking deeply about it, and commenting on it accomplishes two important
goals:
1. it gives the writer useful reader feedback
2. it gives you, the reviewer, the opportunity to think about your own writing in relation to your peers’
writing
The obvious way in which peer reviews are helpful is that they give writers immediate reader feedback.
The sections below explain how to make that feedback most helpful for the writer and enable her to improve the paper.
However, it’s also important to think about the second way peer reviews can be helpful. I’ve heard students note with surprise that conducting peer reviews helped them write their own papers. I’ve even had
this experience myself. When I have the chance to read a peer’s writing and comment on it, I often end up
with new ideas for what to write about and how to improve my own papers. Any time we read, we have a
chance to learn about writing. This is especially true if we’re reading texts that are similar to something we
ourselves are or will be writing. That’s why it can be so helpful to have sample papers to read when we’re
figuring out how to respond to a new assignment in a class. Similarly, in the workplace, people often use
templates or models to draft texts that are rhetorically appropriate and effective.
How to Write a Helpful Peer Review
Your instructor has probably given you specific directions for completing your peer review. Be sure to
follow the instructions you received. In addition to these instructions, you can use the following concrete
strategies to write helpful peer reviews.
Review the Assignment
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Before you begin reviewing a peer’s paper, re-read the assignment describing the paper’s requirements.
Note specific verbs that describe the paper’s purpose, such as summarize, interpret, assert, and argue. For
example, an assignment may instruct you to “assert an arguable thesis.” When peer reviewing that assignment, you should pay special attention to the thesis to make sure it’s arguable. If it’s just making a statement of fact, tell your peer that the thesis doesn’t meet the assignment requirements and explain why not.
Note also requirements such as the use of outside sources and minimum length. For example, if the assignment description says the thesis should be “supported by research,” your peers should include references to
their research. If your peers don’t, remind them of the assignment requirement in the peer review.
TIP: Using the assignment description, write down an informal checklist of assignment requirements.
While completing your peer review, make sure your peer’s paper meets all the requirements on your checklist.
Think Big
When we’re reading, it’s easy to get lost in the minutiae of individual claims, sentences, and even words.
Have you ever finished reading a page and suddenly wondered what exactly it was that you just read? And
how it related to the page before, and the page before that? Don’t worry; it’s common. But when you’re
peer reviewing, you should combat this tendency in order to give your peer big picture feedback about his
or her paper.
Here are a few suggestions to help you focus on the big picture:
• Read the entire paper before making comments. This gives you a chance to consider how effective it
is as a whole before attending to specific concerns. For example, after you read the entire paper, you may
realize that the introduction doesn’t accurately represent what it’s about.
• Write an outline of the paper after reading it. Write a single phrase or sentence summarizing each
paragraph’s content and purpose. This gives you a chance to consider whether the paper has extraneous
content or is missing necessary content, and whether the order of the paragraphs is effective. For example,
making an outline may help you realize that several paragraphs unnecessarily repeat the same information.
• Highlight the thesis and consider how well each paragraph relates to it. This gives you a chance to
consider whether the thesis is appropriate for the paper’s content and whether the paper effectively supports the thesis’s claims. For example, you may notice that the writer does not explain in one paragraph
how the cited research relates to the thesis.
TIP: Don’t start your peer review by marking up sentence-level issues, like spelling or a proofreading error, in your peer’s paper. Instead, before you write any comments to your peer, read their entire paper without commenting and consider how well its thesis and organization work as a whole.
Give Specific Suggestions
A peer review that simply states what’s effective or not effective in a paper only helps the writer evaluate
their work. To write a truly helpful peer review, you should also help the writer develop ideas for revision.
To do this, be sure to provide specific suggestions for how the writer might fix problem areas or might
reuse an effective technique from one spot in the paper somewhere else in the paper. For example, you may
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ers would agree that this is a statement of fact), but according to the assignment description, it should be.
You can add to your comments a specific suggestion for how to make this thesis argumentative; for example, you might write,
“The thesis could be more argumentative if you add a because statement to the end of the thesis, like ‘because the
government began using the terrorist attacks to strip us of our civil liberties.’”
TIP: For every peer review comment you make, try to include specific suggestion for how your peer
might revise the paper in response to that comment.
