A French bracelet by François Galland, 1821 -1828, commemorates the death of Napoleon Bonaparte
The expressive capacity of adornment,
a sign of the times
INTRODUCTION:
A jewel can be made of splendid materials, using refined techniques, without sparing either expense or
effort, to make people even more beautiful than they already are. But apart from the intrinsic and
decorative value, large value can also be attached to an ornament or jewel, by means of communication.
By wearing a jewel we can show who we are and what we stand for. If we consider jewellery to be a
distinguishing 'bodily' sign, the art of jewellery is probably the most intimate of all applied arts. A jewel
can be an artistic manifesto, as this bracelet suggests.
A huge amount has been written about Napoleon Bonaparte, owing to the enormous impact he had on
European history. There are also many objects -among them pieces of jewellery- which are rightly or
wrongly linked to this ruler1. Nevertheless I would like to demonstrate that this fascinating piece of
jewellery was made to commemorate the death of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1821.
HALLMARKS:
The combination of marks show that this bracelet was made in Paris between 1819 and 1828.
A ram's head looking to the left: hallmark on gold 750/000 used in France, Paris, from
1819-1838, with countermark. This mark has been applied three times, once on a link and
twice in the crown motif.
Lozenge shaped maker's mark with an F and a G in capital letters placed one above the
other. In between the letters an irregularly shaped pentagon: François Galland2.
François Galland was specialised in 'la fantaisie, la petite parure'. This maker's mark was used by him
from 1813 to 15 February 1828. He had established himself in Paris at 10, Rue Richelieu, and from 1824
on at 14, Rue Chabanais. Another maker's mark which was later used by him was eventually crossed
out of the registers on 10 June 1834.
Gross weight: 28 grams/0.98 oz.
Length of bracelet: 17 cm/6.7 in.
Width of central piece: 4 cm/1.5 in, width of links: 1,5 cm/0.6 in.
HISTORICAL SETTING:
” There is nothing more powerful than an idea whose time has come”.
(Victor Hugo, son of one of Napoleon's generals)
During the French Restoration (1815-1830) France was once again governed by the House of Bourbon.
But the energy and influence of the preceding period still echoed.
It had not been a quarter of a century yet since the 'Ancien Régime' had been overthrown. The power
and instruments created by the French Revolution offered Napoleon Bonaparte the opportunity to obtain
the highest powers. Napoleon was an opportunist, who knew how to make the most of his chances.
Without his strong personality and his exceptional qualities the course of events would undoubtedly have
been a different one.
There is an affinity between the abilities as military leader and the thirst for power of Bonaparte and
those of the conquerors of the world from antiquity, who inspired him. The Greeks had united under
Alexander the Great and had conquered most of the then civilized world. In the same way French armies
under Napoleon expanded his sphere of influence. At the height of his popularity Napoleon wanted to be
more than Consul for life and subsequently crowned himself emperor.
He was a decisive and ingenious strategist and had a calculating approach to warfare. Winning a battle
offered him the opportunity to impose a new order on the old corrupt and inefficient systems.
During Napoleon's reign many governmental
innovations were introduced in the territories
ruled by France. As a consequence of this his
influence still continues.The use of surnames
was introduced and we still apply "his"
measures: the kilo, litre and metre. Legislation,
education and health care became more
accessible and better regulated. Making a
career for oneself became more dependent on
shown abilities, irrespective of descent.
"Napoléon couronné par le temps écrit le Code
civil" Jean-Baptiste MAUZAISSE 1833
Chateau de Malmison
Disappointing results and losses were presented with gilded grandeur, using le gout roman, le style
empire and Gallic censorship as weapons.
Herein lay the metaphysical cause of Bonaparte's inevitable downfall. The intelligentsia saw the
imperious Napoleon as an old fashioned relic of a dusty classicism. He was seen as a fearsome
opponent of awakening Romanticism. Because of this, the Zeitgeist turned against the French emperor
and whereas Bonaparte himself had invested millions in launching a private iconography, the Germans
moved in exactly the opposite direction by projecting romantic, anti-classic and anti-Napoleonic imagery
on the public's consciousness.
The law of unintentional consequences mercilessly took effect. Even though Napoleon had pushed
French nationalism up to unprecedented heights he had also aroused other nationalist forces, which
would eventually overpower him and his country.
