XIV
1954 National People's Congress of the
People's Republic of China
2
Dear Delegates,
Welcome to GatorMUN XIV! I’m extremely excited to serve you as the director of the People’s Republic of China
National People’s Congress of 1954 (for brevity’s sake, it will now be referred to as the 1954 PRC NPC)! My name
is Lindsay Abbott and I am a fourth year Chinese and International Studies major at the University of Florida
(and before you ask, yes, your Secretary-General and I are related: in fact, we are twins). I’ve been extremely passionate about Asian affairs since I was a high school delegate like you – in fact, my favorite committee I
participated in in high school was a historical general assembly about the representation of China in the United
Nations. While I don’t compete with UF Model United Nations on the college circuit, I very much enjoy staffing
conferences – I was crisis staff for the Court of Qin Shi Huangdi at FLCS IV and will be Crisis Coordinating Chiang Kai Shek’s Wartime Cabinet at FLCS V this next spring.
I’ve been studying Chinese language and culture for the past four years at the University of Florida and spent
the summer of 2015 studying at Tsinghua University in Beijing, China. Throughout my time at the University of
Florida, I’ve researched the evolution of Chinese ontological security through their White Papers, comparative
analyses of media coverage of the Hong Kong protests and the Ferguson protests, and the evolution of Chinese
propaganda tactics from the Cultural Revolution to today. By far, Maoist China and the Cultural Revolution
have always been my chief research interests and I’m extremely excited to be able to direct the 1954 PRC NPC at
GatorMUN XIV!
You will be expected to write your position paper on 2 of the 7 proposed topics according to the views of your
position, keeping each topic to one page. While you may only have two topics to write about, you will be expected to have an in depth knowledge of all 8 topics, as I hope to cover at least 4 throughout the weekend. To make
historical information easier to find, think of the following dichotomies and categories when researching: urban
versus rural, eastern versus western, northern versus southern, Han versus minority. This will give you a good
point from which to begin writing your paper.
Your papers will be due two weeks before the beginning of the conference to [email protected] to allow my
staff and I time to read through all of them. Because there is a possibility that we will not get through all topics,
your papers may or may not include topics that we cover in committee and that is okay. You will not be penalized if the topics you choose to write about are not discussed in committee. If you need help in writing a position
paper, or have never written one before, I encourage you to go onto the GatorMUN website and find the Position
Paper Writing Guide in the Delegate Tools section. If you or your advisors have any questions whatsoever, please
do not hesitate to email us at [email protected]. A member of the secretariat will do everything they can to
help you.
加油, delegates! I look forward to meeting and working with you this February at GatorMUN XIV.
Best,
Lindsay Abbott
3
Quorum
Rules of Procedure
A majority of voting members answering to the roll at each session shall constitute a quorum for that session.
This means that half plus one of all voting members are present. Quorum will be assumed consistent unless
questioned through a Point of Order. Delegates may request to be noted as “Present” or “Present and Voting.”
Motion to Open Debate
This opens the floor for debate, allowing other points or motions.
Motion to Set the Agenda
This motion determines the order in which the topics of a committee will be debated. Permission to speak will
be accorded to one speaker for and one speaker against, and a two-thirds majority is required for the motion to
pass.
Motion to Open the Speaker’s List
Opening the Speaker’s List requires a simple majority to pass. A delegate may only be present on the Speaker’s
List once, but may re-enter after he/she has spoken. If the Speaker’s List expires, debate then closes.
Motion to Set Speaking Time
Speaking Time must be indicated by this motion from the floor before any members of the body may speak on
the Speaker’s List. This motion must also accompany any motion for a Moderated Caucus. In a Motion to Set
Speaking Time for the formal Speaker’s List, a delegate may also specify a number of questions or comments to
automatically affix to the Speaking Time. These designated questions or comments may also have Speaking Time
or Response Time (in the case of a question) limits, but these are not required. The Director may rule any Motion to Set Speaking Time dilatory. This motion requires a simple majority. Any delegate may make this motion
between formal speakers in an effort to change the Speaking Time.
Motion to Close the Speaker’s List
The Speaker’s List may be closed upon a motion from the floor. Permission to speak will be accorded to one
speaker for and one speaker against, and a two-thirds majority is required for the motion to pass.
Motion to Suspend the Rules for the Purpose of a Moderated Caucus
This motion must include three specifications:
a. Length of the Caucus
b. Speaking time, and
c. Reason for the Caucus.
During a moderated caucus, delegates will be called on to speak by the Committee Director. Delegates will raise
their placards to be recognized. Delegates must maintain the same degree of decorum throughout a Moderated
Caucus as in formal debate. This motion requires a simple majority to pass.
Motion to Suspend the Rules for the Purpose of an Unmoderated Caucus
This motion must include the length of the Caucus. During an unmoderated caucus, delegates may get up from
their seats and talk amongst themselves. This motion requires a simple majority to pass. The length of an unmoderated caucus should never exceed twenty minutes.
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Motion to Suspend the Meeting
This motion is in order if there is a scheduled break in debate to be observed. (ie. Lunch!) This motion requires a
simple majority vote. The Committee Director may refuse to entertain this motion at their discretion.
Motion to Adjourn the Meeting
This motion is in order at the end of the last committee session. It signifies the closing of the committee until
next year’s conference.
Motion to Table the Topic
If a delegate believes that the flow of debate has become stagnant, he/she may make this motion. To Table the
Topic is to halt debate on the present Topic, save the speakers’ list and all draft resolutions, and move on to the
next Topic on the Agenda. The delegate making this motion may also choose to specify a previously tabled Topic.
This motion requires a two-thirds vote to pass. The Topic may be returned to at any time by tabling the present
Topic and adding the phrase “for the purpose of returning to Tabled Topic ____,” to this motion. If no Topics
have been previously tabled, debate must follow the established Agenda. This motion is to be used sparingly.
Points of Order
Points of Order will only be recognized for the following items:
a) To recognize errors in voting, tabulation, or procedure,
b) To question relevance of debate to the current Topic or
c) To question a quorum.
A Point of Order may interrupt a speaker if necessary and it is to be used sparingly.
Points of Inquiry
When there is no discussion on the floor, a delegate may direct a question to the Committee Director. Any
question directed to another delegate may only be asked immediately after the delegate has finished speaking on
a substantive matter. A delegate that declines to respond to a question after a formal speech forfeits any further
questioning time. The question must conform to the following format:
Delegate from Country A raises placard to be recognized by the Committee Director.
Committee Director: “To what point do you rise?”
Country A: “Point of Inquiry.”
Committee Director: “State your Point.”
Country A: “Will the delegate from Country B (who must have just concluded a substantive speech) yield to a question?”
Committee Director: “Will the Delegate Yield?”
Country B: “I will” or “I will not” (if not, return to the next business item)
Country A asks their question (it must not be a rhetorical question.)
Country B may choose to respond or to decline.
If the Delegate from Country B does not yield to or chooses not to answer a question from Country A, then he/
she yields all remaining questioning time to the Committee Director.
Points of Personal Privilege
Points of personal privilege are used to request information or clarification and conduct all other business of the
body except Motions or Points specifically mentioned in the Rules of Procedure.
Please note: The Director may refuse to recognize Points of Order, Points of Inquiry or Points of Personal Privilege if the Committee Director believes the decorum and restraint inherent in the exercise has been violated, or if
the point is deemed dilatory in nature.
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Rights of Reply
At the Committee Director’s discretion, any member nation or observer may be granted a Right of Reply to answer serious insults directed at the dignity of the delegate present. The Director has the ABSOLUTE AUTHORITY to accept or reject Rights of Reply, and the decision IS NOT SUBJECT TO APPEAL. Delegates who feel they
are being treated unfairly may take their complaint to any member of the Secretariat.
