WHC-2001/CONF.205/INF.4
UNESCO
WORLD HERITAGE CONVENTION
BUREAU OF THE WORLD HERITAGE COMMITTEE
25th ordinary session
(25 - 30 June 2001)
Paris (France)
EVALUATIONS OF CULTURAL PROPERTIES
Prepared by the
International Council on Monuments and Sites
(ICOMOS)
The IUCN and ICOMOS evaluations are made available to members of the Bureau and the
World Heritage Committee. A small number of additional copies are also available from the secretariat.
Thank you.
2001
WORLD HERITAGE LIST
Nominations 2001
Introduction
A
Nominations of cultural properties to the World Heritage List
A.1
Archaeological site
Turkey
- Ephesus
A.2
1
Historic towns
Austria
- The Historic Centre of Vienna
5
Brazil
- Historic Centre of the Town of Goiás
9
France
- Provins, Town of Medieval Fairs
13
Georgia
- Vardzia-Khertvisi Historical Area
- Tbilisi Historic District
18
22
Israel
- The Old City of Acre
25
Italy
- Noto and late Baroque architecture in south-eastern Sicily
32
Kenya
- Lamu Old Town
36
Morocco
- The Medina of Essaouira (ancient Mogador)
40
Portugal
- Historic Centre of Guimarães
42
Uzbekistan
- Samarkand - The place of crossing and synthesis of world cultures
46
A.3
Religious properties
Chile
- Churches of Chiloé
China
- Yungang Grottoes
- The Expanded Potala Palace -Norbulingka - Jokhang Monastery Project
in Lhasa: Norbulingka - (Extension)
Cyprus
- Painted Churches in the Troodos Region - Palaichori,
Church of Ayia Sotira (Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour) (Extension)
51
53
57
60
India
- The Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya
62
Poland
- Wooden Churches of Southern Little Poland
- Churches of Peace in Jawor and Swidnica
66
71
Spain
- Mudéjar de Aragon (Extension of Mudéjar Architecture of Teruel)
75
A.4
Architectural monuments and ensembles
Czech Republic
- Tugendhat Villa in Brno
81
Latvia
- Jurmala Wooden Construction (Dzintari District of Summer Cottages)
84
A.5
Traditional settlements and architecture
Indonesia
- Tana Toraja Traditional Settlement
A.6
87
Technological ensembles
Germany
- The Cultural Industrial Landscape of the Zollverein Mine
91
Sweden
- The Historic Cultural Landscape of the Great Copper Mountain in Falun
96
United Kingdom
- Derwent Valley Mills
- New Lanark
- Saltaire
A.7
100
105
110
Cultural Landscapes
Botswana
- Tsodilo
115
Italy
- Val d’Orcia
- The Middle Adda Valley (extension to “Crespi d’Adda”)
- Villa d'Este
120
123
126
Lao People’s Democratic Republic
- Vat Phou and Associated Ancient Settlements within the
Champasak Cultural Landscape
131
Lebanon
- The entire natural site of the region of the Chouf,
with its monuments and sites
136
Madagascar
- The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga
143
Portugal
- Alto Douro Wine Region
147
Spain
- Aranjuez Cultural Landscape
154
Uganda
- Tombs of Buganda Kings at Kasubi
159
B
Nominations of mixed properties to the World Heritage List
Austria-Hungary
- Natural Site and Cultural Landscape of Fertö-Neusiedler Lake
164
Israel
- Masada National Park
168
Russian Federation
- Natural complex "Central Sikhote-Alin"
173
Turkey
- Karain Cave and the Surrounding Palaeolithic Caves
176
INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON MONUMENTS AND SITES (ICOMOS)
World Heritage Nominations 2001
1
Analysis of nominations
In 2001 ICOMOS has been requested to evaluate 39 new
and deferred nominations of and extensions to cultural and
mixed properties.
The geographical spread largely duplicates the trend that
has become apparent in recent years, with more than half
the nominations coming from European countries. There is
a marked decrease in nominations from Latin America and
the Caribbean, but on the other hand there are more from
Africa:
Europe
29 nominations (6 deferred, 3
extensions)
16 countries
Asia/Pacific
4 nominations
5 countries
Latin America/
Caribbean
1 nomination
1 country
Africa
4 nominations
4 countries
Arab States
1 nomination
4 nominations
Italy (1 extension)
3 nominations
United Kingdom (1 deferral)
2 nominations
Austria (1 with Hungary)
China (1 extension)
Georgia
Israel
Poland
Spain (1 extension)
Turkey
Comparison with the distribution in 2000, the types of site
show a substantial increase in the proportion of cultural
landscapes and a decrease in monuments and
archaeological sites:
2
ICOMOS procedure
a
Preparatory work
•= non-ICOMOS members with special expertise,
identified after consultation within the ICOMOS
networks;
•= collaborating NGOs (TICCIH, DoCoMoMo).
Concurrently, experts were selected on the same basis for
evaluation missions to nominated properties. The same
procedure was adopted for selecting these experts as that
just described. The missions were required to study the
criteria relating to authenticity, protection, conservation,
and management (Operational Guidelines, para 24(b)).
Experts are sent photocopies of dossiers (or relevant parts
of them, where the dossiers are extensive). They also
receive documentation on the Convention and detailed
guidelines for evaluation missions.
The distribution by country from those States Parties
nominating more than one property was as follows:
Monument or group
Historic towns/town centres
Cultural landscapes
Archaeological sites
Mixed sites
Industrial sites
•= individual ICOMOS members with special expertise,
identified after consultation with International and
National Committees;
11 (28%)
9 (23%)
9 (23%)
2 (5%)
4 (10%)
4 (10%)
Following an initial study of the dossiers, expert advice
was sought on the outstanding universal value of the
nominated properties, with reference to the six criteria
listed in the Operational Guidelines (1999), para 24(a).
For this purpose, ICOMOS called upon the following:
•= ICOMOS International Scientific Committees;
ICOMOS missions are to be sent to all the nominated sites.
In the case of mixed sites the missions are organized
jointly by ICOMOS and IUCN. IUCN experts also
participated in joint missions to some cultural landscapes.
It has been necessary for climatic and logistic reasons to
delay missions to several properties.
The missions will have been carried out by a total of 33
experts from 24 countries. The geographical distribution of
experts closely parallels that of the nominated sites, in
accordance with the ICOMOS policy of selecting regional
experts for missions. The countries from which ICOMOS
experts were drawn were Belgium, Czech Republic, Egypt,
Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Iran, Ireland, Israel,
Italy, Japan, Malta, Norway, Pakistan, The Philippines,
Poland, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Thailand,
the United Kingdom, and Zimbabwe. In addition, missions
were carried out by representatives of ICCROM, TICCIH,
and the ICOMOS World Heritage Secretariat.
b
Evaluations and recommendations
On the basis of the reports prepared by the two groups of
experts, draft evaluations and recommendations (in either
English or French) were prepared and considered by the
ICOMOS World Heritage Panel and Executive Committee
at a meeting in Paris on 29–31 March 2001. Following
this meeting, revised evaluations have been prepared in
both working languages, printed, and despatched to the
UNESCO World Heritage Centre for distribution to
members of the Bureau of the World Heritage Committee
for its 25th Session in June 2001.
Paris
April 2001
was obviously linked with a Jewish community) is recorded
by the visit of the Apostle Paul, and it acquired greater
significance first through the tradition of its links with John,
author of the Book of Revelations, and later in the worship of
the Virgin Mary, who was declared to be Mother of God
(Theotokos) at the Council of Ephesus (431), the effects of
which can still be seen in the Meryemana (House of the
Virgin Mary).
Ephesus (Turkey)
No 1018
Note The State Party does not make any proposals in the nomination
dossier concerning the criteria under which it considers this property
should be inscribed on the World Heritage List.
Identification
Nomination
Ephesus
Location
Province of İzmir
State Party
Republic of Turkey
Date
30 September 2000
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.
History and Description
History
There has been human settlement on the site of Ephesus
since the 5th millennium BCE. It is known that there was a
Mycenaean settlement at Ayasoluk. Legend has it that
Androklos led the Ionian Greeks who arrived in the Bay of
Kaystros around 1050 BCE: there is archaeological evidence
for a sanctuary on the site of the Artemision as early as the
9th century BCE: it is conjectured that this was an example
of syncretism, worship of the local deity Cybele being
merged with that of the Greek Artemis. The mid 6th century
temple of Artemis (the Artemision), renowned as one of the
Seven Wonders of the World, became one of the most
important centres of pilgrimage of the ancient world. It was
destroyed by fire in 356 BCE and rebuilt on the orders of
Alexander the Great.
Justification by State Party
Like only a few other ancient cities in Turkey (eg Perge,
Aphrodisias, etc), since its decline Ephesus has never been
built over and so it enables visitors to experience the scene of
a vast and major Roman city. This is intensified by the fact
that visitors have the opportunity to walk in the Roman
streets and thus to gain an incomparable three-dimensional
view of the evidence of Roman town planning and interior
design, public monuments, and religious and private
dedications.
In the case of Ephesus the marble splendour of a Roman city
is increased by the historical dimension of the city, which
surpasses that of virtually any other city around the
Mediterranean. The city owes its importance mainly to its
location on the west coast of Asia Minor with a natural
harbour and its function as a place of cultural and
commercial exchange between east and west. Six millennia
of history are concentrated in a site of international interest.
Ephesus came under the sway of the Lydian king Croesus in
the mid 6th century BCE. It was absorbed into the Persian
Empire in the following century and then conquered by
Alexander. After his death it formed part of the territory
ruled by Lysimachos, who established a new, heavily
fortified city on the flanks of Mount Koressos (Bülbüldağ),
naming it Arsinoeia after his wife.
A continuous and complex settlement history can be traced,
beginning with the earliest traces in the 5th and 3rd
millennium BCE, the earliest settlements of the Geometric
Period, followed by the zenith of the Ionian civilization in
the 6th century BCE and the beginnings of the history of
Western thought by people such as Heraclitus. The city
reached its apogee in the Roman period, when it was the
most densely populated and wealthy city of Asia Minor,
bearing the title of "the first and greatest metropolis of Asia."
It also flourished in the 5th and 6th centuries, and again
during the rule of the dynasts of Aydın in the 13th–15th
centuries, with Ayasoluk one of the most important ports on
the west coast of Asia Minor, trading with Venice and
Genoa. All these historic periods are illustrated by
magnificent monuments that testify to the city's original
grandeur.