Respect the Writer
Writing can be a difficult task. Writing assignments can take a lot of time, thought, and effort, even for
experienced writers. Keep this in mind as you complete your peer review. Your peers have likely worked
hard on their drafts in order to make them interesting and coherent for you, the reader. In completing a
peer review, you can respect this effort in many ways. To demonstrate your respect, be sure to:
• Use a respectful tone in your comments. Ask yourself what kinds of statements might offend you or
make you lose self-confidence if you read them in a review of your work. For example, statements like “This
is the kind of writing I did in high school. We’re in college now.” belittle the writer and show disrespect.
Instead, ensure that all your comments, including criticisms, support the writer’s efforts by using a respectful tone and providing specific, helpful advice.
• Take your time while completing your reviews. Willingly spending time reading and thinking about
your peers’ writing demonstrates respect for the time they put in. Hastily completed peer reviews end up
being obviously brief and shallow. They suggest that you do not respect your peers’ efforts enough to spend
time with their writing. Be respectful by budgeting the time you need for peer reviews to make them well
thought-out and specific.
TIP: Take the time to complete thoughtful peer reviews and be sure that your critiques are helpful, not
hurtful.
If Your Instructor Provides a Rubric: Use Rubric Language
In addition to using the rubric to consider how the instructor might critique the paper, you can use the
language from the rubric in your own critiques. For example, you may notice that you’re having trouble
following your peer’s paper because it’s not clear why the writer moves from one paragraph to the next.
Rather than just saying that the paragraphs seem jumbled, you can borrow language from the rubric and
note specifically that the paragraphs have “absent, inconsistent, or non-relevant topic sentences” and that
there are “few transitions.” This specificity helps your peer know how to fix the organizational problem and
highlights how poor organization can lead to a poor evaluation of the paper.
TIP: Include language directly from the rubric in your peer review comments to provide more specific
critiques and to help your peers develop revision strategies.
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Questions for Creating a Helpful Peer Review
These questions are an additional resource to help you ensure that your peer review is helpful both to the
writer and to yourself. You can also use these questions to conduct informal peer reviews, for example at
work or if friends ask for your feedback on their assignments for other classes.
1. Have you ensured that the paper meets the assignment requirements?
2. Have you identified and evaluated the thesis? Is the thesis (or lack thereof ) appropriate for the writing
assignment?
3. Have you considered whether and how the organization is effective?
4. Have you provided several concrete and specific suggestions for changes the writer could make to improve the text?
5. Have you identified areas in which the writing is especially effective, and explained why it is effective?
6. Have you incorporated rubric language into your critiques?
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Making the Most of Peer Feedback
By Dr. Abigail G. Scheg
Sometimes in your writing class, your instructor will ask you to bring a copy of a paper draft to class in
order to participate in a peer review, which means to have a group of your peers (your writing classmates)
review, edit, proofread, comment, and provide feedback on your paper. This can also be done online using discussion boards, blog posts, or other media. But, for the purposes of this article, we will discuss peer
review as it can occur in the face-to-face writing classroom.
Some students are immediately apprehensive about sharing their writing with other people. Sometimes,
we are asked to write papers about concepts and experiences that are personal and we don’t really want to
share our stories with others. If this is the case, think about discussing this with your instructor ahead of
time. She may be able to suggest strategies for writing that may help you to avoid issues, or point you in a
direction that you hadn’t originally thought of. At the very least, she can serve as a sounding board, allowing you to express your concerns.
However, if you just feel uncomfortable because you don’t want to receive negative feedback from a classmate, you should know... so does everybody else! No one likes to receive suggestions for improvement or
have a reader point out errors in their writing, but receiving feedback is the way that we learn about our
mistakes, about our writing, and how to improve our writing overall. Even well-known authors who write
books for a living have an editor that they submit their rough draft to; the editor writes all over it, crosses
sections out, asks questions, and gives it back to the author. The purpose is not to make the writer feel bad;
the purpose is to improve the writing.
Really, it is better to fail the peer review than fail the actual paper! If you bring a paper in for peer review
and get it back with marks, edits, and revisions all over the document, it is better to get that feedback from
your classmate before you submit the assignment for a grade then to receive all of those marks form your
instructor and the grade that goes with those marks!
Another element of concern for peer review is that oftentimes students do not feel comfortable with
other students reading and commenting on their work. Students may think, “I don’t want one of my classmates to read my paper. What do they know about writing?” Even though the peer review participants
may not be experts on the writing process, or MLA/APA/Chicago formatting standards, or writing thesis
statements, each individual still has a significant amount of experience and expertise to bring to the table:
you are all readers! Throughout your life you have read books, journals, magazines, textbooks, websites,
Facebook statuses, text messages, blogs, movie reviews, Tweets, and a countless assortment of other things.