Working Papers and Draft Resolutions
Once a Working Paper has been submitted, approved, distributed, and formally introduced to the body, it can
and will be referred to as a “Draft Resolution.” In order for a Working Paper to be submitted to the Committee
Director, it must be in correct format and bear the names of a combination of a number of Sponsors and Signatories necessary to introduce, as determined by the Committee Director.
Sponsors are the writers of the Working Paper, and agree with it in its entirety. They should be able to vote ‘yes’
for the paper during voting procedure. Signatories are those delegates interested in bringing the Working Paper
to the floor for debate, but do not necessarily agree with its contents.
A delegate can motion to discuss the working paper during a moderated caucus or unmoderated caucus. A delegate can also motion for an author’s panel, which is essentially a moderated caucus moderated by the authors. It
is the chair’s discretion on the maximum amount of authors allowed on the author’s panel.
Friendly Amendments
Friendly Amendments are any changes to a formally introduced Directive that all Sponsors agree to in writing.
The Committee Director must approve the Friendly Amendment and confirm each Sponsor’s agreement both
verbally and in writing.
Unfriendly Amendments
Unfriendly Amendments are any substantive changes to a formally introduced Directive that are not agreed to
by all of the Sponsors of the Directive. In order to introduce an Unfriendly Amendment, the Unfriendly Amendment must the number equivalent to 1/3 of Quorum confirmed signatories. The Committee Director has the
authority to discern between substantive and nonsubstantive Unfriendly amendment proposals.
Plagiarism
GatorMUN maintains a zero-tolerance policy in regards to plagiarism. Delegates found to have used the ideas of
others without properly citing those individuals, organizations, or documents will have their credentials revoked
for the duration of the GatorMUN conference. This is a very serious offense.
Motion to Close Debate and Voting Procedures
A motion to close debate may only pass with a two-thirds majority. Once this motion passes, and the committee
enters Voting Procedure, no occupants of the committee room may exit the Committee Room, and no individual
may enter the Committee Room from the outside. A member of the Dias will secure all doors.
Once moving into voting procedures chair can only accept these motions:
• A point of order to correct an error in procedure
• An appeal of the decision of the chair
• A motion for division
• A motion for roll call vote
• A motion for adoption by acclamation
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Motion to Close Debate and Voting Procedures Cont.
No talking, passing notes, or communicating of any kind will be tolerated during voting procedures.
Each Draft Resolution will be read to the body and voted upon in the order which they were introduced. Any
Proposed Unfriendly Amendments to each Draft Resolution will be read to the body and voted upon before
the main body of the Draft Resolution as a whole is put to a vote. The Committee will adopt Directives and
Unfriendly Amendments to Directives if these documents pass with a simple majority. Specialized committees
should refer to their background guides or Committee Directors for information concerning specific voting procedures. Unless otherwise specified by the Secretariat, each Committee may pass as many resolutions as it agrees
are necessary to efficiently address the Topic
Delegates who requested to be noted as “Present and Voting” are unable to abstain during voting procedure. Abstentions will not be counted in the tallying of a majority. For example, 5 yes votes, 4 no votes, and 7 abstentions
means that the Directive passes.
Roll Call Voting
A counted placard vote will be considered sufficient unless any delegate to the committee motions for a Roll
Call Vote. If a Roll Call Vote is requested, the committee must comply. All delegates must vote: “For,” “Against,”
“Abstain,” or “Pass.”
During a Roll Call vote, any delegate who answers, “Pass,” reserves his/her vote until the Committee Director has
exhausted the Roll. However, once the Committee Director returns to “Passing” Delegates, they must vote: “For”
or “Against.”
Voting with Rights
During a Roll Call vote delegates may vote “For with Rights” or “Against with Rights.” Delegates will be granted
30 seconds to explain their reasons for voting for or against a draft resolution. This time will come after the tabulation of votes.
Delegates should use this option sparingly. It is meant for delegates who feel that their vote may seem off policy, despite it being correct. The acceptance of rights is up to the director’s discretion. If a speaker goes off topic
during their allotted time the director will rule their speech dilatory and move to the next motion in order.
Accepting by Acclamation
This motion may be stated when the Committee Director asks for points or motions. If a Roll Call Vote is requested, the motion to Accept by Acclamation is voided. If a delegate believes a Directive will pass without opposition, he or she may move to accept the Directive by acclamation. The motion passes unless a single delegate
shows opposition. An abstention is not considered opposition. Should the motion fail, the committee will move
directly into a Roll Call Vote.
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About the Committee
Unlike any other General Assembly committee ever featured at GatorMUN, this committee will run as a historical specialized general assembly. This means that instead of two topics, there will be seven that could be potentially discussed and smaller resolutions will be created to address each of the topics. Additionally, the committee
is set during the first meeting of the National People’s Congress in 1954 rather than present day, and therefore
from now on when you see the words “present,” “today,” or “currently,” they will refer to the year 1954.
The topics being discussed and the apportionment of the seats will be very different than in the factual
first meeting of National People’s Congress, however. During this time China was divided into 23 provinces, 4 municipalities, and 5 autonomous regions (Hong Kong and Macao had not yet been returned to
China and were still under European rule). Each province and autonomous region will thus have two representatives: one urban and one rural to represent the interests of the citizens in those areas. The municipalities by default will be urban representatives. However, this committee is not a dual delegation committee. The rural and urban representatives will not be required to work together despite being from the
same province, and no representatives from the same province will be represented by the same school.
This will give us a maximum of 58 delegates for the committee.
As representatives of your respective regions, you will all be expected to work together to set up a new
government in the People’s Republic of China. Each topic speaks to a particular goal of the Communist
Party in improving their country and the lives of its citizens, and continues to be important topics to the
Communist Party to this day.
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History
Topic I: Education
The Chinese education system, similar to the Chinese culture, is the oldest continuous education system in
the world. Before the creation of written characters, knowledge was passed down orally through myths and
legends from the elders to the young. It is believed that formal education in China began after the development
of Chinese characters in the late Xia Dynasty (2070 BCE – 1046 BCE).1 The purpose of Chinese schooling back
then, and until near the end of the dynastic period, was to prepare bureaucrats for the Civil Service exams to
then serve in the Imperial Court of the Emperor. From the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BCE – 771 BCE) forward,
education was separated into a tier system composed of state schools and village schools. State schools were
reserved for children of nobility who were going to serve in the Imperial Court. The village School, or local
school, was reserved for peasants and divided into four levels: Shu, Xiang, Xu, Xiao. Students in the village
schools who advanced through these four levels had a chance at then attending college and becoming a local
official. However it was rare and nearly impossible for village school students to be appointed to the Imperial
Court.
During the Warring States Period (475 BCE – 221 BCE), the state of Qi created the Jixia Academy, which
sought to give regular lectures on various topics, leading to the 100 schools of thought that contended with
each other during this period.2 During the Qin Dynasty, Legalism was the prevailing school of thought and
many Confucian/Daoist texts were burned. During this time period, Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi streamlined the
dynasty’s writing system, burning thousands of books to ensure its longevity.
Since the Qin dynasty, Confucianism took over as the dominant school of thought, shaping both family relations
and imperial order. Confucianism stresses the family as the most basic unit, using a series of five human
relationships to govern all interactions. Those hierarchies are: 1) ruler to ruled, 2) father to son, 3) husband to
wife, 4) elder brother to younger brother, and 5) friend to friend.3 By adhering to this relationship hierarchy and
following the seven moral principles (li propriety, yi righteousness, xiao filial piety, ji moral wisdom, junzi ideal
man, de moral principle),4 the universe would remain in order and the Middle Kingdom would prosper.