In 133 BCE Ephesus became part of the Roman province of
Asia Minor, of which it was to become the capital nearly a
century later. The first two centuries of the Christian era were
the most glorious in the history of Ephesus. However, it
suffered badly from earthquakes in 262 and again in the mid
4th century, and went through a period of decline and decay.
There was a revival at the end of the 4th century, associated
with the fact that the city had become an important religious
centre, as demonstrated by the fact that the IIIrd Ecumenical
Council, at which the Virgin Mary was declared the Mother
of God, was held there in 431. This prosperity continued
during the 5th and 6th centuries following the construction
on the orders of Justinian of the Basilica of St John and the
settlement round it, now known as Ayasoluk.
Ephesus lost much of its influence and wealth when the
harbour silted up. Nonetheless, the city which at that time
extended from the Ayasoluk to the modern town of Selçuk,
continued to have an important role during the Aydın
(Seljuk) period in the 14th century, to decline yet again after
being taken over by the Ottomans.
As the centre of three world religions, Ephesus surpasses
most other ancient cities in intensity and fascination. In
ancient times the cult focused on the goddess Artemis, whose
far-reaching influence is documented by finds dating back to
the 2nd millennium BCE. The Christian community (which
1
ancillary cult buildings. Much of the finer architectural and
sculptural items were removed to the British Museum in the
19th century.
Description
The Graeco-Roman city has been enclosed by defensive
since the Hellenistic period, and these survive to a
considerable extent. There are also remains of the Byzantine
walls and gates, when enclosed a much smaller area, to be
discerned.
WALLS
The strongly defended CITADEL of Ayasoluk (Selçuk) lies on
a steep hill to the north-east of Ephesus. It was first fortified
in the Byzantine period and considerably strengthened
subsequently, through to the Ottoman period. The lower
courses of the walls are for the most part Byzantine and the
upper Turkish. The main feature of the walled settlement
below the citadel is the monumental BASILICA OF ST JOHN,
built on the orders of Justinian in the 6th century to replace a
more modest structure from the previous century. Legend has
it that this was the site of the tomb of St John: this is
generally held to be the Beloved Disciple, though it is not
certain whether it was indeed this saint who was buried
there. The church was cruciform in layout, with a broad
nave, chancel, and transepts and cupolas over the nave,
transepts, choir, and crossing. The walls were faced with
marble and the columns had richly carved capitals.
Excavations have revealed two main OPEN SPACES, the State,
with its administrative and religious buildings, in the south
and the Tetragonis Agora, a large market in the lower town.
The steep Curetes STREET links the two; this is lined with the
remains of important buildings, including the 2nd century
Corinthian temple dedicated to Hadrian, the bouleuterion
(council chamber) or odeon (small theatre), and the
Scholastikia baths (1st century CE). There is also a number
of excavated PRIVATE HOUSES on the west side of the street.
At the foot of Curetes Street is the LIBRARY OF CELSUS, an
imposing structure from the 2nd century CE with a
monumental facade that has been reconstructed. Behind it
lies the remains of the COMMERCIAL AGORA, built in the
Hellenistic period and extensively rebuilt in the early Roman
period. Close by is the fine TEMPLE OF SERAPIS, approached
by a flight of steps from the agora. This interesting and
massive structure was probably the work of Egyptian
colonists or traders
Between the Artemision and Ayasoluk is what remains of the
fine 15th century MOSQUE OF İSA BEY, with the ruins of its
associated hammam (baths). Only one of its two minarets
survives and the other lacks its peak. It was constructed of
material taken from the classical city of Ephesus. The
surviving interior decoration is a striking example of the
development of Islamic art before it had been influenced by
the capture of Constantinople in 1453.
From here the so-called MARBLE STREET leads to the
THEATRE, the largest and best preserved ancient building in
Ephesus. Work began on this fine example of the Greek
classical theatre, constructed making extensive use of marble,
in the Hellenistic period, but it was enlarged considerably by
successive Roman Emperors in the 1st century CE. It is
145m wide and with an auditorium 30 m high. The stage
(proscaenium) measured 25m x 40m and the auditorium had
a seating capacity of 24,000. The acoustics remain excellent
to the present day. Across from the theatre is the THEATRE
GYMNASIUM, which appears to have served as a small
stadium. Further to the north is the stadium proper, which is
in a very fragmentary state.
The MERYEMANA is located on the south-western slopes of
Mount Koressos. This is a 1st century CE structure to which,
according to legend, the Virgin Mary was brought by St John
after the Crucifixion. It is a small domed stone structure with
a cruciform plan, heavily restored in 1950.
Management and Protection
Legal status
Ephesus was registered as a first class archaeological site by
İzmir Regional Council for the Preservation of Cultural and
Natural Heritage by its Decree No 2809 of 4 April 1991.
This action was taken in conformity with the Turkish Law
for the Conservation of Cultural and Natural Property (Law
No 2863 of 21 July 1984, amended by Law No 3386 of 17
June 1987).
By contrast, the mid 2nd century CE VEDIUS BATHS AND
GYMNASIUM, which lies just to the north of the stadium, is
one of the best preserved buildings in Ephesus. It is a very
complete example of this characteristic Roman building type.
There is another large late 1st century CE PUBLIC BATHS
complex, still not fully excavated, to the north-west of the
theatre, with two spacious palaestrae (exercise areas). These
lie alongside the ARKADIANE, a handsome colonnaded street
running down from the theatre to the harbour and named
after the Emperor Arcadius, who restored it at the end of the
4th century.
All listed sites are State property. No action which may have
an adverse impact on the listed properties may take place
without the authorization of the Ministry of Culture. This
provision extends to cover repairs, construction, installation
of infrastructure or other equipment, partial or total
demolition, excavation, and other activities.
Outstanding among the Christian monuments within the
town is the CHURCH OF THE VIRGIN MARY. This forms part of
a converted Roman building of the early 2nd century CE. It
is in the form of a basilica and probably served originally as
a corn exchange or some similar commercial function, an
interpretation strengthened by its proximity to the harbour.
Regional Councils are empowered to designate protected
sites and monuments in accordance with this law. In so doing
they are required to ensure that the cultural properties are
enclosed by "an adequate portion of their environment" so
that the context of the property can be understood.
Procedures and principles for these actions are issued by the
Ministry of Culture.
All that remains of the famous ARTEMISION, the Temple of
"Diana of the Ephesians" where according to the Acts of the
Apostles the Apostle Paul raised a riot, is a single re-erected
column. This is a very swampy area of low-lying ground
between the main Ephesus site and the hill of Ayasoluk; it is
usually deep in water, but during drier periods some internal
features are revealed, along with the remains of some
The directors of excavations authorized by the Ministry of
Culture are responsible for the maintenance and presentation
of immovable property discovered during excavations.
2
Management
Conservation and Authenticity
According to the nomination dossier the ancient city and the
Artemision are mostly in State ownership, although some
areas are still privately owned. It is managed by the Efes
Müzesi (Ephesus Museum) in Selçuk, in cooperation with
the Austrian Archaeological Institute, which has been
excavating the site since 1895 with authorization that is
renewed annually. The work of the Institute in Ephesus is
financed by the Austrian Ministry of Science.
Conservation history
Work has been going on at Ephesus for more than a century,
largely by the Austrian Archaeological Institute. The
nomination frankly acknowledges that some of this,
particularly in the first half of the 20th century, was not in
accordance with contemporary conservation principles –the
use of exposed concrete and the re-erection of the columns in
the Artemision, for example. However, work carried out
since the 1960s has fully respected the principle of
anastylosis as defined in the Venice Charter.
The Basilica of St John is also in State ownership and
managed by the Museum. Both sites, to which there is public
access, are enclosed by fences and under constant
surveillance.
The project for the construction of a new
museum/interpretation centre in one of the houses to the
south side of Curetes Street will, by contrast, be realized
using only contemporary materials so as to ensure the
optimum condition for the conservation of the ancient
constructional materials.
The İsa Bey Mosque and baths are owned by a religious
organization, Vakiflar Genel Müdürlüğü. They are partly
accessible, with some areas fenced off.
The Meryemana is owned by the Roman Catholic Church.
There is public access throughout the year and it is under
constant surveillance.
Authenticity and integrity
The archaeological sites and ruins nominated for the World
Heritage List may be considered to be authentic: only ancient
materials have been exposed and such reconstruction work
as has been carried out (with certain early exceptions, noted
above) has in no way impaired that level of authenticity.
However, the extent of the restoration and reconstruction
carried out at the Meryemana, albeit for reasons of faith, has
gravely affected the authenticity of this element of the
nomination.
Overall responsibility at national level is vested in two
General Directorates of the Ministry of Culture, those for the
Preservation of Cultural and Natural Heritage and for
Monuments and Museums respectively; both are located in
Ankara. The Ministry of Forests collaborates at national
level. At the Regional level the responsible organizations are
the İzmir Regional Council for the Preservation of Cultural
and Natural Heritage and the Governorship of İzmir,
working through the Efes Müzesi in Selçuk.
The integrity of the ancient city remains is also high.
Inevitably in the case of a multi-period site such as Ephesus
decisions have to be taken to decide which elements to
preserve. In general what is now available for visitors to see
represents the city at its apogee in the Early Roman Empire.
However, some later elements, such as the remains of the
Byzantine fortifications of the much diminished city of that
period and the palaeochristian church of the Virgin Mary,
have been exposed.
The nomination dossier provides details of certain long-term
objectives. These include the expropriation of the remaining
privately owned properties within the archaeological site
with international financial support, the removal of the
airstrip to the north-west of the site, and redesign of the
entrances to the site so as to achieve a satisfactory balance
between the objectives of conservation and of tourism. At the
Artemision there are also plans for a new entrance layout,
with an archaeological interpretation centre relating
specifically to the Hellenistic cult site.
When archaeological work in the Theatre is completed, it is
intended to make provision for its use for public spectacles.
One of the houses is to be used as a site museum, and one of
the large baths will be laid out so as to demonstrate the
bathing practices of antiquity.
Evaluation
From a broader perspective there are plans to create a new
tourist path linking most of the sacred sites in Selçuk (the
Artemision, Basilica of St John, İsa Bey Mosque, etc) so as
to present the town as the centre of three world religions.
This is an important initiative, reflecting the ever-increasing
role of heritage sites such as Ephesus in the rapidly growing
tourism industry in Turkey.
Qualities
There is no overall management plan in force for the entire
area proposed for inscription on the World Heritage List.