You have years and years of experience reading various genres to bring to the table. If nothing else, a peer
review can start by saying, “I did like,” or, “I didn’t like,” and name an aspect of a paper. Understanding
what someone liked or didn’t like about your paper may not be the most insightful method of providing
peer review, but it is a wonderful place to start and can generate dialogue with the author and reviewer easily.
For instance, if a reviewer begins by saying, “I didn’t really like your thesis statement, but I’m not sure
why,” then the author has an opportunity to respond. Perhaps they will respond with, “You know, I didn’t
like it either, but I couldn’t come up with the right word to use here, do you have any suggestions?” Maybe,
then, with their prompting, both participants could come up with an idea. This is the power of peer review!
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Now that you understand that they had a problem with word choice, you could have a new word suggestion for them to use. Once you substitute the new word for the original one, the flow of the paper makes
much more sense! That is an example of starting with the unfamiliar and possibly vague feedback and making a significant difference in someone else’s writing.
There may also be resources available to you during the peer review. Some instructors allow students to
consult their textbooks or online resources that they may need during the process. Therefore, if students
identify a problem with someone’s writing, they can consult their textbook or the online source for extra
assistance. Your instructor can also serve as a resource during the peer review process. If you have questions
about changes or specific writing feedback, you can always ask your instructor to take a look at the document with you and go over the area of concern. This not only benefits the paper you are reviewing, but it
can also help to improve your own writing and self-editing.
So, once you receive your paper back from your classmate, what do you do with this document? First, you
should take a few minutes to review all of their feedback and ensure that you understand all of their comments. Do their marks make sense? If they changed the order of a sentence, look at their suggestions, does
the sentence still make sense in the way that you had intended? If there are any comments that you are
unsure about or comments that do not make sense to you, you should take time to ask the peer reviewer
about their feedback. Again, your instructor may have specific guidelines, instructions, or questions to go
over with one another.
Perhaps your peer reviewer misunderstood or misread a sentence or paragraph of your paper. Therefore,
their edits may not be appropriate for the context of your paper. So again, if you have questions or are
unsure as to why a change was suggested for your paper, you should certainly ask your peer reviewer. It is
important to remember that the author and the reviewer came to this text from very different perspectives
and therefore, may read the document differently. Therefore, it is imperative for the author and reviewer to
discuss any questions, comments, or concerns to clarify that the text makes sense and that the feedback is
utilized correctly.
If you disagree with the feedback of your peer reviewer, such as, they made comma changes that you do
not think aligns with the comma rules, you can ask your instructor for additional help with this. Or, you
can both look at the comma rules together to see if you find a rule that aligns with their perspective or
yours. There is always the option of asking the instructor to read a portion of the paper or having another
peer reviewer get involved if a common ground cannot be reached. Writing can and should be a collaborative process!
Just because you receive feedback from a peer does not necessarily mean that they are right or that you
have to make those changes. Some of the suggestions that your peer reviewer may make will be stylistic
suggestions such as word choice, sentence structure, or a request for more details. If their suggestions do
not align with your overall vision and goal of the paper, then you always have the option to ignore or modify their suggestions. Regardless of the feedback that you receive, you should think deeply about each comment, mark, and suggestion that was made to see if you agree or disagree with the comments. Do not just
make changes or edits to your paper blindly or just because someone suggested that you do so. Remember
that you remain in creative control of your paper, so if you feel strongly about the tone or description of
your piece, regardless of whether another reader disagrees with it, that does not mean that either of you are
wrong on this. It just means that every person has different perspectives.
Peer reviews are an extremely beneficial part of the writing process from which you can garner a lot of
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experience and insight. If you have the opportunity to peer review papers in class, take advantage of this
chance to have someone read and comment on your paper. Your writing will improve in the long-term
through these in-class conversations.
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Making the Most of Instructor Feedback
By Dr. Abigail G. Scheg
Receiving feedback on your writing is a tremendous resource! When we are in the writing process, we
sometimes have a tendency to overlook a lot of small writing errors, so it is always a great idea to have an
outside reader review your papers. Some of the people that might review your paper are: your writing instructor, an online tutoring service such as SMARTHINKING, your campus Writing Center, an English
teacher that you had for a previous course, a friend who you believe has strong reading and writing skills,
another student that you know that is an English major, or a family member or friend who could provide
honest, strong feedback. For the purposes of this article, we are going to examine instructor feedback!