Confucianism became the dominant school of thought in the Han dynasty (206BCE-220CE) and has stayed the
dominant school of thought since then. In the Tang Dynasty (618CE-907CE), the civil service exam was formally
established, and passing it became the main goal of education in China. While the examination system did
change over the course of a few thousand years, with more reading materials and required skills added to reflect
the progression of dynasties, in general those taking the civil service exams were required to master the Four
Books and Five Classics,5 many poetic forms, and calligraphy. The literature required for the civil service exam
was written in wenyan, or classic idiom, and differed so greatly from vernacular speech that it was very difficult
for all but the wealthy to learn.6 In the dynastic period, schools were tailored specifically toward passing this
exam, not toward general or practical topics. The majority of those who attended school were the male children
of wealthy aristocratic families. Female children of aristocrats were privately tutored in reading, calligraphy,
and dance – skills that would make them suitable matches for future marriage. Poor families rarely had the
disposable income required to send their sons to school, nor could they afford to exempt their sons from farming
or artisan work that provided their livelihood. Education was reserved for the wealthy, and advanced education
was reserved for the male.
1
“History of Education in China - China Education Center.”
2
“China Ancient Education, History of Education in China.”
3
“Asian Topics on Asia for Educators || Confucian Teaching.”
4
“The Main Concepts of Confucianism.”
5http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/2Historic_and_cultural_background.pdf
6http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/2Historic_and_cultural_background.pdf
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The Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) controlled
the most territory in Chinese history
by the time it dissolved.7 Starting after
the first Opium War of 1840-1842, the
education system became much more
westernized, with topics such as foreign
language, science, and technology added
to the curriculum.8 Near the end of the
Qing Dynasty in 1905, the imperial
examination system and civil service exams
were abolished completely, paving the
way for a new education system modeled
after European, American, and Japanese
styles9 that would take over when the Qing
Dynasty (and the dynastic period) ended in
1911.
Starting with the founding of the Republic
of China (ROC) in 1912, wenyan was no longer taught. Instead, there was a pivot to the vernacular when
teaching literature and writing educational texts. In this time period, education was heavily emphasized to
bring about a new period of Nationalism within the Middle Kingdom, as thousands of years of dynastic rule
had just been abolished, and many Chinese citizens
were searching for a new national identity. Shortly
after taking control of the Chinese government
in 1928, the Kuomintang (KMT) implemented a
compulsory education program with centralized
educational administration and standardized curricula
in elementary and secondary school. By creating an
educated citizenry, the government could instill the
ideals of democracy and morality to its people. The
curriculum was heavily westernized, with emphasis
on technical knowledge as well as studying abroad
with the purpose of bringing knowledge back to serve
China.10
Despite both a compulsory education system and
a few attempts to create a national identity, China
was incredibly disunited during this period. Chinese
warlords and foreign imperialists, especially the
Japanese, occupied and vied for significant chunks
of Chinese territory, making a centralized education
system difficult to implement. The failure of China to
create a new Chinese identity led to the New Culture
Movement of 1919, where prominent scholars called
for the creation of a new Chinese culture based on
global and western standards, especially democracy and science. It was during this period that a call for the
abolishment of Confucianism as a national philosophy came forward on the grounds that it encouraged female
7
Theobald, “The Qing Dynasty 清 (Www.chinaknowledge.de).
8
“History of Education in China - China Education Center.”
9
“History of Education in China - China Education Center.”
10http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/2Historic_and_cultural_background.pdf
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suppression and barred their access to proper education.
Even with lofty goals of universal education, the Kuomintang of the ROC was unsuccessful with providing
educational opportunities to workers, peasants, and most females. Literacy rates were still extremely low in rural
areas, especially among women and minorities. This was partially due to the difficulty of learning written Chinese,
with its complex character system and lack of an alphabet. Sending educated teachers to rural areas proved
extremely difficult as well.
The Republic of China now encompasses a territory the size of the continent of Europe, and is just as linguistically
diverse. There are seven major groups of Chinese dialects present on the continent comprising over twenty three
total dialects, with each dialect at most 50% mutually intelligible with another.11 Despite a common written
language, spoken language barriers pose an extreme difficulty in increasing the overall literacy rate of the People’s
Republic of China.
Now that the People’s Republic of China has complete control of Chinese territory, it is imperative to address
education issues to create a functioning, prosperous society.
General Positions
Urban
The urban regions of each province contain the most educated, wealthy citizens in China. Most Chinese
universities and elite institutions are located in provincial capitals and the special administrative regions. It is
in these cities that most western concepts of educational rights have taken hold. Cities will have the highest
concentration of women’s education and the highest literacy rates. However, even in cities, those rates are
disproportionately skewed towards wealthiest of the population. However, there are still a large number of
peasants present in each city performing hard labor and barely able to get by. These peasants most likely are
migrants from rural areas, unable to speak the language of the city and unable to read.
Rural
Rural areas have the most linguistic diversity and also the lowest literacy rates in the country. Most peasants
are poor subsistence farmers and artisans who cannot afford to send their children to school. Especially in the
southern regions, rural populations have the highest percentage of minority citizens, many of whom speak a
diverse range of mutually-unintelligible dialects. The centralized education system of the Republic of China has
had great difficulty reaching these areas, leading to a cycle of poverty that has been incredibly difficult to break.
Many of the citizens in these areas have lived in their small towns for hundreds of years, unable to leave because of
language barriers, and perhaps a lack of desire to as well. Rural communities are those least affected by the ROC’s
westernized philosophy, and most still cling to Confucian ideals of education and gender.
Northeastern
Mobility in the Northeast region of China is fairly easy, as the majority of this region speaks one of two dialects:
Mongolian or Mandarin. As the home of the new capital of the People’s Republic of China and the old capital
of the Qing Dynasty (Beijing), it is fairly easy for the wealthy in each area to send their children to Beijing for
schooling, and for educated teachers to travel to rural regions to educate the population.
Southeastern
The southeast of the People’s Republic of China is the most ethnically and linguistically diverse region, with over
thirteen linguistic subgroups present. Mobility is very difficult in these areas with no lingua franca to communicate
with, and it is very difficult to send educated teachers there. The people of this region are very proud of their long
history and ethnic diversity, despite the educational difficulties it may entail.
11
“Dialects in China.”
11
Western
The Western regions are made up almost solely of distinct minorities, many of whom do not consider themselves
Chinese at all and do not wish to be Sinocized. Many of these minorities cannot read written Chinese and have
their own forms of writing and spoken languages. It is very difficult for these regions to communicate with each
other and the rest of the People’s Republic, especially with such large physical barriers.
History
Topic II: Ethnic Equality
To speak on the subject of ethnic/minority equality in China, it is first prudent to discuss the majority ethnicity
in China, the Han. Formally established during the Han Dynasty, the Han consider themselves descendants of
the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), who after defeating his brother the Flame Emperor (Yandi), ruled the Middle
Kingdom from 2698-2597 BCE. The
Yellow Emperor ruled a region named
Han Zhong, where the Han derived the
name for their people, their language,
Hanyu, and their characters, hanzi.