Definitively beaten at Waterloo, Napoleon was banned to the desolate island of St. Helena.
During the restoration the house of Bourbon reassumed power in France in the person of Louis XVIII,
younger brother of Louis XVI who had been beheaded.
But for Napoleon it was impossible to give up a political role as long as he was alive. He exchanged
sword for pen, using it as an outstanding political weapon, and laid the foundations of the Second
Empire. His admirers were wise to hide their sympathy, e.g. by using a double bottomed tobacco box
showing the superimposed profiles of Napoleon and Louis XVIII.
Napoleon Bonaparte died on 5 May 1821.
2
Louis XVIII died in 1824 and was succeeded by the next brother in line, Charles. He had himself
anointed during an impressive ceremony in accordance with middle age traditions. After that he ruled as
an absolutist monarch as if the Revolution had never taken place. At the revolution of June 1830 Charles
X was forced to abdicate and he was succeeded by Louis-Philippe who tellingly called himself 'king of
the French' following Napoleonic populism.
Even though Napoleon Bonaparte had died a beaten and defeated man, he nevertheless gained a
posthumous victory in the eternal myth of the triumphant soldier and exemplary ruler.
His son had died in 1832 in Vienna as Herzog von Reichstadt, and therefore did not live to see his
father's statue being placed on top of the column at the Place Vendôme once again. In 1840 LouisPhilippe received British permission to collect Napoleon's body from St. Helena and it was buried aux
bords de la Seine in the Dôme des Invalides in accordance with Napoleon's wishes. In 1852 the empire
was restored under Napoleon's nephew, Napoleon III. When Queen Victoria visited the tomb three years
later in the company of her young son, the future Edward VII, she requested him to kneel before the
great Napoleon.
ART-HISTORICAL INFORMATION: classic forms and imagery
When Pompei was excavated in 1748, Antiquity was rediscovered. At the end of the eighteenth century
and the beginning of the nineteenth century the artistic trend was named classicism or neoclassicism.
In France, and shortly afterwards in the largest part of the rest of Europe, neoclassicism became the
official style taught at art academies.
In addition to the use of classical forms, the frequent use of symbols is especially characteristic for
neoclassicism. With the help of symbolic references contemporary events were often translated into
classical representations. Parallels could be seen between these stories and the current political
situations. Values from antiquity were updated. By linking stories from classical literature in symbolic
representations to contemporary events, the artist showed that he was well-read. Something similar
concerned the middle classes who bought the works of art. The importance of the human intellect was
underlined by Rationalism, the prevailing philosophical movement.
This bracelet had been manufactured shortly before the turning point to a new movement. As soon as
the rising realism casts doubt on the use of symbols it becomes paramount to represent everything as
true to nature as possible.
Central motif of the bracelet: the ram and the sun.
In art-historical imagery the ram is a symbol for rebirth, drive, leadership, fame, physical strength and
virility. Its horn represents the horn of plenty.
In Judeo-Christian ritual tradition the ram reminds one of the strenght of Abraham’s faith. Following a
command from God he took his son Isaac in order to offer him as a sacrifice to the Lord. As Abraham
was about to kill Isaac the Lord intervened and supernaturally provided a ram to sacrifice in the place of
Isaac. Rabbi Hanina ben Dosa says about the two horns of this ram: the Lord blew on the left horn upon
mount Sinai, as it is said: "the sound of the sjofar gradually became very strong". The right horn was
however larger than the left and one day the Lord will blow it as he gathers the exiled.The penetrating
sound of a sjofar calls to consciousness and faith.
The ram, in particular the Golden Ram, plays a prominent part in Greek mythology: on the back of this
extraordinary animal Phrixus and Helle fled to Colchis3. At the journey's end the ram was gratefully
sacrificed. Owing to this, the sacrificed ram received its place among the constellations in the sky 4. Its
fleece is known as the Golden Fleece, which is later sought by Jason and the Argonauts. According to
an oracle the owner of the Golden Fleece acquires eternal life, but in order to gain this Golden Fleece,
Jason first had to plough the territory of the god of war Ares.
The journey of the Argonauts is the allegorical search to get the sun back from its exile.