The city was also of considerable importance as a religious
centre. The prehistoric cult of Cybele was widespread in
early Asia Minor; with the arrival of the Ionian Greeks the
worship of this goddess was merged with that of Artemis and
the new cult attracted many adherents. The famous
Artemision constructed in her honour became a place of
pilgrimage from all over the region.
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert
January/February 2001.
mission
visited
Ephesus
in
Ephesus was one of the greatest cities of antiquity, and
particularly in the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. This
is demonstrated by the size, nature, and quality of its public
and private buildings, as revealed by archaeological
excavation, which are among the finest in the Mediterranean
region.
One serious lacuna in the nomination dossier is a map which
shows all the sites nominated for inscription (that provided
omits the Artemision) and the buffer zone.
With the advent of Christianity Ephesus became a major
pilgrimage centre for the new religion, thanks to being
3
associated with St John the Beloved Disciple and the Virgin
Mary, who was entrusted to his care by the dying Christ.
There is therefore a prima facie case for the eventual
inscription of Ephesus on the World Heritage List on the
basis of criteria ii, iii, and possibly vi.
Comparative analysis
When compared with other ancient cities in Asia Minor,
such as Aphrodisias, Aspendos, Jerash, Palmyra, Pergamum,
Perge, or Xanthos, Ephesus scores highly on two accounts.
First, it was a major city for a long period, from the
Hellenistic period to the Late Roman Empire, and then again
in the Selçuk period, and retains ample evidence of this long
history. Secondly it has exceptional religious associations,
with one of the most influential pre-Christian cults and then
with the roots of Christianity itself.
In the broader context of the great classical civilizations,
Ephesus also possesses outstanding qualities, for the same
reasons. It might be argued, with some justification, that
cities from antiquity, and in particular those from the
Hellenistic and Roman periods, in the Mediterranean region
are over-represented on the List. There are currently over
twenty World Heritage sites which consist of complete cities
(or those parts which have been excavated), whilst there are
some ten classical monuments located in historic towns.
However, whilst towns such as Cyrene, Leptis Magna,
Tipasa, or Volubilis have many values which justify their
inscription on the World Heritage List, none has the unique
combination of qualities that distinguish Ephesus. Only
Pompeii can give the visitors such a graphic insight into the
way of life in classical antiquity.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
In order to conform with the requirements of the Operational
Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage
Convention, para 24.b.i, a plan must be completed and in
force before any property may be inscribed on the List. In the
case of Ephesus, it is of special importance that the eventual
management plan should pay special attention to the
management of tourism at this sensitive site.
Brief description
Much of the Hellenistic and Roman past of Ephesus, one of
the greatest cities of the ancient world, has been revealed,
including a fine theatre and other buildings, both public and
private. Little remains of the famous Artemision, but the
importance of Ephesus to Christianity because of its links
with the Virgin Mary and St John is demonstrated by the
Basilica of St John.
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
That further consideration of this nomination be deferred to
enable the State Party to prepare and implement a
comprehensive management plan; this should be
accompanied by a map which clearly indicates the areas
nominated for inscription and the buffer zone.
ICOMOS, March 2001
4
including three major developments, medieval, Baroque, and
Gründerzeit, in its urban pattern and its individual buildings.
The historic centre of Vienna has an imperial design in its
layout and the individual monuments, and has thus become a
symbol of Austrian history.
Criterion iv
Vienna (Austria)
No 1033
Vienna is directly and tangibly associated with artistic and
especially musical works of outstanding universal
significance. Based on ecclesiastic liturgical music since
medieval times, as well as minnesang and ancient dance
music, Vienna became a centre of European music as early
as the beginning of the 16th century under the Habsburgs.
Opera, which emerged in Italy at the end of 16th century,
became firmly established at the court of Vienna in the High
Baroque. The Viennese Classicists (Haydn, Mozart,
Beethoven, Schubert) consolidated Vienna’s reputation as
the musical capital of Europe, a reputation that has continued
and is expressed also in light music (Strauss) and modern
music (Neo-Viennese School).
Criterion vi
Identification
Nomination
The Historic Centre of Vienna
Location
Vienna
State Party
Republic of Austria
Date
27 June 2000
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site.
Justification by State Party
The historic centre of Vienna proposed for inclusion in
UNESCO’s World Heritage List constitutes a uniquely
preserved town monument, which is of outstanding universal
value from the point of view of history, cultural history, and
art. Its outstanding historical significance becomes manifest
in “Vienna, the capital and residence city," ie the political
and spiritual centre of a multi-national state, which was a
decisive factor within European history from the Middle
Ages to the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy.
Promotion of science and art on a broad basis was
concentrated in the imperial city, building on medieval
tradition and developing into an instantly recognizable
Austrian form of Baroque culture, a Viennese Gründerzeit
idiom and a Viennese modernity, all of these styles aspiring
to meet the challenges of a Gesamtkunstwerk, based on an
overall design concept. Vienna was important for the history
of music (Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Strauss,
Schönberg), as well as for the history of literature and
psychology (Freud, Frankl). The historic centre exhibits a
series of significant Baroque ensembles superimposed on the
medieval core. The political situation after 1683 (decisive
resistance to the Ottoman army) resulted in an urban
development that was characterized by the newly
accentuated axes leading from the centre to the suburbs and
palaces, and contrasted by the Ringstrasse in the area of the
former fortifications, built in the Gründerzeit at the end of
the 19th century.
History and Description
History
Having been first inhabited in the Neolithic period, the
history of Vienna has the following main phases:
-
Antiquity and early medieval (up to 11th century)
Archaeological evidence has shown that the site of Vienna
had a Celtic settlement when the Romans extended their
control into the Danube region in the 1st century CE,
building the castellum of Vindobona on the edge of the
river, and staying here until 488. The meandering Danube
formed the limes of the Roman Empire, the border to
Germania libera, influencing later urban development
until modern times. The High German name Wenia was
first mentioned in 881, during the conflicts of Germans and
Magyars.
-
High and late medieval (12th to 15th centuries)
Vienna started regaining significance in the late 12th and
13th centuries, becoming one of the largest towns of the
German Empire, next to Cologne. Several monastic
complexes were erected, including the Minoritenkirche, as
well as starting the construction of the ducal residence,
today’s Hofburg, taken over by the Habsburgs in 1276. In
the 14th and 15th centuries the town flourished from trade,
and the first German university was founded in 1365. The
church of St Stephen became reference for an independent
bishopric in 1469 and an archbishopric in 1718. A Jewish
community existed here since the 12th century but was
destroyed in 1420–21.
The historic centre of Vienna exhibits an important
interchange of human values on developments in
architecture, town planning, and landscape design. The
spatial organization as well as the density and quality of the
historic buildings bear testimony to the socio-economic and
cultural development of Vienna. This heritage is the bearer
of a cultural tradition of outstanding universal value,
designating Vienna as a city of art and culture.
Criterion ii
-
Schism and Turkish siege (16th century till 1683)
In the 16th century Europe was in conflict with the Ottoman
Empire, who occupied most of Hungary. Vienna became a
frontier fortress, being first besieged in 1529, and trade
started declining. In 1533 Ferdinand I transferred to Vienna,
making it the capital of the Holy Roman Empire; this lasted
The historic centre of Vienna is an outstanding example of a
city that illustrates significant stages in human history,
5
The city of Vienna is situated on the Danube in the eastern
part of Austria. The ancient Roman military camp was
situated on a plain, west of an old branch of the Danube. The
site is surrounded by hills, now built on by small villages and
vineyards. Traces of the Roman camp are still visible in the
medieval urban fabric of the historic town centre of the
present-day Vienna, north of St Stephen’s Cathedral and the
Graben (450m x 530m). The ancient forum is now a market
place, the Hoher Markt. The Roman camp became the
starting point for the further development of the town.
Beginning in the 12th century, the settlement expanded
beyond the Roman boundaries, which were demolished, and
the new medieval town walls surrounded a much larger area
(about six times the area of the Roman camp). The walls
were rebuilt during the Ottoman conflicts in the 16th and
17th centuries and provided with bastions. This remained the
core city of Vienna until the demolition of the walls in the
second part of the 19th century and the development of the
Ringstrasse area
until 1806 with an interruption from 1583 to 1612. In 1683
Vienna successfully resisted the Ottoman army, a victory
which brought Hungary under Habsburg rule.
-
Baroque metropolis (1683 to French Revolution)
The change in the political situation after 1683 brought
important changes also to the town of Vienna, starting an
important development phase. An increase in population led
to the construction of suburban areas, which were protected
by their own fortifications, the Linienwall. Baroque palaces
were designed for the centre of the town by the leading
architects of the time, including J.B. Fischer von Erlach and
L. von Hildebrandt, resulting in the construction of the
palaces of Schönbrunn and Belvedere, the extension of the
Hofburg, and a large number of ecclesiastical and civic
ensembles. Vienna became the European capital of music
with the genius of Haydn and Mozart. After Napoleon’s
defeat, the venue of the Congress of Vienna (1814–15)
resulted in the political continuation of absolutism (Vormärz,
ie before March 1848). At the same time, the petite
bourgeoisie continued an interest in arts, furniture
(Biedermeier), painting, and especially music (Beethoven,
Schubert).
-
This inner city contains a number of historic buildings from
the medieval period, including the Schottenkloster, the oldest
monastery in Austria, from the 12th century, which served as
a stopover for crusaders and pilgrims on their way to
Jerusalem. Other medieval buildings include the churches of
Maria am Gestade (one of the main Gothic structures),
Michaelerkirche, Minoritenkirche, and Minoritenkloster,
from the 13th century. St Stephen’s Cathedral dates from the
14th and 15th centuries (with a major restoration in the 19th
century). The period also saw the construction of civic
ensembles, such as initial parts of the Hofburg. Whilst the
monastic complexes were generally built in stone, becoming
also part of the defence system of the medieval city, the
residential quarters were built in timber and suffered frequent
fires.
The Era of Francis Joseph I (1848–1916)
At the end of 1848, the young Emperor Francis Joseph I
ascended the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The
desire for democratic government remained a dream,
although constitutional government was restored in 1860.
The city walls were razed to ground in 1857 in order to
create the Ringstrasse, an outstanding example of 19th
century town planning. With the emerging ambitions of the
haute bourgeoisie, the new Ringstrasse became a major
construction site for an impressive number of major
buildings, including theatres, museums, university, and large
private constructions, characterized as the Gründerzeit, the
constructors’ period. There was also an important
development in the field of culture, including composers:
Bruckner, Brahms, Wolf, Mahler, and Schönberg, architects
and painters such as O. Wagner, A. Loos, G. Klimt, and O.