The Han Dynasty is the first official
dynasty of the Han people, expanding
its territory to the Hexi corridor of
Gansu, the Tarim Basin in Xinjiang,
modern north Vietnam, North Korea,
and Southern Mongolia. It adopted
Confucianism as its official philosophy,
and was considered the first successful
modern dynasty. All dynasties (except
for two) after the Han were ruled by Han
Chinese,12 and today the Han makes up
the single largest ethnic group in China
(over 90% of the 602,000,000 population
as of the 1954 census).13 Approximately
8% of the population of the People’s Republic of China identifies as an ethnic minority, with a total of 55 ethnic
minorities present in the country.14
It is interesting to note that, despite occupying a territory as large as continental Europe, the People’s Republic of
China does not have a larger minority population. Throughout China’s territorial expansion during the dynastic
period, Chinese forces conquered many foreign cultures and kingdoms. Assimilation into the Han Chinese
ethnic identity depended not on religious conversion or formal initiation, but on command of the Chinese
written language and evidence of adherence to Chinese values and customs. For the most part, assimilation has
depended on a land’s suitability for Chinese-style agriculture. The red areas on the map above represent not only
the Han Chinese populations, but also most of the arable farming land in the country. Minorities whom the
Chinese encountered in this region were either assimilated or displaced to bordering regions. As a result, the
12
13
14
Cai, “Ethnic Groups in China.”
“CHINA: Population Growth of the Whole Country.”
“Minorities in China.”
12
majority of ethnicities and minorities that have survived Chinese rule were those whose ancestral homelands
were regions with steppe/desert/mountain climates.15
China was unique in that it did not necessarily oppress the cultures in their conquered regions. Peoples other
than the Han were considered to be culturally and technologically inferior and were generally referred to as “the
barbarians.” In Confucianism, the concept of different cultures didn’t exist: there was either Confucian culture or
none at all. Because the criterion that differentiated the Han Chinese and the barbarians was mainly of a cultural
nature, barbarians could become members of the Chinese commonwealth by adopting the Han Chinese culture
and moral principles. Time and again in Chinese history “barbarians” were made “Chinese” and even given high
posts in the government.16 To this day, the majority of minorities in China are located in the far Western and
Southern regions of the People’s Republic, where the Han Chinese would not settle.
There were two instances in Chinese history where China was ruled by minorities:
the Mongols of the Yuan Dynasty and the Manchus of the Qing dynasty. What
is interesting about these two dynasties is that they did not mark the end of Han
culture during that time period (and as such, China was never conquered by
outsiders and maintained one continuous history for thousands of years). Instead,
they maintained the majority of Han culture and institutions (including language
and literature), and simply switched out the heads of government. By the end of
the Qing dynasty, the Manchus had carved out five prominent “races” in China,
which they dubbed a “five race republic”: the Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui, and
Tibetan. This distinction allowed the Qing to differentiate between China proper
and the frontier regions. Since the fall of the Qing dynasty, many other ethnic/
minority groups have been identified, and as of the 1954 census there are now 55
recognized minority groups in China.17
After the downfall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, the founder of the Republic of China, Sun Yat-Sen, recognized
the existence of four minority groups, but maintained that because of the prominence of the Han majority,
the Chinese set was effectively comprised of one nationality. He took a very assimilationist stance toward
minorities, wanting to “facilitate the dying out of all names of individual peoples inhabiting China,” and to
unify and fuse all the peoples into “a single cultural and political whole.” His successor, Chiang Kai-Shek, was
even more assimilationist, claiming “that there are five peoples designated in China is not due to differences
of race or blood but to religion and geographical environment. In short, the differentiation among China's five
peoples is due to regional and religious factors, and not to race or blood.” The assimilationist policy of Chiang's
Nationalist government had few practical consequences for ethnic minorities themselves, because many of the
minority regions were under the control of semi-independent warlords or native ruling elites throughout the
Nationalist period. Preoccupied with fighting regional warlords, Japanese aggression Chinese Communist Party,
the Nationalist government paid little attention to minority areas and, in any event, had limited resources to
implement its minority policies.18
Minority populations are still heavily disconnected from the People’s Republic of China as a whole. Very few
speak a Chinese language or read written Chinese. Their cultures are still heavily past oral and migratory, and
do not have access to the same level of education that most Chinese do. The bordering regions have sub-par
infrastructure, healthcare, and overall quality of life. It is very difficult for minorities to become contributing
members of the People’s Republic of China. To that end, improving the lives of minority populations is
imperative to improving the prosperity of the People’s Republic of China. Without fully functioning members of
society, the PRC cannot hope to live up to its status as a nation of equality and longevity.
15
16
17
18
“Early China.”
Wu, “From Assimilation to Autonomy.”
Li and Shan, Ethnic China.
Wu, “From Assimilation to Autonomy.”
13
Positions
Urban
In most urban centers, there is a very low minority population. Many people speak the lingua franca of the
region and have access to higher education and institutions, like health care and communication. Most urban
centers are highly centralized and in contact with the national government of the People’s Republic of China.
They support the assimilation of minorities into Chinese culture to increase the opportunities afforded to them
under the People’s Republic. In regions with high minority populations, urban centers have the largest number of
Han Chinese, although in autonomous regions, it is likely that Han are still outnumbered by minorities. In these
regions, maintaining autonomy may be favored over assimilation on a national level.
Rural
The majority of minorities live in rural areas of provinces and autonomous regions, although they are mostly
located on the outer fringes of the map. Most rural minority communities would seek to maintain their
autonomy in terms of daily life and culture, but want better opportunities for their children in the future. There
is a delicate balance between maintaining control of their culture and improving their social positions. This does
not apply to rural areas without a strong minority presence, however.
Northeast
The Northeast is the most heavily Han Chinese region in the People’s Republic of China, although the northwest
fringes of it have large Mongolian, Korean, and Manchu populations. Those populations will vie to maintain
their cultural autonomy while also increasing the opportunities afforded them by the People’s Republic of China.
Regions without minority populations generally favor assimilation.
Southeast
The southeast of the People’s Republic contains the largest number of minorities in all of China. Many of the
provincial populations, especially Yunan, find Han Chinese to be the minority against all of the other ethnic
minority groups. As such, minorities in these regions carry a lot of sway in both rural and urban affairs.
West
Most, if not all, of the Western Autonomous Regions and Provinces have a minority population that outnumbers
the Han Chinese. After surviving on the fringes of the Chinese dynasties for so long, they are used to an
unparalleled amount of natural freedoms compared to other eastern provinces. This should be kept in mind
when researching and developing positions on the topic of ethnic minorities.
14
History
Topic III: Gender Equality
For most of Chinese history, women have occupied a subservient role in society. The ancestors to whom a Shang
or Zhou dynasty king made sacrifices were his patrilineal ancestors, that is, his ancestors linked exclusively
through men (his father’s father, his father’s father’s father, and so on). When women enter the early historical
record, it is often because they caused men problems.
Confucius probably took for granted these sorts of attitudes toward
women that were common in his society. He greatly esteemed ancestral
rites and related family virtues such as filial piety. He hoped that through
the practice of ritual everyone, male and female, high and low, old and
young, would learn to fulfill the duties of their roles. Women’s roles were
primarily kinship roles: daughter, sister, wife, daughter-in-law, mother, and
mother-in-law. In all these roles, it was incumbent on women to accord
with the wishes and needs of closely related men: their fathers when young,
their husbands when married, their sons when widowed. The Confucian
classic, the Book of Rites, stressed the value of segregation even within the
home; houses should be divided into an inner and an outer section, with
the women staying in the inner part. Mencius, one of Confucius’ disciples
and probably one of his most successful students, declared that the worst of unfilial acts was a failure to have
descendants.19
In the centuries after Confucius, it became common for writers to discuss gender in terms of yin and yang.