Instructors provide feedback to their students in a number of ways. Feedback can take the form of holistic comments, line-by-line edits, and one-on-one discussion or conferencing.
Holistic Comments (End Comments)
Holistic comments are generated when your instructor reads through your entire piece of writing and
then focuses on composing some general comments that address any areas/categories of concern in your
paper. For instance, your instructor may write:
Well done with this draft! Overall, you have strong ideas and good character description. Please work on strengthening your descriptions of place. Also, review comma rules before editing and proofreading your paper again.
These comments are specific to the students’ text, but do not go through individual sentences or paragraphs. Rather, holistic comments provide a place to start for a student to evaluate and re-examine her
writing. The above example includes the critique: “review comma rules before editing and proofreading
your paper again,” which indicates that this students’ paper has errors in comma rules. Since no particular
comma rule is mentioned here (such as: Review the comma rule for introductory phrases and clauses), this
indicates that the student made more than just one type of comma error. Perhaps there are run-on sentences, introductory phrases lacking commas, and lists without proper separation.
At this point, the student should read through the holistic feedback and determine whether or not these
comments make sense to them. If the instructor’s feedback states, “You have strong ideas and good character description,” does the student understand the character description that is referred to? Does the student
feel confident in the ideas and character description included in the paper? Essentially, does the student
understand and agree with the holistic comments?
Next, perhaps the instructor states, “work on strengthening your descriptions of place.” Does the student
understand what is meant by this comment? Did the author describe a specific location in this text? How
was it described? Was there an appeal to all of the senses or could more information be given to provide
the reader with details?
If at any point in the feedback the student has questions or disagrees with the instructor, the student
should discuss these questions, comments, and concerns with their instructor. Perhaps you spent a great
deal of time reviewing your comma rules before you submitted this paper, so you don’t understand the
comma mistakes indicated here. Ask your instructor to look through your paper with you and provide an
example. Maybe even though the instructor said that your character description is strong, you still have
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some questions about writing and developing character. Ask your instructor for more specific insight into
your characterization.
Line-by-Line Edits (In-Text Comments)
Line-by-line edits are another type of feedback that some students really prefer and some students shy
away from. Line editing can be done in a number of ways, but the purpose of line-by-line edits are when
an instructor goes through the paper, makes recommended changes in text and provides comments on
a line-by-line basis. The types of comments that an instructor may make are potentially unlimited; they
may recommend changes in spelling, punctuation, grammar, word choice, sentence structure, paragraph
structure, general page formatting, and much more. Some instructors use official proofreading and editing
marks (as found here), but if so, instructors often make their students aware of these marks ahead of time.
If not, lists of proofreading and editing marks appear in most writing textbooks and are widely available
online, such as the weblink above.
Some students prefer line-by-line edits because instructors point to specific areas of the paper that need
attention or changes. Unlike holistic comments, with line-by-line edits students know exactly where their
commas were used incorrectly or where the instructor may have had extra comments or questions. Depending on your instructor, line-by-line edits may be done on various computer programs, such as Microsoft Word Track Changes. In Track Changes, the student has the opportunity to right click and accept
or reject certain changes and can receive specific edits from the instructor without printing a copy of the
paper.
Conferencing (One-on-One Discussion)
Another type of instructor feedback that may be used in conjunction with holistic feedback or line-byline edits or on its own is known as one-on-one discussion or conferencing. Some instructors prefer to
conference with their students regarding editing, proofreading, revising, and general reviewing of a rough
draft of a research paper. By the time a conference begins, instructors have typically already read the paper
and provided holistic feedback or line-by-line editing. During the conference, the instructor spends time
reviewing these changes with the students and determining if the students have any questions about the
feedback. Sometimes, instructors use the conference time just to provide feedback to the students, which
may or may not be written down on the document. In that case, students need to take detailed notes so
that they can return to the paper later and make any suggested comments.
Whether or not the instructor has made comments on the draft, students should take this opportunity
with their instructor to ask detailed questions about their writing. If the instructor makes the suggestion in
a conference that the student review comma rules, the student can ask the instructor to elaborate on that
suggestion, to ensure that they truly understand the instructors’ feedback in context.