Kokoschka, as well as philosophers, including L.
Wittgenstein.
-
After the victory of the Ottoman army in 1683, Vienna
developed rapidly as the capital of the Habsburg Empire,
becoming an impressive Baroque metropolis with some
100,000 inhabitants in the 17th century. The Baroque
character was expressed particularly in the large palace
layouts built under Emperor Charles VI (1711–40) and
Maria Theresa (1740–80), such as the Belvedere palace and
garden ensemble (1712–21), extending along an axis to the
south from the inner city (but part of the nomination). The
first designers and craftspersons came from Italy, but one
generation later there was a increasing number of Austrian
architects, painters, and artisans, including Johann Bernhard
Fischer von Erlach, who designed additions to the Hofburg
Palace (eg the Riding School, the National Library) and the
Karlskirche. Many existing medieval buildings, churches,
and convents were altered and given Baroque features (eg
the Schottenkirche and the Annakirche), and additions were
made to representative administrative buildings (eg the
Bohemian Court Chancery, the Hungarian Court Chancery).
A growing number of new palaces were built by noble
families (eg Palais Batthyany, Palais Lobkowitz, Palais
Wilczek, Palais Esterhazy). Several historic buildings are
now associated with the important Viennese residence of
personalities such as Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, and
others.
Period from World War I
With the death of the emperor in 1916, the empire came to
an end, and Austria was proclaimed a democratic republic in
1918. Between the two World Wars, Vienna involved
leading architects in social housing projects that came to
dominate the expression of some Viennese neighbourhoods.
World War II caused major damage to the city, and the
reconstruction phase lasted well into 1960s. At the same
time, a new approach to preservation evolved, and the old
town was legally protected in 1972. In 1945, Vienna
regained its status as a federal province (Land) and capital of
Austria.
Description
The property nominated to the World Heritage List consists
of the medieval core (based on the Roman settlement), the
principal Baroque ensembles with their axes, and the
Gründerzeit constructions at the beginning of the modern
period. The property covers an area of 371ha, surrounded by
a buffer zone of 462ha.
A new phase in the history of Vienna took place when the 34
suburbs were incorporated with the city, and the Emperor
gave the order to demolish the fortifications around the inner
city, executed from 1858 to 1874. While the demolition of
the fortifications may be regretted from the historical point of
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constitutes a perfectly valid management plan for the historic
urban area seen in relation to its overall context. It is,
however, integrated with a medium-term (3-year) specific
management plan with clearly laid-out objectives. The
management processes are well sustained by professional
and scientific expertise and facilities. Vienna also has a fully
competent infrastructure for visitor management, taking
account of its importance for tourism. The historic town is
conceived not as a museum but rather as a living and vibrant
city. Preservation and conservation are targeted in
accordance
with
international
agreements
and
recommendations.
view, this opportunity was taken in order to create one of the
most significant 19th century ensembles in the history of
urban planning, which greatly influenced the rest of Europe
in this crucial period of social and economic development.
The new area became the planning ground for large civic
complexes in the period of 19th century Historicism. The
Hofburg complex was extended with the Neue Hofburg, an
"imperial forum," and joined with large museum complexes
into a single ensemble. The Burgtheater designed by G.
Semper, the Parliament (Reichsratsgebäude) by Theophil
von Hansen, the Town Hall, and the University formed
another ensemble linked with these. To this was added the
Opera House as well as a large number of public and private
buildings along the Ringstrasse. The overall planning
concept followed the idea of a Gesamtkunstwerk, ie planned
and executed on the basis of coherent design concepts, as
already conceived in the Baroque. The late 19th and early
20th centuries testify to further creative contributions by
Viennese designers, artists, and architects in the period of
Jugendstil (eg the Postsparkasse by Otto Wagner, 1904–06),
Secession (eg buildings by Josef Maria Olbrich), and the
early Modern Movement of the 20th century in architecture
(eg the Looshaus by Adolf Loos, 1909). Here the
contribution of Vienna has been fundamental to the
formation of modern architecture.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The historic town of Vienna is an example of a town where
the city centre has always remained at the same place. As a
result, the city has undergone a continuous process of
change, rehabilitation, and adaptation. The town suffered
from damage during World War II, but this has since been
repaired and restored. The city has been under legal
protection as an historic area since 1972. Many of the
individual historic buildings have been protected since the
1920s, and the history of modern conservation goes back to
1850.
The buffer zone (462ha) surrounds the historic core area on
all sides, with a portion of the Danube canal on the north
side. The urban development of the buffer zone includes
some of the former suburban areas and a number of historic
buildings from the 17th to early 20th centuries.
The municipality of Vienna is giving due consideration to all
relevant issues related to the monitoring of change. Particular
attention is given to economic trends and pressures, traffic
control, tourism, and environmental conditions. There are no
serious natural hazards.
Management and Protection
Authenticity and integrity
Legal status
The historic town of Vienna, like an urban cultural
landscape, integrates a complex stratigraphy of historic
layers from the ancient Celtic and Roman times onwards.
Over time the earlier structures have been adjusted in
accordance with the needs of later periods, including the
Graben, which replaced the former Roman walls, and the
Ringstrasse, which was built over the area of the medieval
fortifications. Through this process of gradual change and
development, the town has acquired its particular historical
integrity and specific character and its outstanding universal
value. The development of modern conservation policies
goes back to the mid 19th century. Within this context, the
historic fabric satisfies the test of authenticity.
The nominated historic core area of Vienna as well as the
proposed buffer zone are well protected by various legal
instruments. These include the Amended Law on Old Town
Conservation (No 16/1972), passed in 1972. Within the
proposed nomination area, there are about 1500 protected
structures, Historic buildings are subject to protection under
the Monument Protection Act (No 533/1923), the most
recent amendment entering into force on 1 January 2000.
Relevant parts of Vienna are subject to the Vienna Nature
Conservation Act (from 1998) and other legal regulations.
About 75% of the properties are in private ownership, 18%
publicly owned, and 7% by the church.
Management
Evaluation
The historic area proposed for inscription on the World
Heritage List is indicated as a protected zone (“Innere Stadt”
and “Ringstrasse”) in the Urban Master Plan of Vienna.
Protection is also specified particularly to the Belvedere
Park, the gardens of the Hofburg ensemble, the Rathauspark,
the park of the Palais Schwarzenberg, and the Stadtpark.
The Municipality of Vienna and its departments provide a
modern and efficient means of administration and
management, including monitoring systems for the areas
concerned. These offices are integrated in relevant fields by
the Bundesdenkmalamt of Austria, the Landeskonservatorat
for Vienna, and professional advisory bodies.
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited Vienna in February
2001. An evaluation of the "outstanding universal value" of
the nominated property was provided by the ICOMOS
International Scientific Committee on Historic Towns and
Villages (CIVVIH).
Qualities
Vienna has had three major periods in its history, the
medieval period (12th to 15th centuries), the Baroque period
(late to 18th centuries), and the late 19th to the early 20th
centuries. Through these periods, the city has developed its
imperial status as well as its cultural character, particularly in
The Urban Development Plan was revised in 1994, and is
since being updated on an on-going basis. This in itself
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appropriate instruments for the protection and the control of
changes in all structures pertaining to the nominated area.
relation to the history of music. Vienna has preserved its
authenticity and historic integrity to a considerable degree
and has been influential and diffusing the models created to
the rest of Europe and the world, including in particular
Baroque architecture and the 19th century Ringstrasse.
Vienna has also been important in contributing to the
development of Jugendstil and Secessionstil, as well as the
Modern Movement in architecture. As an ensemble, Vienna
is extremely rich in architectural and urban planning terms,
including important ensembles of historic buildings and
garden layouts.
Brief description
The historic centre of Vienna developed from early Celtic
and Roman settlements into a medieval and baroque city, the
capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It had an essential
role as the European capital for music being associated with
all major personalities, from Viennese Classicism to modern
music. Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including
particularly baroque castles and gardens, as well as the late19th century Ringstrasse ensemble.
Vienna is directly associated with artistic and musical
developments of outstanding universal significance from the
medieval period, becoming a major reference for the history
of European music in the High Baroque period, and
especially at the time of the Viennese Classicists (Haydn,
Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert), continuing these traditions
until the modern period (Strauss, the Neo-Viennese School).
Recommendation and statement of significance
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on
the basis of criteria ii, iv, and vi:
Comparative analysis
The historic centre of Vienna, in its architectural and
urban qualities, bears an exceptional testimony to an
important interchange of values related to the history of
architecture, art, music, and literature. In its urban and
architectural layout, the historic centre mirrors three
major phases of development – medieval, Baroque, and
the Gründerzeit – which have become a symbol of
Austrian and central European history. Vienna has been
directly and tangibly associated with the fundamental
development of the history of music from the 16th to the
20th centuries, particularly the Viennese Classicism and
Romanticism, consolidating Vienna’s reputation as the
"musical capital" of Europe.
The nomination document proposes that Vienna should be
compared, in terms of size, significance, and state of
conservation, with Prague (inscribed 1992: categories ii, iv,
vi) and Budapest (inscribed 1987: categories ii, iv]. The
nomination of Prague consists of the historic centre of the
city and that of Budapest the banks of the Danube and the
Old Buda Castle quarter. For Prague reference is made to its
role in European developments, its architectural quality, and
its role as a cultural centre. For Budapest, the criteria are
referred to Roman and Gothic influences in the region and
the representativity of the Austro-Hungarian period in 19th
century architecture.
It is recognized that Prague, Budapest, and Vienna are three
major historic cities in the same region in central Europe,
with some similarities in terms of history, art, and
architecture. There are also, however, many differences
between these three cities. Their urban and architectural
developments have differed substantially, resulting in distinct
qualities and cultural integrity characterizing each for its own
outstanding universal value. Furthermore, Prague and
Budapest developed in a decentralized manner while Vienna
always evolved at the same place.
ICOMOS, March 2001
In many aspects, Vienna has been a forerunner that has
influenced other cities through its example. This was the case
in the development of Baroque architecture; other cities have
considered it a question of prestige to be seen as "Little
Viennas," such as Varaždin in Croatia. The demolition of the
fortifications in the 19th century and the design of the
Ringstrasse layout also had considerable influence in the
history of town planning.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
While taking note of the fact that there are a number of
historic buildings of great importance in the proposed buffer
zone, such as the Auersperg and Trautson Palaces, the
Piarist Monastery and the Maria Treu Church, ICOMOS
concurs with the proposed boundaries of the nominated
area and the buffer zone.