Women were yin; men were yang. Yin was soft, yielding, receptive, passive, reflective, and tranquil, whereas
yang was hard, active, assertive, and dominating. Day and night, winter and summer, birth and death, indeed
all natural processes occur through processes of interaction of yin and yang. Conceptualizing the differences
between men and women in terms of yin and yang stresses that these differences are part of the natural order of
the universe, not part of the social institutions artificially created by human beings. In yin yang theory the two
forces complement each other but not in strictly equal ways. The natural relationship between yin and yang is the
reason that men lead and women follow.
During Han times (202 BCE – 220 CE), both the administrative structure of the centralized state and the success
of Confucianism helped shape the Chinese family system and women’s place in it. After marriage, a woman had
to move from the household of her father to that of her husband’s parents. Han laws supported the authority
of family heads over the other members of their families. The family head was generally the senior male, but if
a man died before his sons were grown, his widow would serve as family head until they were of age. The law
codes of the imperial period enforced monogamy and provided a variety of punishments for bigamy and for
promoting a concubine to the status of wife. Men could divorce their wives on any of seven grounds, which
included barrenness, jealousy, and talkativeness, but could do so only if there were a family for her to return to.
There were no grounds on which a woman could divorce her husband, but divorce by mutual agreement was
possible.
Given the importance assigned to continuing the ancestral sacrifices through patrilineal descendants, a wife’s
standing within her family of marriage depended on the birth of male heirs.20
The Tang dynasty (618-906 AD) was a time of relative freedom for women. They did not bind their feet nor
19
Mencius 4A.26.
20
“Women in Traditional China.”
15
lead submissive lives. It was a time in which a number of exceptional
women contributed in the areas of culture and politics. Most prominent
was Wu Zetian, the only female emperor in Chinese history. Once an
imperial concubine to Emperor Taizong, she eventually rose to the title of
Empress with his son, Emperor Gaozong. When her husband passed away,
she effectively took control of the government and established the short
dynasty of Zhou (684-705CE) that interrupted the Tang. She is the only
woman to rule as Emperor, and her rule saw a vast increase in controlled
territory and prosperity for her people. However, she is remembered
mostly as an awful emperor due to her ruthless reputation and unfilial
acts. Notably, she was accused of killing her children to take control of the
government.21
By Song (960-1279) times, historical sources are diverse enough to see that
women undertook a wide range of activities never prescribed in Confucian
didactic texts, possibly due to the arrival
of Buddhism in China from Tibet. There
were widows who ran inns, midwives delivering babies, pious women who spent
their days chanting sutras, etc. In times of economic prosperity, women’s roles
were deregulated. In times of turmoil, they were heavily structured.
It is often said that the status of women began to decline in the Song period,
just when Neo-Confucianism was gaining sway. The two signs of this decline
most frequently mentioned are the pressure on widows not to remarry and the
practice of binding young girls’ feet to prevent them from growing more than a
few inches long.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, many more women had access to
education, despite the number that was crippled due to foot binding. Many even had their poetry and calligraphy
published.
By the end of the Qing Dynasty, China would again see a female
ruler: Empress Dowager Cixi. Known for her love of opulence and her
squandering personality, she singlehandedly brought the Qing Dynasty to
ruin. She plotted several coups to remain in power, killing political rivals
and other regents to maintain control of the country. She used naval funds
to build herself an opulent summer palace after the first one was burned
down during the Second Opium War. She did have great political ability,
but she did not use her strength to help China, only herself, and after her
death in 1908 the Qing Dynasty was only a few years from completely
toppling.22
When the Republic of China was established in 1911, the New
Culture Movement called for an end to Confucian gender roles and
the establishment of gender equality. However, with the defunct ROC
government unable to establish any centralized policies that would truly
affect the lives of women in China, very little happened.23 The May 4th
Movement of 1919 again brought up issues of women’s rights and liberation, but only succeeded in lobbying
21
22
23
“Female Hero: Empress Wu Zetian (Women in World History Curriculum).”
“The Life of Empress Cixi.”
“New Page 1.”
16
for the end of foot binding as a practice.24 There was a decline in birth and death rates and a rise in the spread
of birth control during this period, giving women more freedom from a traditional child-rearing existence.
However, women in general still weren’t afforded the same educational and professional opportunities as men.
Growing industrialization produced “a new kind of complementarity” between men and women, as the wives
mostly stayed home whilst the men became breadwinners. The concept of ‘new woman’ indicated the search
for women’s identity in a new China that had rejected Confucian values. The new independent, educated,
non-traditional woman was, after all, everything China was seeking to be.25 Newly liberated women, 'modeng
[modern]' girls who had been educated, became a loud voice for further changes.
Positions
Urban
Most urban centers tend to be richer and more economically prosperous than rural areas, and as such, women
are much more likely to have a higher level of education and personal freedoms. The capitalist lifestyle of the
Republic of China has served most women well, leading to the decline in the influence of Confucianism on
modern gender roles. While not able to work the same jobs as a man or receive the same level of education, they
still prosper.
Rural
In most rural and economically disparate areas of the People’s Republic of China, traditional gender roles still
prevail. Women are less educated and more confined to Confucian views of gender and the women’s position in
society. In very poor areas, women help on the farm, but mostly exist to cook, clean, and rear children. Without
much contact with more liberal foreign or urban cultures, women’s lives are quite restricted.
Northeast
The lives of women in the northeast are much more likely to be affected by either Confucian or modern gender
roles, as the majority of the population is Han Chinese.
Southeast and West
Because the Southeast and West contain the highest number of minority populations, women’s roles in these
regions can vary greatly depending on the culture. It is important to keep this in mind when considering
women’s liberation and the roles that women will play in the new People’s Republic of China.
24
25
“May Fourth Movement (1919).”
“Gendered Nationalism and May Fourth.”
17
History
Topic IV: Economy
China, unlike the rest of the world, has a long, uninterrupted history that dates back thousands of years. Its
culture and way of life has been constantly refined and perfected over the course of these millennia and, as such,
so has its main source of wealth: the economy. As part of the newly formed People’s Republic of China, the
National People’s Congress is charged with deciding how it would like to improve the economy over the course of
the People’s Republic’s future existence, planning the implementation of such policies, and ensuring the success
of those plans over the course of the near future.
In order to adequately plan the future economy of the People’s Republic of China, it is important to understand
the complex economic history of the great Middle Kingdom. The economic history of China is heavily connected
to its foreign relations. Throughout its history, China has gone through periods of expansion, contraction,
and isolation, depending on the political climate and the success of each dynasty after the establishment of the
Qin. As such, the chief source of the economy’s wealth changed depending on the goals and aspirations of the
Almighty Emperor. For much of the world’s history, China had maintained the world’s largest and advanced
economy. Chinese economic history can be divided into three eras: pre-imperial (before the Qin dynasty), early
imperial (Qin to the rise of the Song), and late imperial (Song to the end of the Qing dynasty).
Pre-imperial China developed agriculture as late as 8000 B.C.E., focusing on millet in the north and rice in
the south, a distinction that still exists today. Some textile industries did exist as early as 5000 B.C.E., and silk
appeared as early as 3000 BCE. During the Shang dynasty at the height of the Bronze Age, the Chinese labor
force became formally organized, establishing a strict hierarchy of servitude that some liken to slavery, and
creating ever-more intricate handicraft industries. The economy of the Shang was able to accommodate over 5
million people and raise considerable armies. The advent of the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States
period (771-221 BCE) brought an era of technical advancement as the former servitude system fell apart. Iron
tools were fashioned, animal husbandry became the main profession of the masses, and taxes were levied on
the newly freed common people to create a complex system of interconnected kingdoms traversed by successful
merchants.26
The establishment of the first dynasty, the Qin (221BCE-206BCE), marked the beginning of the early imperial
era and initially brought vast improvements on free trade. A single code of laws and the elimination of
boundaries made trading much easier, and a universal tax system ensured that the government benefitted from
all trade conducted within its borders. These strict taxes were not easily accepted by newly acquired parts of
the empire.The Qin’s legalist structure allowed them to monopolize many key industries, such as salt, iron, and
forests, while also exiling merchants.