A one-on-one instructor conference is a tremendous opportunity for a student to ask questions about her
writing and to garner some significant suggestions for improvement. It may seem uncomfortable at first to
ask your instructor about making changes to your writing, but the more readers and insight you can get on
your writing, the more you will see a significant improvement in your papers.
Another important note in terms of instructor feedback is the following: you can ignore any and all
feedback if you do not agree with it. If an instructor provides you feedback regarding comma rules, spell173
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ing, or grammar, it is typically recommended that you heed their advice and make any of the recommended
changes. However, sometimes the feedback that instructors will give will be stylistic changes. Stylistic
changes may be changes to word choices or recommending that a writer focus on a different element of the
story. Below is an example of this:
Perhaps an assignment would be to write a personal narrative in which you tell a story. The story that you
choose to focus on is a time when your entire family went out to eat and a member of your party proposed
marriage to another member of your party. When I, the instructor, read your essay, I may suggest that since
the assignment was a personal narrative essay, that you focus on more specific details of your experience:
what did you eat? What did you drink? How did you feel about the company during the meal? What was
your perspective of the proposal? However, you, as the author, feel that the story of the food is best paralleled to the romanticism of the proposal; you do not think that emphasis should be on the food description, but rather, description will come later in the piece once the story of the proposal has transpired. This
is an example of a stylistic difference.
If a student disagrees with a stylistic suggestion of her instructor, she should discuss any questions and
concerns with the instructor. Perhaps the student misunderstood the suggestion; perhaps the student misunderstood the assignment description and the instructor is trying to redeem the grade; perhaps the student and instructor can meet in the middle with a compromise between additional food description and
additional storytelling. Likewise, if another individual positioned in writing authority (such as Writing
Center tutor or another English instructor) makes suggestions to a students’ paper that the student author
disagree with or are unsure about, she should always discuss these questions and concerns with her instructor for the course. The instructor will be able to provide a student with additional information or explanation about the assignment that they may not know. Perhaps the follow-up assignment requires reflection
on the significant food description; therefore, it is more important to have food description than plot definition. If a student does not take the time to ask your instructor these questions, she may never know.
Let’s recap!
• A writing instructor provides a student with feedback in a number of ways, sometimes even in a combination of ways.
• The student will review the comments, take notes if they are conferencing, and ask questions about any
and all of the comments that are made on the paper.
• The student will then decide which comments she believes are necessary to pursue and change in the
document and make those changes.
• If the student has questions along the way, she should always double check with the instructor to follow up or clarify.
• Depending on the instructor, they may want to or be willing to review another draft for the student.
If that is the case, the student should provide them with a copy of the modified draft to review again with
any changes.
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Chapter 8: Revision Techniques
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Revising is Not Editing
By Jacob Lauritzen
Let me tell you a story. When I first completed graduate school, I was writing a cover letter to a prospective employer. I had just earned a degree in English and I was excited to become a teacher. I had also just
become a father and I was in desperate need of a better job. Needless to say, I was feeling the pressure to
impress the principal of the school I was applying to. Sadly, I wasn’t paying close enough attention to editing my work. When I accidentally misspelled a word, I automatically selected the word that the program’s
spellchecker suggested and I continued to write. Fortunately, my wife was reading my work over my shoulder and noticed the mistake. She asked, “Can I make fun of you for a bit?” She then explained to me that
I had used the wrong word. Instead of writing “Preparatory,” which was one of the words in the school’s
title, I had chosen “Predatory.” Now think for a moment. If you were hiring a teacher to work with impressionable youth, what would you think if he had mistakenly written “Predatory” in his cover letter? Freudian
slip? This mistake was minor, but it could have given the wrong impression. Fortunately, my wife noticed
the mistake and I got the job.
This mistake did not affect the overall content of my letter, but it was important that I correct it. This
type of mistake, a spelling error, is a lower-order concern. It’s called a lower-order concern because it is
one of the last things you need to worry about when writing a paper. Higher-order concerns, on the other
hand, are issues concerning the organization and content of your writing. These should be the first concerns
that you address as you begin to revise your work.
Revising and Editing as a Process
Revising your work is not the same as editing it. Students and even teachers may use these terms interchangeably, but they are not the same. Revision is the process of fixing higher-order concerns such as the
focus and clarity of your thesis and supporting details or the organization of your paper. Editing is when
you address lower-order concerns such as mistakes with grammar, punctuation, or spelling. When I was
writing my cover letter, I was only focused on the higher-order concerns. They were the things, I thought,
that would determine whether I got the job or not. I needed to address all concerns by revising and editing.