Recognizing the high quality of the historic fabric and
appreciating the efforts made at the level of urban planning
and management, ICOMOS nevertheless wishes to
emphasize the importance of the further development of
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mining cycle, with respect to its relation to topography and
the environment, as well as in the scale and building
techniques. As the seat of the County and later of the
Province of Goiás, it influenced or at least reflected its
principal urban characteristics on the built ensembles of the
cities similar to Goiás, such as Pirenópolis (former Meia
Ponte), Corumbá de Goiás, Luziânia (former Santa Luzia),
Pilar, Natividade, Traíras, and Niquelândia (former São José
do Tocantins).
Goiás (Brazil)
No 993
From the city of Goiás issued an organized architecture
whose influence spread over a very large region, that of the
South American Brazilian Central Plateau. Therefore, the
city of Goiás holds an incontestable universal value and is in
perfect conformity with criteria ii and v for inscription as a
World Heritage cultural property. The entire geo-economic
region, of mining and of occupation of the central Brazilian
plateau, was influenced by the settlement characteristics in
the territory and by the architectural ensemble during the
18th and 19th centuries. Furthermore, it was influenced
because it represents the beginning of the occupation of this
territory, remaining authentic over the two hundred and fifty
years of its existence, although nowadays it is vulnerable to
the nearby threat of Brasilia.
Identification
Nomination
Historic centre of the town of Goiás
Location
State of Goiás
State Party
Brazil
Date
30 June 1999
Goiás bears witness to the way in which the explorers of
the territory and the founders of the Portuguese and
Brazilian cities, isolated from the motherland and the coast
of Brazil, adapted Portuguese models of town planning and
architecture to the harsh realities of a tropical region, and
borrowed from the Indians several new ways of using local
materials.
Criterion ii
Justification by State Party
The territory of Brazil was formed in the space between the
Atlantic coast and the line drawn by the Treaty of Tordesillas
and was progressively extended to the Plate and Paraguay
rivers, culminating in the occupation of the interior.
Occupation thus took place from the periphery to the centre.
The first people responsible for this formation process were
the pioneers (bandeirantes) of São Paulo, who went in
search of gold and settled areas that today constitute the
States of Goiás and Tocantins, Mato Grosso, and Mato
Grosso do Sul. This arduous progress towards the heart of
the country was only concluded when the federal capital was
installed in Brasilia on 21 April 1960. Two State capital
cities mark the beginning of this venture, Cuiabá (Mato
Grosso), close to the geographical centre of South America,
and Goiás, close to the geographical centre of Brazil. Of the
two only Goiás has preserved urban design and architecture
that date back to the 18th century. The surrounding
countryside has also remained the same as the landscape the
pioneers encountered. Goiás is thus the last witness of this
fundamental chapter of the history of Brazil.
Goiás is the last remaining example of the occupation of
the interior of Brazil, as it was practised in the 18th and
19th centuries. A fragile site, which is becoming
increasingly vulnerable as the city begins to develop again,
this example is the more admirable because the
surrounding countryside has remained practically
unchanged.
Criterion v
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.
Goiás, the capital of the State of Goiás, was part of the 18th
century occupation of the heart of Brazil in the search for
gold. Vila Boa de Goiás, which became a borough in 1739,
today still keeps the original character of its urban layout, of
the common grounds and private spaces, of the volumetric
scale, colouring, and street layout, of the urban construction,
in the two hundred and sixty years that have elapsed,
notwithstanding the recent impact of Brasilia on the
Brazilian Midwest. In addition to its stability and
authenticity, the city of Goiás exhibits a series of features
that bear witness to its exceptional importance, its universal
value.
History and Description
History
The origins of the town of Goiás are closely related with the
history of the more or less official expeditions (bandeiras),
which left from São Paulo to explore the interior of the
Brazilian territory. One expedition, under the command of
Fern Dias Pais, explored the region of Minas (1673–81), and
another expedition, under the command of Bartolomeu
Bueno da Silva, explored the region of Goiás (1682), finding
some gold. However, the discoveries at Minas were far
superior and, from 1700, attracted a vast number of people;
the population of Brazil went from 80,000 to over one
million in a few years. As a result of wars in the coastal
regions, attention was again drawn to the interior; in 1718,
gold was found in Cuiabá (the current capital of Mato
Grosso), and three years later the son of Bartolomeu Bueno
discovered gold in Rio Vermelho, where he was nominated
It was the first officially recognized urban core, the first
borough to be planned west of the demarcation line of the
Treaty of Tordesillas that defined the boundaries of the
Portuguese possessions. The informal urban mesh of a
spontaneous essence and the civil and religious architectural
ensemble differ from the Minas Gerais urban centres of the
9
these streets in the protected area. The buffer zone surrounds
the nominated zone, including green areas and hillsides,
where new constructions are under strict control.
the superintendent of the mines of Goiás. One year later he
established the settlement of Santana, and a chapel was built
there in 1729.
In order to guarantee better control of the mines of Goiás, the
Portuguese authorities decide to reinforce the regional
government. In 1739, the governor of São Paulo chose
Santana, which took the name of Vila Boa de Goiás. The
mining village was thus doubled in size by adding to it a
small administrative quarter. In 1748, Goiás was chosen as
the headquarters of a new sub-district; its first governor was
Dom Marcos de Noronha (1749–55), who transformed the
modest village into a small capital. Amongst the first
constructions was the Casa de Fundição (1750) for the
control of gold, the governor’s palace (1751), and the
military barracks (1751). Under his successors the town
continued being improved, including the construction of the
Casa de Câmara e Cadeia (1761), improvement of the roads
and streets, building of the fountains of Carioca and Chafariz
de Cauda, and opening of a theatre (1772–77). The governor
Luis da Cunha Meneses (1778–83) planted trees, improved
the street alignment, laid out the public square of Chafariz,
and opened a slaughterhouse (1778–83). He also had the
urban master plan prepared (1782), providing the town with
a structure that has survived till the present day.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The ownership of the town of Goiás is mixed, including a
large number of private owners, as well as the municipality,
the State, and the diocese. IPHAN itself owns a few listed
properties.
The first listing of limited historic buildings was undertaken
in 1950 and 1951, but the entire historic core of the town
was listed by the State (IPHAN) in 1978. The protection is
based on the Federal Constitution of Brazil and the Decree
for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of 1937 at the federal
level. The Regional Decree of 22 April 1993 regulates the
preservation of the historic and natural landscape, including
the core and the buffer zones. On 29 August 1996 the
municipality approved the Urban Master Plan, developed
jointly with IPHAN to respond to the conservation
requirements of the historic areas. Furthermore, there is a
recent decree creating an Area of Environmental Protection
that includes both Goiás and its surroundings. All industry
and mining activities are banned.
In 1770 an inevitable decline in gold mining began and
Goiás entered a long period of stagnation. It retained its
status as a capital, but remained far behind Rio de Janeiro,
and so further progress was arrested. In 1935–37 its
administrative status was removed but the townscape
remained intact. In 1950 IPHAN, the conservation authority
of Brazil, listed its principal churches and the barracks, and
in 1951 the Casa da Câmara, the palace, and the main areas
in the centre. The inauguration in 1960 of the new capital
city of Brazil, Brasilia, gave the region a new impetus. Since
the 1980s Goiás has been revitalized with some new
constructions. Fortunately, the entire centre area was listed
by IPHAN for protection in 1978.
Management
In addition to the control exercised by IPHAN on behalf of
the Federal State, the listed properties are managed by the
regional superintendence and the authorities of Goiás.
The Urban Master Plan of 1996 establishes policies for
urban development, limits the perimeter of the town,
regulates the preservation of historic and natural heritage in
the area, and controls building norms and standards. A new
Department of Infrastructure and Urbanism was created in
1999 whose function is to design and manage the
development of the town. IPHAN acts as a partner and
adviser in issues related to the conservation of heritage.
Description
The town of Goiás is built between two series of hills, along
a small river, the Rio Vermelho. The areas on the right bank
are tight up against the north-western hills (Cantagalo and
Santa Barbara), and have a popular character, indicated by
the church of Rosario, which was traditionally reserved for
slaves. The areas on the left bank, limited by the hills to the
south-east (Dom Francisco and Chapeu do Padre), are
reserved for the more representative groups of buildings,
including the parish church (today the cathedral) of Santana,
the governor’s palace, the barracks, the Casa de Fundição,
extending to the Plaça do Chafariz (200m long), and
climbing towards the hill of Chapeu do Padre. Here are also
to be found the historic residential quarter and a
characteristic market place.
The recent creation of a non-governmental association, Pro
Cidade de Goiás Patrimonio Mundial, which has the
objectives of raising awareness and involving the population,
is worth noting. Another association, NATIVA, focuses on
the protection of the natural environment.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The historic town of Goiás has preserved its urban fabric
reasonably well. The public buildings are in good condition.
However, about 30% of the private houses are considered in
poor condition, while the rest are in good or normal
condition.
The town is characterized by the harmony of its architecture,
due to the proportions and types of buildings. At the same
time, the history of construction can be read in the variation
of styles from the classical 18th century buildings to the
eclectic architecture of the 19th century.
The municipality has an active role in promoting the
conservation and rehabilitation of historic structures. Such
programmes are undertaken in partnership with various
institutions and organizations. The projects include
restoration of the Museum of Sacred Art of Boa Morte
(1997), the Cathedral of Santana (1998), and the church of
Santa Barbara (1999), burial of electric poles and wiring,
cleaning up of the Rio Vermelho, protection of the municipal
archives, undertaking a university research programme on
The zone proposed for inscription consists essentially of the
zone listed and protected by IPHAN in 1978. To this have
been added some typical 19th century streets, which are
considered to be important for appreciating the history of the
town. IPHAN has already initiated the process for including
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developments and could be considered complementary to the
town of Diamantina, already inscribed on the List.
cultural heritage, promotion of educational programmes
regarding heritage, and establishment of the association ProCidade de Goiás. IPHAN has established a local office in
Goiás to provide administrative and technical assistance in
restoration works.
The urban layout of Goiás is an example of an organically
developed colonial town, adapted to the conditions of the
site. The architecture of public and private buildings is
unpretentious, plain, and severe in character, and the whole
is harmonious, resulting also from the continuity of a
coherent use of local materials and vernacular techniques, as
interpreted by local craftsmen. It is further recognized that
the community of Goiás has maintained many traditional and
cultural issues that have been lost elsewhere in the country,
and the site has not been negatively affected by tourism. The
whole site is embedded in an attractive river valley.