“If I had to choose a religion, the sun as the universal giver of life would be my god”
(Napoleon Bonaparte).
3
The central part of the bracelet is crowned by a stylized sun. The sun represents royal power, the
position of man, willpower, fame and victory. In Christian imagery the sun is a symbol of immortality and
resurrection. This motif shows seven rays; the number of creation and of the spirit 5. The sun, considered
an outstanding source of life in ancient times, was depicted in Northern Africa and Egypt as a disc above
the sun gods' heads with a horn on both sides. These cult depictions were called sun rams or sun cattle.
By attaching the ram's head to the middle part of the bracelet by means of a hinge goldsmith François
Galland avoided a breaking point. This accounts for the bowing, inclining or nodding of the ram's head.
The ring in the animal's nose has no function in the jewel, but in a real animal the ringing is used to
temper its force. Finally there is a small closed compartment at the back of the ram's head, probably
meant to contain a relic or lock of hair.
Acanthus
The acanthus and acanthus trail are typical neoclassical motifs. In the bracelet this ornament, engraved
and chased in bas-relief, repeats itself within frames.
Next to the decorative function the acanthus ranks as a symbol for immortality since antiquity 6.
CUT STONES
The art of cutting layered stones was developed in ancient
times. The earliest cut stones were intaglios, stones with an
in depth depiction or inscription. Intaglios were used as
stamps instead of written signatures.
They can be traced back to the small engravings on stone
and ceramic scarabs which were used as amulets and burial
gifts by the Egyptians. An intaglio leaves a positive imprint.
Opposite to the intaglio the cameo has a positive image in
relief and rises from its background.
When cutting intaglios and cameos, use was made of the
polychrome layers which sometimes occur in semiprecious
stones or shells for extra effect.
For the intaglios of the described bracelet blue banded
agate was used: the stone cutter engraved his depictions
in the upper layer, of light greyish blue colour, while the
darker bottom layer serves as
a background.
During the European Renaissance cut stones were only worn by the clergy. The great royal courts
followed: Catherine the Great collected cameos. Madame de Pompadour was the Maecenas of cameo
engraver Jacques De Quay. She collected and engraved stones with depictions. Queen Elizabeth I had
cameos with her portrait made as promotional gifts. In Italy this age-old glyptography was considered
one of the most important arts.
The use of cut stones in jewellery became enormously popular thanks to Napoleon Bonaparte. At the
end of his Italian campaign in 1796 cameos and intaglios were brought back to France. Napoleon's
fascination for the Roman cameos in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century brought about the
"cameo fever" which rapidly spread over Europe. Among the cameos brought back from Italy some were
antique of Greek or Roman origin, but shortly after that stones were engraved in antique style in Paris as
well. Resulting from his passion for all sorts of classical things, for Roman emperors and glyptography
Napoleon set up a school in Paris where the art of engraving stones was taught. At the beginning of the
nineteenth century the first public school for designers of cameos was opened in Rome, financed by the
Vatican, for the depiction was an aspect not to be underestimated.
4
ICONOGRAPHY of the intaglios incorporated in the bracelet:
In the two small intaglios Eros rides a lion.
In European heraldry the lion is a recurrent symbol for dominion since this "king of animals" represents
valour, strenght, courage and power. It is often associated with the royal arms of England. The lion is
used as the Christian symbol for the disciple Mark, the resurrected Christ, God and the good, royal
dignity and nobility. The lion guards territories and gates. He stands guard and is there to impress the
ignorant.
Astrologically connected to the sun, the lion's symbolic characteristics are of a solar nature too. This is
probably founded on its power, its golden brown colour and the ray-like manes of the male. Just like the
eagle, 'king of birds', it is said that the lion can look up at the sun without blinking. Leonine attributes are
ostentation, love of money, vanity, the ability to rule and dominate but also to possess natural authority
and genius.
The Greek god Eros is the son of Aphrodite (goddess of love, fertility and beauty) and the god of war
Ares. Eros always has his bow and arrows at the ready, but instead of fighting he uses his weapon to
unite. For he is the personification of love which conquers all. According to Plato Eros represents man's
wish to attain the beautiful and the good. Amor or Cupid is his Roman counterpart. In the left intaglio
Eros has small wings on his back. In the right intaglio they seem to be part of his arrow.