So why is it important to distinguish the difference between these two terms? Because they are two different processes and they may not merit an equal amount of attention. Consider it this way. When you
have completed a draft of a paper, if you are like me, you want to turn it in as soon as possible. So you do
a quick scan on your computer and when it says you’ve fixed all the mistakes, you’re done, right? Wrong.
Once you’ve finished a complete draft of your work, it is important that you revise AND edit your work.
There are many different processes you can use when revising and editing your work. This short essay
can’t begin to address them all. Let me offer a few examples though. Walt Whitman, for instance, is famous primarily for writing one book of poetry, Leaves of Grass. He published the first edition of the book
in 1855. He then revised and edited it the following year He went through the process again in 1860, 1867,
and three more times over the next twenty years. The story goes that as Leaves of Grass was being printed,
Whitman was still making changes. This made it so that copies printed during the same edition were different. This is an extreme example, but it stands to prove that even after years of revision and editing, your
work can still be improved.
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Not all authors are the same though. In his memoir, On Writing, Stephen King explains that he typically
will write two complete drafts of his work, before doing a thorough edit. He then turns his manuscript into
his publisher and starts on the next book.
Finding a process that works for you is just that—a process. It takes time to figure out how to write your
best. I wrote and directed my first play when I was seventeen. Years later, I wish that I could rewrite it. Unfortunately, when you are writing a paper for a class, you don’t have the luxury of time. You have requirements and deadlines to meet. That doesn’t mean you can’t take the time to correct your work.
Revising Higher-Order Concerns
So what should you look for when you revise? Look for opportunities to improve the clarity of your thesis, the organization of your arguments, and the strength of your evidence. Remember that every aspect of
your paper should ensure that your paper is accomplishing its purpose.
Here are a few questions you may consider as you revise:
• Does your paper meet all the requirements given you by your professor?
• Is your thesis clear?
• Is your thesis specific enough?
• Is your paper long enough?
• Does your paper satisfy your professor’s requirements for sources and/or citation style?
• Does your paper transition well from one idea to the next?
• Is there anything missing?
• Is your paper clear enough?
• Can you make the same points in fewer words?
• Do your paragraphs effectively
• Is your tone too casual?
• Are you using subject specific terminology?
If possible, ask a friend or a writing tutor to look over your work. Sometimes another pair of eyes will
be able to notice a mistake that you wouldn’t have. My wife noticed how my work could be improved; you
may have someone you trust to help you as well.
If you come to the point that you feel you have addressed all of your higher-order concerns, you may be
done revising. Now, you can begin to address lower-order concerns. If you haven’t already fixed spelling
errors, do so. Make sure that you aren’t writing in the passive voice too often and that all verbs agree with
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their subjects. Remove comma splices and look for sentence fragments. Again, if you have access to a writing lab, use it. Many universities and colleges provide these resources, but so few students take advantage of
them.
Editing Lower-Order Concerns
Though they are called lower-order concerns, don’t be fooled into thinking that they aren’t important. As
stated previously, it is important that you revise and edit your work. Grammatical errors are a distraction,
they cause confusion, and they make it more difficult to accomplish the purpose of your writing. The error
I made in my cover letter was simple as substituting the wrong word, but it impeded my ability to accomplish the purpose of my letter—to get a job. You may have a well-executed essay, but if your paper is full of
grammatical errors, you may still receive a failing grade. In fact, as a teacher, I tell my students that if they
have too many mistakes I can’t pass them. Your teacher may have a similar policy.
Above all, your responsibility as a student writer is to accomplish the purpose of your assignment. Revision and editing are both processes to help you accomplish those purposes. Revise higher order concerns to
improve the clarity and content of your writing, and edit lower-order concerns to correct any mistakes that
may detract from you getting your point across to your reader. It may take one draft. It may take seven, but
do whatever it takes to do it right.
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First, Second, and Third Drafts
By Kristen Gay
In some ways, one might compare writing a polished paper to the process of getting dressed in the morning. For example, you might wake up, decide that you want to go to the beach, invite friends to go along
and have a picnic, and change into beach clothes—just before you notice that it is cold outside. Because of
this new piece of information, you may change into a jacket and pants. However, you quickly realize that
your outfit now looks bland. You add an accessory—like a hat or a necklace—to complete your look before heading the door. But then your roommate tells you that your brown sandals do not match your black
jacket, so you go back to your closet and change in order to streamline your look based on style conventions. You have revised your appearance multiple times before leaving the house, just as a writer revises his
or her ideas before sending them out into the world.