The main pressures affecting the property come mainly from
the current development trends. In this regard, the
candidature of the historic area to the World Heritage List
has been beneficial in accelerating the decision-making
process at the local level. The current level of tourism is
relatively modest. However, measures are being taken to
improve the reception of visitors and the presentation of
historic sites. No natural hazards are indicated.
The main qualities of Goiás, its exceptionality and its
outstanding universal value, lie less in its artistic aspects and
rather more in its being a genuine and rare document of the
way in which the explorers of the territory, in an isolated
situation, adapted models of planning and construction to the
realities of a tropical region, borrowing from the indigenous
people the use of local materials and techniques.
Authenticity and integrity
Goiás went through a long period of stagnation from the 19th
century until recent times. Its townscape has therefore not
been subject to any major changes in modern times, except
perhaps for the reconstruction of the church of Rosario in
Gothic Revival style in 1933. Otherwise, Goiás is a good
example of the appearance of the mining town of the 18th
and 19th centuries, including its natural environment, which
has remained intact. The few constructions that have taken
place since the 19th century have been made using for the
most part traditional techniques and building materials, or
their size and architectural expression do not jeopardize the
integrity of the place.
Comparative analysis
The nomination dossier compares Goiás with two types of
Brazilian town:
1. Colonial towns, such as those stemming from the
exploitation of gold or diamonds (Ouro Preto or
Diamantina): mining towns in mountainous areas were
generally constructed without following regular plans,
adapting themselves to the physical sites. In the case of
Goiás, the river was the basis for the first urban layout
and played a significant role in its form, dividing it in
two parts, which is somewhat exceptional in Latin
America.
Goiás and its hinterland bear a rich cultural tradition that
includes not only architecture and construction techniques,
but also music, poetry, gastronomy, and popular events.
Many of these traditions are still alive and form a substantial
part of the cultural identity of Goiás. The historic centre has
an important meaning for the local community, not only on
the account of its urban and architectural values, but also for
its rich social and cultural life. The relatively modest
development of tourism reinforces the genuineness and
authenticity of these cultural manifestations.
2. Towns related to the occupation of central Brazil (Goiás,
Guinea, and Brasilia): Goiás is the first of these, and
differs substantially in its urban and architectural
features from the others, including Ouro Preto
(inscribed 1980), Serro, and Diamantina (inscribed
1999).
As a conclusion, the historic town of Goiás is considered to
have well preserved its historical authenticity and its
integrity, including the continuation of local traditions.
The austere architecture of Goiás is characterized by the use
of vernacular, adobe, taipa, and pau-a-pique techniques,
which have continued over time, giving the town its
particular harmony. It also represents the original conditions
of such mining towns in an authentic and less altered state
than any other.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
The nomination of Goiás was first proposed in 2000, and an
ICOMOS expert mission visited the site in January 2000.
ICOMOS also consulted its International Scientific
Committee on Historic Towns and Villages, CIVVIH. The
nomination was deferred by the Bureau, requesting the State
Party to verify the justification of the outstanding universal
value and the definition of the nominated area. The State
Party has now provided additional information regarding the
construction techniques of the place, as well as its
comparison with sites already inscribed on the World
Heritage List.
The special significance of Goiás is based on its being one of
the key references in the process of the colonization of the
Brazilian inland, which as whole deferred from the rest of
Latin America due to its Portuguese connection. This process
has already been documented through the inscription of
Ouro Preto (inscribed 1980: criteria i, iii), Diamantina (1999:
ii, iv), and the Sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Congonhas (1985:
i, iv) in the interior, and Olinda (1982: ii, iv) and São Luis
(1997: iii, iv, v) on the coast.
The closest comparison to Goiás probably comes from
Diamantina and Ouro Preto, both related to the exploration
of the rich resources of Brazil, the former of diamonds, the
latter of gold. The two have some similarity to Goiás in their
organic development, but differ in terms of architecture.
Ouro Preto is characterized by its very fine Baroque
ensembles; Diamantina has fairly formal qualities in its
Qualities
ICOMOS recognizes that Goiás bears important witness to
the occupation and colonization of central Brazil. It can also
be seen in the context of mining towns. The historic town of
Goiás represents an authentic testimony to such
11
buildings, even though integrating with local craftsmanship.
Goiás was born as a truly vernacular settlement and has
remained as such. It differs from the other two in being more
austere and more local in character and workmanship.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
ICOMOS recommends that particular attention be given to
the control of future tourism developments, mitigating any
changes that might be introduced to the area and the single
properties.
Brief description
Goiás testifies to the occupation and colonization of the
lands of central Brazil in the 18th and 19th centuries. The
urban layout is an example of an organic mining town,
adapted to the conditions of the site. The architecture of the
public and private buildings is modest in form, but the whole
is harmonious, resulting also from the coherent use of local
materials and vernacular techniques.
Recommendation
Recognizing the additional information provided by the State
Party, regarding the outstanding universal value of Goiás,
ICOMOS recommends that this property be inscribed on the
World Heritage List on the basis of criteria ii and iv.
The historic town of Goiás constitutes an important
testimony of the occupation and colonization of central
Brazil. The urban layout of Goiás is an example of an
organically developed colonial town, adapted to the
conditions of the site. The architecture is plain and
severe in character, and the whole is harmonious,
resulting also from continuity in the coherent use of local
materials and vernacular techniques, as interpreted by
local craftsmen. The site has retained its remarkable
setting intact.
ICOMOS, March 2001
12
and the valley (Lower Town) were soon joined, forming an
ensemble with a remarkable canal system that has merited
the appellation of “Little Venice” by the romantics. There is
no doubt that it is the most beautiful example of a trade town
in the western Europe, which still presents the original
locations of its functions. The position of the town favoured
the development of a stopover along the commercial routes
running from south-west to north-east. In 1137 and 1164
Count Henry the Liberal of Champagne conferred the
privilege of holding fairs to Provins. Safe conducts granted
by the Counts made it possible for trade connections to
develop between Europe and the Orient.
Provins (France)
No 873
Identification
Nomination
Provins, town of medieval fairs
Location
Région Ile-de-France, Département de la
Seine-et-Marne
State Party
France
Date
30 June 2000
Today, Provins is a veritable conservatory of medieval
military, religious, and civic architecture. Its fortifications are
a dictionary of military architecture with a diversity of
creative solutions. The town has a number of characteristic
constructions, such as the cellars of the Upper Town and the
vaulted ground floors of the Lower Town, used as storage for
the fairs. The churches that were saved from the ravages of
the Revolution offer interesting records of the history of
architecture. A cultural centre with considerable economic
and commercial weight, Provins was at the root of banking
development and monetary policies, a clearing house for
world economy at the time. A city of fairs, its cloth trade was
well known. The theologian Abélard (1079–1142) taught
there, and Count Thibault IV (1222–53) was one of the
greatest troubadours of his time. Provins is also associated
with the name of a rose, brought from Jericho during the
Crusades, which had an enormous success due to its medical
virtues.
Justification by State Party
The town of Provins was built on a site well suited for
defence, selected by the Counts of Champagne for the
establishment of a political and military stronghold soon to
become a nerve centre of European trade. An important
financial, industrial, and intellectual centre, Provins
contributed to the development of culture and trade over
two centuries; today it is an exceptionally well preserved
example of a west European trading town. Its medieval
atmosphere is due not only to an exceptional concentration
of ancient buildings but also to many details, such as the
paving, old wells, and even the rose, the symbol of
Provins. In the Lower Town, the mills, the wash basins,
and the tanneries document some of the principal
activities. There are gardens scattered throughout the town
and five farms are still in use today.
The site of Provins, a town of medieval fairs within the early
13th century enclosure, is proposed for inscription on the
World Heritage List on the basis of criteria ii, iii, and iv:
ii The site bears witness to a considerable exchange of
economic, commercial, and cultural influences during
the period from the 11th to 13th centuries, and to the
planning of the town in this period, involving drainage of
marshland, creation of a system of water management,
and building of the fortified enclosure.
iii The site is exceptional and even unique testimony to
medieval civilization, rediscovering almost intact the
locations of the most significant fairs in Europe. It is
directly associated with the economic development of
Christianity in the Middle Ages, which has been of
outstanding universal significance for the progress of
exchange and of civilization.
Provins has preserved a considerable number of civic and
religious buildings, and it retains most of its medieval town
plan. The original ramparts extend over 1.5km, and the walls
of the Upper Town are intact. The fortifications of the Lower
Town are clearly traceable, though replaced by boulevards
starting in the 18th century. The principal axes of
communication, along the trade routes of Champagne, are
still in place. Some of the gardens between the Bourg and the
ramparts have been divided into plots over the past century,
but many still exist.
iv The site is a well known example of a type of
construction, especially noteworthy for its cellars and
vaulted ground floors, which exemplies a significant
period in human history, the beginning of economic
trade in Europe.
Because of economic stagnation from the 14th to the 19th
centuries, the town underwent no major development.
However, instead of becoming a museum town, it was
adapted to modern life and has integrated new residences
remarkably well without modifying the urban layout. At the
same time, Provins continues to live and function within its
medieval perimeter, relating to a period when it was the third
largest city in France, after Paris and Rouen.
As a historic town, and located in an exceptional natural
setting, the site has well preserved the stratigraphy of its
evolution, demonstrating the spatial organizations and
the characteristic structural systems of the succeeding
phases of its history.
Although sited curiously outside the earlier major GalloRoman routes, the objective was to derive every benefit from
its location in the new communication artery through central
France. The bipolar settlements of the Châtel (Upper Town)
13
It is important to distinguish between a market and a fair.
A market could be a yearly event, or even a continuous
activity, where the purpose was to sell goods directly to
consumers. A fair, on the other hand, indicated an activity
that was aimed at merchants and dealers, with an
international character. It was generally composed of three
parts: first the presentation and study of merchandise by
potential customers, then negotiation and acquisition, and
finally legal verification of the sales that had taken place.
The fair required long-distance transport systems and
special conditions to guarantee safety and security. Fairs
were also accompanied by the development of a multitude
of other activities, which together gave the incentive and
motivation for the development of a particular type of
urban fabric. The historic town of Provins, therefore, can
be seen as a materialization of a built framework for the
fairs.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.