Omni a vi nc it a mo r
Heinsius, circa 1601, translated:
For the strong I am too strong.
I cast off the gentle ties and reins of the weak.
Everything under the sun I take in hand.
It is only a child conquering so many men.
Isn't it a miracle that so many people submit to
my rule, when even lions tremble before me?
Why fight me, when the outcome is clear.
Why don't you learn to yield to me?
Central intaglio: Heracles catches the wild boar of the Erymanthian mountains.
Heracles 7 was the biggest and most worshipped of all Greek heroes. As son of the supreme god Zeus
he had received miraculous strength at birth. Simultaneous with Heracles' birth, Eurystheus was born in
Mycene as a great-grandson of Zeus.
Eurystheus received from Hera, the goddess of birth, the power to rule. Hercules was driven to madness
by Hera. To escape from the Furies, he had to perform twelve superhuman labours in the service of king
Eurystheus: the dodekathlos.
So strength had to be used in the service of the power to rule.
The fourth labour in this series of heroic
deeds consisted of catching the
Erymanthian wild boar, which prowled
around the mountain Erymanthus. This
boar had to be brought before king
Eurystheus alive. Heracles completed his
task successfully, but in the preceding
tumult his friend the centaur Cheiron died.
The king was so afraid of coming eye to
eye with the boar that he hid in a big copper
vessel.
"Heracles and the Erymanthian Boar"
Louis Tuaillon, Berlin,1904
5
Napoleon Bonaparte like Heracles was not born a ruler. The French hero also dealt with his country's
challenges and enemies one by one.
His "fourth labour" took place on 14 June 1800 in the northwest of Italy, close to Alexandria. In the Battle
of Marengo Napoleon beat the Austrians. He considered this victory the biggest in his career. 8 The
spectacular victory at Marengo was also attained owing to Bonaparte's favourite general Desaix, who like the centaur Cheiron in Heracles’ fourth labour - died at the moment of triumph.
After this battle Napoleon concluded peace treaties with his former opponents and negotiated a
concordat with pope Pius VII. In this period Napoleon's prestige and popularity reached a climax.
To mirror Napoleon Bonaparte in a classicist way, the death and apotheosis of the Greek hero Heracles
also offers an allegory. Heracles revealed Zeus' prediction: 'No living man can ever kill Heracles; a dead
enemy will be his downfall.' Napoleon like Heracles was not killed in battle. Both suffered an unbearable
torment and died in solitude.
In the central intaglio a willow has been cut out to the right of and above the image of Heracles. The
depicted tree is a bare trunk with a few young shoots. Such a willow grew above Napoleon's grave in St.
Helena. After his funeral twigs were broken off this tree as nostalgic mementos but also to let them grow
into new trees. A tree symbolizes renewal, and the connection between heaven and earth.
CONCLUSION
By looking at the neoclassical bracelet as an early nineteenth century story in pictures, it receives an
extra dimension. After interpreting the symbols, it not only gives an art-history image of the period in
which it was made but also shows the vision and sentiments of the goldsmith or his clientele.
fame, victory
immortality and resurrection
victory
love, the good, which conquers all
power,
dominion
immortality
strength used in the service
of the power to rule,
the spectacular victory
renewel, the connection
between heaven and earth
rebirth,
virility, drive, fame,
leadership
tempered force
consciousness, faith
one day the Lord will blow the right horn as he gathers the exiled
By placing the diverse ideograms such as
heroism, virility, victory, exile and
immortality, reinforced by their
connections, in the context of place and
time this jewel can be interpreted as a
commemorative jewel.
It shows a longing for the glorious era
under Napoleon Bonaparte.
Propagating such a sympathy was
probably rewarded by solidarity among
like-minded people, but since this
bracelet was made in the period before
Napoleon's rehabilitation it was useful
and moreover more interesting to hide
the message so that it demanded some
effort and insight from the admirer.
The fact that an art lover can overlook such a political slogan some 185 years later pays a compliment to
the goldsmith who chose and arranged the images in such a way that they resulted in a coherent whole
with an attraction of their own.