The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) saw the creation of the
now famous Silk Road and a booming economy, capable of
sustaining a population of 58 million at its peak. Technological
breakthroughs such as the wheelbarrow, paper, and the
seismograph were invented during this time period. A national
monetary system was established during the Western han and
agriculture remained the main source of wealth within the
Han.27
26
Twitchett et al., The Cambridge History of China / General Editors, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank.
27
Han Dynasty.
18
Throughout the next few hundred years, the Chinese economy fluctuated greatly without a strong, authoritative
government. Pocked by wars and internal strife, the Middle Kingdom economies suffered. It wasn’t until the
Tang dynasty (618-907 CE) that another economic golden age occurred in China. The Tang population
surpassed the Han dynasty, with about 80 million people at its peak. The Tang continued an equal field system
that was established in previous dynasties, where the government would own all of the land and lease a specified
amount to each citizen for use over the course of their lifetime and take back the land upon their death. This
did not allow large land transactions, which kept estates small, and allowed the Tang to manage the economy
through the bureaucratic regulation of markets. Households were taxed based on overall output for the year, at
about 25% of the farmer’s income. Commercial taxes were about 3.3% of income. After the An Shi Rebellion, the
Tang was unable to maintain such heavy management of the economy, which coincidentally stimulated trade
and commerce. Instead of taxing based on income, the Tang began to tax based on property value. The Tang
did maintain control over the salt industry, however. Woodblock printing began to emerge as a major industry,
spurred by the invention of paper back in the Han dynasty.28
During the Song dynasty, three of the four so-called Four Great
Inventions: gunpowder, woodblock printing, and the compass,
were invented or perfected. China also had an agricultural boom
during this time period, allowing even rural farmers to afford
more than basic necessities. The water wheel was invented,
which helped improve crop production. Song deregulation of
industry greatly improved the economy and a strong merchant
class emerged. Corruption was plentiful, however, and the
merchants worked with the government to decrease competition
and artificially inflate prices. Most enterprises were small, selling
products made in-house. The Song government instituted a
taxation system on agriculture based on property value income, at a rate of about 10% of income. Commercial
taxes were 2%. Coin production increased greatly during this time as well.
Following the Song dynasty was the Yuan dynasty, the first dynasty controlled by a minority to take over all
of China. Despite the increase in land territory, millions of people died during the Mongol conquest (the
population shrank from 120 million in 1215 to 65 million
in 1290). Coupled with the halving of the work force was
a series of strict taxation policies, effectively crippling
the former booming economy. After Kublai Khan took
over, the Mongol dynasty began printing paper money
instead of the previous coin currency, guaranteeing the
notes by the government and not by private banks. This
reliable currency did provide a boost to the economy,
but lavish spending and expensive military campaigns by
the Khanate resulted in high taxes, the nationalization of
many industries, and hyperinflation from overproducing
notes. The cash strapped Yuan eventually fell to
dissatisfied Chinese citizens, making way for the Ming
dynasty.
Though the Ming began as a despotic dynasty that favored agriculture at the expense of other industries, the
Ming dynasty eventually grew to foster a flourishing and diverse economy with relatively low taxation rates.
28
Twitchett et al., The Cambridge History of China / General Editors, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank.
19
Civilian merchants and farmers successfully lobbied the government for lower taxes and quotas and most of
the time the taxes collected by the Ming officials were lower than those reported. The average tax rate was 3-4%
which included land taxes, service levies, customs duty, and other smaller fees. The Ming dynasty originally
pioneered seafaring for economic purposes, but once the dynasty was established most ports were closed and
seafaring was limited to tributary expeditions. This resulted in an intense increase in piracy that the Ming
dynasty was never able to fully control. The Ming dynasty issued a variety of paper currency and silver coins,
although it encountered the same hyperinflation and counterfeiting problem as the Yuan. The coal and iron
industry boomed, increasing industrial output and led to the development of new inventions. Agriculture during
this period was fairly limited to cash crops to make a profit, although output increased dramatically as overall
prosperity increased. Three types of market emerged in this period: rural bartering markets, urban-rural markets
where rural goods were sold to urban dwellers, and national markets where rural farmers produced goods for
direct sale to the market instead of subsistence farming.
The Qing Dynasty became the last imperial dynasty in Chinese history. After consolidating power, the Qing
severely limited foreign trade and became heavily involved in the economy, reinstituting a salt monopoly.
Foreign trade was limited to four areas – Guangzho, Ningbo, Xiamen, and Songjiang. In response to a flux of
emigration to these areas and the increased influence of the East India Company on foreign trade, the Kangxi
emperor limited all foreign trade to Guangzho (Canton, to westerners), effectively establishing the Canton
system. Under the Canton system, a board of merchants monopolized China’s foreign trade. Many items were
sold to foreign countries during this period, but the only form of payment accepted was silver bullion, which
the Chinese relied on to make their monetary coins. Great Britain, which relied upon China for its tea supply,
became increasingly frustrated with the Chinese-favored trade balance and eventually introduced the illegal
opium trade as a way to pay for Chinese tea. The inability of the Chinese to halt the illegal sale of opium led the
the First Opium War and the eventual collapse of the Qing under the reparations to the West after the Opium
War defeats and other causes.
The Republic of China was founded after the Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911, and led to over thirty years of
economic turmoil before the People’s Republic of China was established to relieve the country of the ROC’s
corruption. From 1913 to 1927, China disintegrated into regional warlords who fought for authority and
disrupted economic growth. Many provinces “seceded” during this time period, and the economy crumbled
until Chiang Kai-Shek barely managed to reunify the country in 1927. Despite political turmoil, the domestic
economy did improve, with exports increasing while maintaining a low import rate. Chinese industries
continued to develop throughout the 1930s, though hindered by the Great Depression from 1931-1937. The
Great Depression severely affected Chinese rural economy, which focused on cash crops and was subject almost
completely to the fluctuations in foreign demand. Key exports included glue, tea, silk, sugar cane, tobacco,
cotton, corn, and peanuts. Overproduction coupled with a decrease in foreign consumption worsened the
Depression for rural farmers. By 1934, rural incomes were only 57% of what they were in 1931. Currency was
originally silver-backed, but after the national government seized control of the banks, it created a flat-backed
currency that hyperinflated and collapsed by the end of the Sino-Japanese war in 1945. By 1949, the currency in
circulation was about 120 billion times more than it was in 1936. The devastating defeat of the Republic of China
by Japan in the second Sino-Japanese War killed an astounding 20-25 million Chinese. Outcput was reduced to
20% capacity and had 25% of the output of pre-war China. In an attempt to save the failing economy, the ROC
gained control of 70% of the country’s businesses. It is no surprise that the population was incredibly unhappy
with their government at the end of the Second Sino-Japanese war, and as a result of the Chinese Civil War, the
People’s Republic of China was established. The new economy will be by the people, for the people, and increase
the livelihood of every citizen in our great People’s Republic.
20
Positions
Rural
Over the course of Chinese history, rural farmers have constituted the backbone of the Chinese economy.