History and Description
History
In the Gallo-Roman period, the site of present-day Provins
was related to two important regional axes: the route from
Soissons to Troyes toward the north, and the route to Sens
toward south-west. These two routes, together with the
valley of Seine, form an important communication artery
enclosing the rocky spur of the early settlement. The origin
of the name Provins is uncertain, but could be an
abbreviation of Probus Vinum. The earliest document related
to Provins is an ordnance by Charlemagne of 802 which
indicates that the site was already an established fort. In 983
the site became part of the lands of the powerful Counts of
Champagne, one of the great feudal domains in France, and a
favoured place of residence of the Counts.
The Counts of Champagne starting losing interest in the
region on assuming the crown of Navarre in 1234. In 1284,
with the marriage of Philip the Fair (Philippe IV le Bel) to
Jeanne of Navarre, Champagne (and with it Provins) became
part of the royal domain. The town was in English hands
during the 15th century, but was finally to become French at
the end of the Hundred Years’ War. Provins was not to be
affected to any marked extent by the Industrial Revolution. It
has survived to the present day as a small market town, and
so has escaped the demolitions and reconstructions that other
towns have undergone, allowing it to conserve its medieval
form.
Because of its political and commercial importance, the
castle (Châtel) on the high ground was fortified in the 11th
and 12th centuries. The original enclosure (castrum) was
small, including, in addition to the castle, the Collegiate
Church of Saint-Quiriace and the Palace of the Counts.
However, the settlement grew up rapidly outside the
fortifications and this, too, was encircled by a defensive
wooden wall in the late 12th century. A third set of
fortifications, this time in stone, was added in the first half of
the 13th century, to protect the houses and stalls erected for
the great fairs in the town outside the earlier walls, down in
the river valley.
Description
The town developed to the south of the Brie chalk plateau, in
a gently hilly region at the confluence of the valleys of the
Voulzie and the Durteint. It consists of the Upper Town
(Ville Haute, known as the Châtel until the Revolution),
which grew up on a spur of the Brie plateau, and the Lower
Town (Ville Basse, pre-Revolutionary Val), lying further to
the east at the confluence of two rivers. These two parts
together form the present nomination. The area totals 1472ha
and its population is now c 12,000, having been estimated c
10,000 (or even more) in the Middle Ages.
Provins is thus one of the four towns (together with Troyes,
Lagny, and Bar-sur-Aube) where medieval fairs were held
in the reign of the Counts of Champagne, developing here
from the 11th to the 14th century. Of the four towns,
Provins is the only one to retain its original medieval
fabric; the others have been substantially altered. The
importance of the fairs in Champagne is at the beginning
of the process. Their location in central France was along
the favoured route to the north. Their political and
economic ambitions decided the development by the
Counts of Champagne of a system of fairs that were
regularly programmed over a yearly cycle, avoiding
overlaps and competition. The fairs led to merchants
converging here from all over Europe and from the Orient.
They became important centres of banking; the Provins
denier was one of the few currencies accepted widely
throughout the continent of Europe. The towns also became
centres of intellectual and artistic life, and Abélard and
Chrétien de Troyes are known to have spent time in Provins.
The fairs continued from 1120 till 1320, when the
economic and political situation changed, and commercial
contacts developed elsewhere, particularly with the
Hanseatic League, Flanders, and Italy. The function of
Provins was thus reduced to a local context.
The Upper Town is characterized by the small houses built in
stone and timber-framed construction and by green areas and
gardens. There are two large buildings, the so-called Tour de
César (Caesar's Tower) and the Romanesque-Gothic church
of Saint-Quiriace. Caesar's Tower, or the Big Tower, is a
stone structure, dating initially from the 12th century, which
consists of three large spaces one above the other, covered
with a conical roof from the 17th century. The name of
Caesar refers to a romantic association with ancient Rome.
Construction of the church of Saint-Quiriace began with a
choir of impressive size in the 12th century and went on until
the decline of Provins in 1320 up to the crossing of the nave
and two bays beyond. The vaults above the crossing were
damaged in a fire in the 17th century and were replaced with
a dome.
The centre of the town was the old market square,
surrounded by houses that developed in relation to the fairs,
each with large vaulted underground storage spaces. The
12th century ramparts still surrounding the Upper Town on
three sides have been relatively well preserved, while the
enclosure of the Lower Town was dismantled in the 19th
century. The existing walls include two gates (Porte SaintJean and Porte de Jouy), twenty bastions whose ground-
Provins is fortunate in having preserved good
documentation dating from the 12th century onwards,
which has helped to throw light on the entire process of
development and its consequences.
14
several levels, and were later also used for storage of wine,
etc. The entire town developed in relation to the fairs,
either directly serving the fair functions* or being
indirectly related as an outcome.
plans are variously circular, square, and polygonal, and other
features.
In the area of the Lower Town there were at first religious
ensembles, including the churches of Saint-Ayoul (started
in the 11th century) and Sainte-Croix (started in the 12th
century). About 60% of the land was the property of the
religious orders. When the town was extended into the
valley, the orders formed lots, building and selling houses,
following a typology that corresponded to the needs of the
fairs. Since the land did not allow underground spaces, the
storage areas were built above ground, using a similar
vaulted construction to that in the Upper Town. The
occupation and building activities also necessitated the
canalization and drainage of the land, and this developed
into a sophisticated water management system.
Management and Protection
Legal status
Fifty-four historic buildings in the nominated area of Provins
(plus a zone of 500m around each) are protected under the
provisions of the French antiquities legislation (1913 Law on
the protection of buildings, movable objects and
archaeological remains; 1930 Protection of natural
monuments and sites). Twelve out of these are identified as
Monuments classés and 41 are included on the list of
Monuments inscrits. Ministerial authorization is required for
any form of intervention, and the works are supervised by the
Architecte-en-chef or the Architecte des batiments de France.
The private buildings may be divided into two groups: those
with multiple functions and those with solely commercial
functions.
The multiple-function buildings are for the most part the
private residences of merchants, the lower floors of which
served as shops and stores. All date to the 12th and 13th
centuries; some are built entirely in stone and other have
timber-framed structures above lower stone courses. They
are located either around the perimeter of the town, inside
the defences, or around the Place du Châtel. This was the
commercial heart of the town in which the fairs were held
twice a year, in May and at Martinmas (11 November);
another fair was held in the Lower Town in September. The
latter was later transformed into a yearly market, in order to
avoid overlap with other fairs in the region.
The protection of individual properties is reinforced by the
1983 Law on Protection Zones for the Protection of the
Architectural and Urban Heritage (ZPPAUP) and the 1962
Law on Protected Sectors (Secteurs sauvegardés). Relevant
areas of the town of Provins are covered by these two
statutes; the Lower Town was identified as a zone of
ZPPAUP in February 2001. The municipality has applied to
be accepted in the programme of Villes et Pays d’Art et
d’Histoire, which gives benefits particularly related to the
presentation of the site. The intention is also to propose the
historic area as a Secteur sauvegardé, which would provide
instruments for more detailed conservation management, as
well as facilitating resources for conservation work.
Commercial buildings such as the Tithe Barn (Grange aux
Dîmes) are more monumental structures, with stores and
counting-houses on several floors. A characteristic of all the
ancient buildings in Provins, whether for mixed or for
commercial use, is their system of vaulted cellars, dating
from the 12th to the 14th centuries. These are either entirely
underground (Upper Town) or partly built up above ground
(Lower Town), and all open out to the street by means of a
large door to which access is gained by a wide stone
staircase. In cases where the surface area is large there are
internal lines of pillars dividing the spaces into two or three
bays.
Management
Ownership of the properties included within the nominated
area is shared among regional and communal authorities and
private individuals and institutions. Responsibility for
ensuring the proper implementation of the different forms of
statutory protection is vested in the Ministry of Culture. The
direct functions are exercised by the Regional Director for
Cultural Affairs (DRAC) for the Île-de-France, through the
Regional Conservator for Historic Monuments. Individual
proprietors are responsible for the maintenance of protected
properties, all work being supervised by an Architecte des
Bâtiments de France.
The oldest building in the town is probably the 12th century
Maison Romane (now the Museum), constructed in coursed
dressed stone. Its location in the former Jewish quarter
suggests that it may originally have been a rabbinical school
or even a synagogue. Its large cellars, separated by semicircular arches, were probably originally vaulted.
The nominated area of the Upper and Lower Towns and their
immediate surroundings are part of an extensive ZPPAUP
zone (designated in 1990 and 2001 respectively), within
which there is strict control over development.
Provins had had a series of plans since the 1960s, designed
to protect and enhance its medieval centre. The 1984 Plan
d’occupation des sols was revised in 1990 and again in
1996. There is also a series of programmes directed to
individual monuments or for special aspects of protection,
such as cultural tourism, control of advertisements, and
pedestrianization.
With the development of the fairs, there also grew various
types of activities related to the crafts and elaboration of
the merchandise, particularly woollen drapery, tanning,
dyeing, and weaving. There was need for extended outdoor
spaces to be able to stretch out the fabric for drying
(tiroirs), and there were water mills on the canals required
for the production of flour. The Lower Town of Provins is
in particular testimony to the development of various
handicrafts into an industrial process; the locations of this
development still exist. Some of the canals have been
covered, but most still remain as in the Middle Ages. There
are three areas in the slopes of the plateau where clay was
extracted for the process of removing grease from wool.
These intricate underground galleries were quarried at
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
Restoration projects began in Provins in the mid 19th
century at the Collegiate Church and the Tour César, and the
15
waterways, and other features all reflect the processes
related to or generated by the fairs.
ramparts were listed in 1865. It is noted that the historical
value of Provins had already been recognized in the previous
centuries, resulting in its retaining its historical integrity
fairly well intact. The town suffered somewhat during the
Hundred Years War in the 14th and 15th centuries, when the
farms in the surrounding countryside were destroyed, as well
as during the French Revolution, when the town lost several
of its religious ensembles (including nine churches). There
was no major restoration in the 19th century, unlike many
other major sites in France. However, the fortifications of the
Lower Town were replaced with boulevards, and some green
areas and gardens were built over. Since the 1950s there has
been work on different components of the town’s medieval
heritage, including recent consolidation and reinforcement of
the ramparts of the Upper Town.
Comparative analysis
The Champagne fairs started developing in four cities
(Provins, Troyes, Lagny, Bar-sur-Aube) from the 11th and
early 12th century. Of these four cities, Provins is the only
one to have preserved its medieval fabric intact. It had fairs
from at least as early as 1120, as confirmed by original
charters dating 1137 and 1164.