And when ideograms are looked upon simply as images and not as signs any more the image casts off
the yoke of the sign and this particular piece of jewellery shows once again the beauty which I loved at
first sight.
Cornelia Perquin, 2006
© ANTHONY [email protected] http:// WWW.ANTHONY.BE
Bibliografie
Arminjon, C. e.a.: Dictionnaire des poinçons de fabricants d'ouvrages d'or et d'argent de Paris et de la Seine 17981838, Parijs, 1991
Battistini, Mathilde: Symbols and allegories, Ned. vert. Gent 2004
Beyst, Stefan: Zijn Rubens en Beuys collega’s? over de verhouding tussen kunst en filosofie/wetenschap en
metaforen, 2000 http://d-sites.net
Biederman, Hans: Prisma van de symbolen, Utrecht, 1996
Blackburn, Julia: The emperor’s last island 1991 Ned. vert 1992
Emblem Project Utrecht: Dutch Love Emblems of the Seventeenth Century http://emblems.let.uu.nl
Graves, Robert: Greek Myths, London, 1981
Johnson, Paul: Napoleon Balansbiografie 2002
Vever, Henry translated by Purcell, Katherine 2001: French Jewelry of the Nineteenth Century
Walgrave, Jan e.a.: Sieraad Symbool Signaal, Antwerpen, 1995
Wikipedia http://www.wikipedia.org
1
A small tomb, magnificently made out of pure gold, about four centimetres (1,6 in) long and two and a half
centimetres (1 in) wide. It contains a small statue of Napoleon in pure gold, about two and a half centimetres (1 in)
long; on the inside of the lid it contains a small hair lock of the emperor, placed under a sheet of glass. It rests on a
small pedestal which has been made out of a piece of stone from the rock in which Napoleon's grave was cut
away. Above it hangs a branch of the willow which grows on the actual grave. (Sainsbury Collection Catalogue,
1840)
2
C. Arminjon e.a., Dictionnaire des poinçons de fabricants d'ouvrages d'or et d'argent de Paris et de la Seine 17981838, Paris, 1991, p. 139, nr. 1120
3
Nephele sent her children, engendered by Hermes, the golden ram Chrysomallus to save them from their
stepmother Ino. This ram was not only able to fly, but he could talk and think as well.
4
The themes renewal, inspiration, idealism and spirit of freedom are also in agreement with what the astrological
sign Aries represents.
5
Seven is a prime number (it can only be divided by 1 and by itself). The number seven occurs in the seven days
of creation, the seven flat and the seven lean years. There are seven virtues and seven cardinal sins, seven
colours in the rainbow, seven chakras, seven wonders of the world, and we know the expression 'to be in the
seventh heaven'. Seven is a special number, in the Bible it means "abundance, very much".
In Judaism the sjiwwe is a period of heavy mourning. In this word sjewa, hebrew for seven, is retrievable. At a
mourning ceremony of a highplaced predecessor in synagogue one goes seven times around the bier and after
each round the sjofar, the ram horn, is blown.
6
The generic name Acanthus is derived from 'akantha', Greek for 'thorn'.
The pattern of the acanthus leaf is well known from the Corinthian columns in Greek antiquity. The myth on the
origin of this pattern recounts that it was introduced by the Greek scholar Kallimachos of Cyrene (ca. 310-240
B.C.). When a young Corinthian girl died, her nurse put a small basket on her grave containing cuddly toys
belonging to the child. She covered them up with a square cloth so that the toys would remain hidden and would
not be stolen. When spring came, Kallimachos walked past the grave and found the cloth which had been pushed
away by the acanthus leaves growing abundantly on the grave. This is said to have inspired him for the concept of
the Corinthian columns. The acanthus also became the symbol of immortality, the plant has of old adorned
gravestones and hearses. The prickly flower stems are a symbol of the trials of life and death.
7
Heracles, Herakles (Greek) or Hercules (Latin) is also named Alcides in the Empire era. Alkh is the concept of
power. The suffix -ides means grandson of. Alkeus, grandfather of Hercules, does not differ much from his
grandson. He too is a personification of invincible strength.
8
Even in St. Helena Napoleon cherished the coat he had worn at the Battle of Marengo. In his will Napoleon
bequeathed this coat as one of his most personal possessions to his son, the link between himself and immortality.