Without their tireless work in the fields over the past few thousand years, the Middle Kingdom would not have
been able to survive. Most rural inhabitants of China make their living either on subsistence or commercial
farming and fishing. Citizens in rural areas would appreciate low land taxes and government investment in the
agricultural sector and rural development in general. They are more protectionist than urban dwellers, afraid
that increased foreign trade will lead to a decimation of rural economies.
Urban
Urban dwellers have become a larger portion of the population over the course of the past fifty years, and have
been the driving force behind making China into a more industrialized country. Many of China’s urban centers
are in key trading locations near coasts, although special administrative regions, like Beijing and Chongqing,
are more inland. Urban centers would like to see more direct investment in import/export businesses, and
more investment manufacturing infrastructure. They want private investors to receive tax breaks for investing
in infrastructure and want to foster an environment where the People’s Republic can become an industrialized
economy.
Northeast
China’s northeast has abundant coal reserves, which it is currently leveraging to become a large industrial sector.
In the southern part of the northeast the weather is warm enough for a variety of agricultural products, but the
far north is too cold for agriculture, and instead focuses on fishing.
Southeastern
Historically, Southeastern China has been the outlet to the outside world. In the time of Zheng He, many
southern ports were bustling with activity, handling a large amount of tribute from faraway lands. It was
southern China that handled the burden of foreign trade during the 1800s and Republican period, with ports at
Hong Kong, Macao, Guangdong and Guizhou booming. The southeast would like to keep its ports open to allow
for more foreign trade.
Western
Many of the provinces and special autonomous regions to the west are minority-heavy, with economies based on
bartering and making/selling handicrafts. Many of the inhabitants of the Western region live nomadic, hunter/
gatherer lifestyles and are isolated from the overall Chinese economy. Most of the region is steppe or mountain,
with little arable soil. While this might pose an issue for the rest of the country, which may feel it is carrying
the West economically, it does not necessarily upset the population of this region, who holds dearly to their
traditional ways. They may, however, seek aid from the government, for this region tends to be the poorest in the
county.
21
Topic V: Infrastructure and Transportation
History
The basic structure of Chinese cities and towns was established during the Bronze age, based off of fengshui
geomancy and astrology. A standard square plot of land was divided into 9 sections, labelled as such below, and
certain significant buildings were placed in each smaller
square. The shape was called the Holy Field. A temple of
ancestors was placed in square 7, a temple of agriculture in
square 3, and an audience hall in square 1. The market was
not considered of high importance and placed in square 9
to the north of the palace. The palace was located in square
5 of the Holy Field. Square 5 was enclosed by fortifications
to form the Inner City. The edge of the Holy Field was
enclosed in a second ring of fortifications and referred to
as the Outer City. The fortifications were specified as 20 m
wide and 15 m high. The wall of the Outer City was pierced
by 12 gates aligned with 3 major North-South avenues and 3
major East-West avenues. Parallel with these avenues, were
6 minor avenues for a total of 9 avenues running NorthSouth and 9 avenues running East-West. These 18 avenues
were specified as the width of nine chariots, and divided the
city into wards. Conceptually each ward was an individual
village, thus the capital was 81 villages within a wall. Inside
each ward individual land was parceled out. The standard plat could accommodate one aristocratic residence
or be subdivided into as many as six smaller residential plats. The flexibility of this simple system allowed great
diversity within each ward, but great homogeneity at the city scale. The Zhou classical standard extended the
concept of modular planning used in the Capital to the regional planning scale. The city was part of a modular
regional system of urban economics. It mirrored the hierarchy of the state in a smaller scale. Each module,
whether urban or rural, in the hierarchy therefore had the same population base and political power. The
economic rank of a city determined its size. During this time period, as China was not unified, there was very
little communication among tribes, and as such roads were not very prevalent outside cities.
The Holy Field standard had a lasting effect on Chinese architecture and urban planning, and various versions
of it were used throughout the Iron Age. The Holy Field standard was codified into the national urban plan in
the Zhou dynasty, and was continuously used throughout the dynastic period when creating and expanding
cities throughout imperial China. The Holy Field standard can be expanded to encompass the layout of an entire
dynasty (with some adjustments), or shrunk to be used as housing blueprints. Many of the neighborhoods in
Chinese cities throughout the dynastic periods were built on this courtyard structure, and the resulting grids
created hutongs, many of which still exist in China today.
Most common buildings were made from stone, clay, and wood well into the dynastic period. Imperial buildings
were much more lavish and ornate. During the short Republic of China, buildings began to be made out of more
modern materials like steel and iron, although that was mostly used for government buildings in large cities. The
new People’s Republic of China will need to decide how to structure their cities and homes to adequately reflect
the needs of the people.
For most of Chinese history, roads were not paved, but instead paths were carved out of the dirt in towns and
cities according to the Holy Field standard. The inner city roads and pathways were paved, mostly because
the town’s or city’s rulers could afford it. Roads were always paved in Imperial cities. In the dynastic period,
22
few roads existed in between towns, and even fewer existed as direct
routes for travel or trade among far-flung places. Cobblestone roads
according to European style existed in the late Qing dynasty, as Western
influence increased in China. However, these roads only existed in large
cities, such as Shanghai, and Beijing, and only in wealthy business or
residential areas. Road construction and paving did increase during
the Republican period, but much of it was destroyed during the second
Sino-Japanese War and the following Civil War. To ensure the safety of
Chinese citizens and the effectiveness of transportation in and around
urban centers, the construction of roads must be a high priority.
Transportation in today’s China is mostly done by horse and carriage, by foot, or by bicycle. In large cities, some
cars and buses can be seen, but very few, comparative to bicycles and horses. Cars do not have the capabilities
to travel long distances and are very expensive for all but the wealthiest urban Chinese citizen. Buses are much
more affordable and popular in Chinese cities. However, the lack of road infrastructure makes buses very
difficult to use in poor neighborhoods of the cities, and nearly impossible to use outside of them. Bicycles are
more affordable, but still out of reach for many citizens in rural areas. Traffic in cities is a major issue, with
bicycles, cars, and buses constantly clogging the roads.
Positions
Rural
Most roads in rural china are unpaved, dirt paths. There is little to no network of roads or transportation to
facilitate moving people and goods from place to place, save maybe one path to the nearest urban center. Horses
and carts are the most sophisticated forms of transportation, with the occasional bicycle being owned by a
wealthier rural resident. Some rural areas near large urban centers are fortunate enough to have the occasional
bus route or car.
Urban
Urban areas of the People’s Republic have the best infrastructure of anywhere in the country. They have large,
multi-story buildings, a grid system upon which the cities are expanded, paved roads, cars, bicycles, and busses.
Traffic can be a major issue in cities, and alternate forms of transportation probably seem attractive to these
inhabitants.
Northeast
In China’s northeast, the main transportation problem lies with the seasons. The northeast sees heavy snowfall
and subzero temperatures every winter, which block trade routes and make it difficult for populations to travel to
buy food and other goods.
Southeastern
The hot, humid climate of the southeast lends itself to little snowfall, but rain and flooding can be a serious issue.
In addition, the south is heavily forested, which can make transportation difficult.
Western
The west is a vast expanse of steppe and mountain climates. The provinces and SARs are much larger here, and
the population is much more spread out. There is currently no fast transportation method from one urban center
to another, nor are there many paved roads. Horses make up the main method of transportation, and travelling
from one area to another is a very timely and costly endeavor.
23
History
Topic VI: Territory Disputes
The Middle Kingdom has changed immensely over the course of 5000 years, gaining territory through successful
military campaigns and losing territory during the crumbling of dynasties. At the end of the Chinese Civil War,
China looked like this:
China has now completely consolidated its empire, including the newest reconsolidation of Tibet in 1951.