For a writer, the revision process commonly involves three stages, which are sometimes referred to as first,
second, and third drafts. These drafts allow writers to refine ideas, strengthen claims, develop perspectives,
revise grammatical and formatting errors, reorganize points, and seek feedback from others, such as teachers and peers. Thinking of writing as an ongoing process can also alleviate some stress that may occur if a
paper must be written quickly and all at once. There are various ways of conceptualizing the three drafts,
but in general, you can think of the first draft as the brainstorming draft, the second draft as the trial run,
and the final draft as the polishing stage.
The revision process usually begins with the first draft, which may take the form of a brainstorming draft.
At this point in the process, your goal might be generating ideas, narrowing down a concrete topic, and
taking a broad view of the topic being researched. At the beginning of the article, we compared the writing
process to getting dressed in the morning. In this example, the first step involved getting out of bed and
making a decision: to wear warm weather clothes and go to the beach. You began to make plans by calling
friends, coming up with an agenda for the day, and dressing accordingly. For writers, this step in the process
involves taking the first step towards planning the paper. Outlines, idea maps, and lists can be great ways to
generate ideas for both the content and organization of a paper. It is important to not be overly critical of
ideas at this stage in the process—try to take an open approach to several strong ideas, generate a plan for
writing, and locate and analyze some sources to inform your understanding of a given topic.
Whereas writers focus on generating ideas in the brainstorming draft, in the second draft, writers generally create a full draft of a paper, adjusting their initial ideas as they write. This draft can be considered the
trial run because it involves a sort of test of the ideas that were generated in the first draft. This means that
while the first draft should shape the work that is done in the second draft, the writer’s ideas may change
dramatically in the process of writing the full paper. For example, in the example about getting dressed in
the morning, you realized that it was cold outside, so you had to change the outfit entirely, and probably
had to change plans with your friends. You also realized that your new outfit was bland, so you then added
an accessory. In the same way, writers may realize that they cannot defend their original thesis, that there
is not enough evidence to support their claim, or that they actually identify with an opposing perspective.
At this stage in the process, writers will want to ensure that they are addressing global concerns, which may
include having a strong, arguable thesis, using credible evidence to support their claims, logically organizing points, and ensuring that the introduction and conclusion are compelling. This process can be daunting,
but remember that no one writes alone. In terms of revisions, writers may want to solicit feedback from
teachers, peers, and/or Writing Center consultants at this stage of the writing process to gain further in-
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sight into how their ideas and points are translating to their audience.
In the final stage of the revision process, writers tend to polish their work in preparation for submitting
the final draft. In the example of getting dressed, your roommate provided advice about your outfit, and
you changed in order to meet style conventions. Similarly, in this stage of the writing process, the writer
will implement feedback from a teacher or peer, read the paper out loud to check for grammatical or punctuation errors, and edit out wordy or redundant sections. Now that the writer’s ideas are on paper, and they
appear generally effective at conveying her message, the final stage in the process usually involves refining
and clarifying the writing itself. It may be useful to double check that the thesis statement is fully supported in each paragraph, for example, or to compose a “backwards outline” that lists the main point for
each paragraph in the margins to ensure that each paragraph remains focused on one main point. Writers
might also double check formatting guidelines and ensure that the draft distinguishes between their own
ideas and the source’s ideas. Finally, writers might look for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors while
they attempt to make their sentences as clear and concise as possible. Thus, the goals for the third draft are:
ensuring that ideas are cohesive and clear, considering and implementing suggested changes from the instructor and peers, and checking grammatical, stylistic, and local errors (i.e. sentence structure, spelling and
formatting errors, and punctuation).
Although these three steps are commonly used, not everyone follows the same process when making
revisions. It is important to find a strategy for revision that works for you—perhaps you spend a lot of time
brainstorming and find that it works best for you to edit as you write, or perhaps you brainstorm briefly,
write very quickly, and then need to make significant revisions before submitting a paper. There are no
“wrong” ways to approach the revision process, only more or less effective ones. While these stages of revisions are not prescriptive, they do suggest that revisions should be approached with a strategy in mind.
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