However, some regions, such as Xinjiang and Taiwan in addition to Tibet, still remain particularly hostile. It is
very important to have a unified and cohesive People’s Republic of China, and addressing these issues will be
important moving forward.
Tibet
Tibet was incorporated into the Mongol empire in 1246, when Prince Koden forced Tibet to surrender to
Mongol rule. Tibet was under the administrative rule of the Yuan dynasty until the 1350s. In 1720, the Qing
dynasty army entered Tibet, in aid of the local and defeated the invading forces of the Dzungar Khanate, and
thus began the period of Qing rule of Tibet. Later, the Chinese emperor assigned Dalai Lama and Panchen
Lama to be in charge of religious and political matters of Tibet. The Dalai Lama was leader of area around
Lhasa, Panchen Lama was leader area of Shigatse Prefecture. The Qing dynasty maintained a strong military
presence in Tibet from then onward, with the Dalai Lama governing most of the local Tibetan activities and the
Qing dynasty governing everything else. Tibet was seen as the spiritual center of the Qing dynasty. The AngloChinese Convention of 1906 recognized Chinese suzerainty over the region. The Anglo-Russian Convention of
1907, without Lhasa's and Beijing's acknowledgement, recognized the suzerainty of China over Tibet. The Qing
central government claimed for sovereignty and direct rule over Tibet in 1910. The thirteenth Dalai Lama fled to
British India in February 1910. In the same month, the Chinese government issued a proclamation 'deposing' the
Dalai Lama and instigating the search for a new incarnation. The subsequent outbreak of World War I and civil
24
war in China meant that the Chinese factions only controlled part of Tibet. The government of the 13th Dalai
Lama controlled Ü-Tsang (Dbus-gtsang) and western Kham, roughly coincident with the borders of the Tibet
Autonomous Region today. Eastern Kham, separated by the Yangtze River was under the control of Chinese
warlord Liu Wenhui. The situation in Amdo (Qinghai) was more complicated, with the Xining area controlled by
warlord Ma Bufang (of Hui ethnicity), who constantly strove to exert control over the rest of Amdo (Qinghai).
In 1950, the People's Liberation Army of the People's Republic of China entered Tibet, after taking over the rest
of China from Republic of China during the five years of civil war. In 1951, the Seventeen Point Agreement for
the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet, a treaty signed by representatives of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama,
provided for rule by a joint administration under representatives of the central government and the Tibetan
government.
Xinjiang
Xinjiang is a historically Muslim area of China occupied mostly by the Uyghur and Hui minorities. Xinjiang
became officially part of China during the Yuan dynasty, when the Xinjiang rulers submitted to Mongol rule
and became a vassal state. Toward the end of the Yuan Dynasty, the Dzungar people began taking over portions
of Xinjiang from the Uyghurs, and when the Qing dynasty was established, the Uyghurs in the area agreed to
resume their title of vassal state if the Qing dynasty expelled the Dzungars. The Manchu Qing dynasty of China
gained control over eastern Xinjiang as a result of a long struggle with the Dzungars that began in the 17th
century. Between 1755 and 1757, Qing armies destroyed the remnants of the Dzungar khanate and many Han
Chinese and (Hui) moved into the pacified areas.
After reconquering Xinjiang from the Tajik adventurer Yaqub Beg in the late 1870s, the Qing dynasty established
Xinjiang ("new frontier") as a province in 1884, formally applying to it the political systems of the rest of China.
After Xinjiang was converted into a province by the Qing, the provincialisation and reconstruction programs
initiated by the Qing resulted in the Chinese government helping Uyghurs migrate from southern Xinjiang to
other areas of the province, like the area between Qitai and the capital, which was formerly nearly completely
inhabited by Han Chinese, and other areas like Ürümqi, Tacheng, Yili, Jinghe, Kur Kara Usu, Ruoqiang, Lop
Nor, and the Tarim River's lower reaches. It was during Qing times that Uyghurs were settled throughout all of
Xinjiang, from their original home cities in the western Tarim Basin. In 1912, the Qing dynasty was replaced
by the Republic of China. Yuan Dahua, the last Qing governor of Xinjiang, fled. One of his subordinates, Yang
Zengxin, took control of the province and acceded in name to the Republic of China in March of the same year.
Through Machiavellian politics and clever balancing of mixed ethnic constituencies, Yang maintained control
over Xinjiang until his assassination in 1928 after the Northern Expedition of the Kuomintang.
The Kumul Rebellion and other minority rebellions arose throughout the 1930s. In the Kashgar region on
November 12, 1933, the short-lived self-proclaimed First East Turkistan Republic was declared, after some
debate over whether the proposed independent state should be called "East Turkestan" or "Uyghuristan.” The
Chinese Muslim Kuomintang 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) destroyed the army of the First East
Turkestan Republic at the Battle of Kashgar (1934), bringing the Republic to an end. The Soviet Union invaded
the province in the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. In the Xinjiang War (1937), the entire province was brought
under the control of northeast Manchu warlord Sheng Shicai, who ruled Xinjiang for the next decade with close
support from the Soviet Union, many of whose ethnic and security policies Sheng instituted in Xinjiang. The
Soviet Union maintained a military base in Xinjiang and had several military and economic advisors deployed
in the region. Sheng invited a group of Chinese Communists to Xinjiang, including Mao Zedong's brother Mao
Zemin, but in 1943, fearing a conspiracy, Sheng executed them all, including Mao Zemin. In 1944, the thenPresident and Premier of China Chiang Kai-shek, was informed of Shicai's intention of joining the Soviet Union
by the Soviets themselves. Kai-Shek thus decided to shift him out of Xinjiang to Chongqing as the Minister of
Agriculture and Forest, more than one decade of Sheng's era had stopped. However, a short-lived Soviet-backed
Second East Turkestan Republic was established in that year, which lasted until 1949 in northern Xinjiang. The
25
People's Liberation Army entered Xinjiang in 1949 and the Kuomintang commander Tao Zhiyue surrendered
the province to them.
Xinjiang has long been a rightful territory of China, but has only recently come into the fold. In addition to being
one of the poorest and minority-heavy regions of the People’s Republic, there is still much resentment in the area
from its inhabitants and the region may fall into chaos soon again. This must be rectified if the People’s Republic
of China is to remain a unified, cohesive unit.
Positions
Rural
Most rural areas of China will have little knowledge of the territorial disputes that take place in the country,
except when its population is conscripted into the army, which severely reduces the working population. In
addition, most minority populations live in rural areas of China. They would probably not take cultural or
military intervention into another minority region too lightly.
Urban
Urban areas of the People’s Republic of China will be generally more knowledgeable of territorial disputes that
take place in the country, and much more likely to support the People’s Republic in its endeavors to maintain
country unity. Most urban populations are Han Chinese, who may hold racist and prejudiced views against
minority populations, and want to reform those areas to make them into productive contributors to society.
Northeast
China’s northeast is the home to Beijing, the country’s capital. There is intense patriotic sentiment in the
Northeast that wants to see a unified, strong China. They are also the most geographically distant from
either Tibet or Xinjiang, and any policy recommendations will likely not affect their populations. Most of the
population of this area is Han Chinese.
Southeast And West
There is a strong minority population in Southeast and West China. Many minority populations would be
wary when deciding what to do about a special autonomous region like Tibet and Xinjiang, for the same could
easily be done to them. They are much more likely to err on the side of caution. Any freedoms or assimilation
programs applied to Xinjiang could leak over into their own provinces and regions as well.
26
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