The Hanseatic League developed from the early 13th
century, starting with German merchants who had settled
in Gotland (at Visby, inscribed on the World Heritage List
in 1995: criteria iv, v). From 1241 the leadership was
passed to Lübeck (1987: iv), and the League gradually
developed into a major association of "free cities" situated
in present-day Germany, the Baltic States, England,
Poland, and Russia. Fairs were established in Bruges
(2000: ii, iv, vi) in 1200, and its golden era extended from
the 14th to 15th centuries. Another fair, based on the
Champagne model, developed outside the Hansa in
Frankfurt-am-Main in 1240. There were contacts between
the cities of the Hansa and those of Champagne. Fairs also
developed in Northern Italy (Genoa, Siena), the first being
held in 1179.
Authenticity and integrity
Because of the decline in its economy, but also owing to
the continuity of its functions, Provins has survived fairly
well intact. Some destruction took place during the
Hundred Years War in the 14th and 15th centuries, as well
as during the French Revolution, but this was fortunately
relatively limited. At the present, Provins is a normal
country town with an active population, associated with
agriculture and related activities. The medieval town plan
has been well preserved, as well as a large part of the
historic buildings, the canals, and the water management
system. About 150 historic houses have retained their
medieval vaulted storage spaces. Though there have been
minor changes since the 17th century, the town has
preserved its historic integrity and the authenticity of the
places related to the different functions of the fairs. The
relationship of the Upper Town with the plains of the high
plateau have also been preserved intact. Some new
buildings in the Lower Town are unpretentious in
respecting the overall patterns and volumes; they integrate
well with the historic building stock.
In this context, the fairs of Champagne anticipated the
other developments, often providing a model and
reference, and Provins represents the only remaining
testimony of this early development.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
ICOMOS recognizes the degree of protection implemented
so far in the historic town of Provins and its surroundings.
Nevertheless, and in accordance with the intention of the
authorities, ICOMOS recommends that the nominated core
area should be designated as a Secteur sauvegardé, in order
to guarantee control of the urban fabric as a whole,
particularly considering the vulnerability of this type of
heritage in view of any major development and consequent
transformation in the future.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
Provins was first proposed to the World Heritage List as
"The medieval town of Provins" in 1997. Following the
ICOMOS evaluation, the State Party withdrew the
nomination. In the present proposal, the nomination has been
revised completely. An ICOMOS expert mission visited the
site in March 2001.
Brief description
The fortified medieval town of Provins is situated in the
former territory of the powerful Counts of Champagne. It is
testimony of early developments in the organization of
international trading fairs and the wool industry. Provins has
well preserved its urban structure, which was built
specifically as a function of the fairs and related activities.
Qualities
Provins provides authentic testimony of an important and
early economic development in central Europe related to
fairs. Differing from markets, medieval fairs became an
international institution generating communication and
contacts with distant countries, the Mediterranean, the
Orient, and northern Europe. In this process, the Counts of
Champagne, because of their political and economic
ambitions, were in a key position; they initiated the
institution of fairs in Champagne, which were later
continued and imitated elsewhere. Many fundamental
elements of the fairs were first developed in Champagne,
the initiator of the process. Provins is the best preserved
example in Champagne, and it was built as a function of
the fairs. The typology of the houses, the fortifications, the
Recommendation
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on
the basis of criteria ii and iv:
The historic fortified town of Provins is an outstanding
and authentic example of a medieval fairs town in the
territories of the Counts of Champagne. It represents an
important interchange of human values which led to the
early developments of international fairs in central
Europe. The institution of fairs guaranteed the protection
of long-distance transport of merchandise between
Europe and the Orient, and led to the development of
16
activities such as banking and exchange, tanning, dyeing
and weaving of textiles, etc, through which handicrafts
evolved into an industrial process. The existing medieval
urban layout and houses of Provins represent an
outstanding example of an architectural ensemble
specifically built to fulfil such functions, including
merchants’ houses, storage spaces, mills, water
management systems, open spaces for treatment of
textiles, farmhouses, and religious ensembles.
Recognition has also been given to the town for its well
preserved defence systems, built for the protection of the
fairs.
ICOMOS, March 2001
17
The Vardzia-Khertvisi Historic Area has preserved one of
the best examples of a particular type of church building, that
with two aisles (Zeda Vardzia, 11th century). This is a local
variation of the three-aisled basilica imported along with
Christianity. Some examples exist in other countries, but the
origin is traceable only in Georgia. Because of its unique
landscape, the area has important natural values: a narrow
gorge of volcanic origin with various types of lava reaching
the riverbed. Diverse types of buildings and rock-cut
complexes are organically embodied in the canyon-like
gorge of the River Mtkvari. Relatively open, wide portions of
the gorge are covered with artificially arranged terraces.
Human intervention does not violate the scale of the
landscape.
Criterion iv
Vardzia-Khertvisi (Georgia)
No 1019
Identification
Nomination
Vardzia-Khertvisi Historical Area
Location
Samtskhe-Javakheti Region, Aspindza
District
State Party
Georgia
Date
9 December 1999
The nominated area has preserved medieval rock-cut
complexes of traditional vernacular dwellings and village
sites, testifying to the high level of living and building
activity. Everyday life and subsidiary and defensive aspects
are well thought out in diverse types of structures,
functionally connected with one another. Mention should be
made of a whole system of underground hiding places,
providing shelter for the population in case of invasion.
Noteworthy are also the examples of terrace farming, a
developed form of intensive agriculture, preserved until the
present day.
Criterion v
Justification by State Party
Vardzia-Khertvisi belongs to the region (Javakheti) from
where Christianity was introduced to Georgia. In the 4th
century, St Nino, the Apostolic Saint of Georgia, crossed
Javakheti by foot on her way to the capital of Kartli. In the
same period, Christianity was declared the state religion, and
a bishop was invited from Greece to erect here one of the
first Christian churches in Georgia. The Vardzia-Khertvisi
route became the main road of special significance at the turn
of the 12th and 13th centuries. Georgia had then an active
foreign policy, which also influenced the foundation of the
royal monastery in Vardzia. Building of this monastery is
directly connected with the activity of King George III
(1156–84) of Georgia and his daughter Queen Tamar (1184–
1213), who continued the construction, which makes the site
even more precious, and associated with legends. This period
is called "Tamar’s Period," and it is of great political and
cultural significance. It is also associated with the life of the
great Georgian poet, Shota Rustaveli, whose immortal poem
Knight in the Panther’s Skin reflects the humanist ideals that
are characteristic of Georgian culture. The verses of this
poem written in ink on the façade of the rock-cut church in
Vahanis Kvabebi monastery, dating from 15th–16th century,
are the earliest written record of the text of the poem.
Criterion vi
The Vardzia-Khertvisi Historic Area, in a vast river basin, is
the oldest historical-geographical and administrative unit in
Georgia, traceable back to prehistoric times, which retained
and heightened its significance through the Middle Ages.
The area comprises monuments, groups of buildings, and
sites located in one historical-geographical region and
connected with one another by their common evolution.
They are considered to be an integrated unity resulting from
an uninterrupted historical process. Accordingly, the site
meets the following criteria for inscription on the World
Heritage List.
A general characteristic trait of Georgian culture is its
openness towards the outside world. In the course of its ageold history Georgia practised active contacts with countries
of diverse cultural background. These links developed with
the cultural centres of Asia Minor. Monasticism was initiated
by the Syrian Fathers in the 6th century; rock-cut
monasteries reflect two significant stages of this development
(8th–9th and 12th–13th centuries), making it possible to
have a complete picture from simple one-storey buildings to
multi-storey ensembles. The murals of the Vardzia rock-cut
monastery testify to contacts with the Christian Orient and
Byzantine world, but the influences were transformed in
accordance with local artistic traditions. The paintings in
secco technique also differ from the mixed techniques of the
Byzantine murals. Chronologically, Vardzia represents the
earliest brilliant murals of the turn of the 12th/13th centuries,
the first to introduce a new, decorative, and dynamic style in
Georgia.
Criterion ii
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site.
The Vardzia monastic complex bears evidence of the best
achievements and cultural traditions at the turn of the
12th/13th centuries, when Georgia was the most powerful
state in the Near East. Development of medieval Georgian
culture had reached its acme at that time; science,
literature, and art showed a vigorous upswing. This was the
epoch of humanism. Capital punishment was practised not
practised in Georgia at that time. Vardzia exercised a
strong influence, even outside Georgia.
Criterion iii
History and Description
History
Georgia was a single kingdom from the 4th century BCE
with Mtskheta as its capital. Christianity was introduced in
the country in the 4th century CE. Until the 7th century it
18
Apart from the monasteries, there are several individual
churches built by local feudal overlords: eg ZEDA VARDZIA
church (11th century) built by Liparit ruler (eristavteristavi),
ZEDA TMOGVI church (11th century) by Parsman
Chimchimelidze, TSUNDA church (12th–13th centuries) by
Ichkit Gurgenisdze.
was challenged by the Persian and Byzantine empires; it
was conquered by the Arabs in the 7th century and by the
Seljuk Turks in the 11th century. The Turks were expelled
in the early 12th century, when Georgia was again united
as a kingdom. It was destroyed by Mongol invaders in the
13th century, and was then under the Persians and the
Ottoman Empire until the 18th century.
The area has numerous villages and estates, such as the
village site of PIA, where viticulture, horticulture, apiculture,
and field-crop cultivation, as well as cattle breeding, were
carried out, demonstrating a strong economic basis. This
village had two churches from the 10th century.
The area of Varzdia-Khertvisi has had a significant role in
the history of the country. It formed part of the historical
province of Javakheti, first mentioned in Urartu inscriptions
(785 BCE) as having favourable climatic conditions and
being an important crossroads. The area was first governed
by Georgian kings. The first Christian churches were built
here as early as the 4th century CE. It was under the Arabs in
the 8th and 9th centuries, under the Persians in the 16th
century, and under Turkish rule from 1578 to 1829. The
nominated area includes the remains of a series of forts
(Tsunda, Tmoqvi, and Khertvisi), small monasteries and
churches (Margastani, Jolda, Gelsunda), and royal monastic
ensembles with their churches (Vanis Kvabebi and Vardzia),
as well as numerous villages.
Description
The Vardzia-Khertvisi area proposed for inscription is
situated in south-western Georgia, in the Aspindza district,
near the Turkish border. The nominated area is c 25km2 and
it has a buffer zone of some 90km2.
The site can be described as a cultural landscape with an
important archaeological character. The nominated area
extends over 18km from the medieval fortress of Khertvisi in
the north to the Vardzia rock-cut monastic ensemble in the
south, along the gently curving gorge of the River Mtkvari,
and is about 1–3km wide. The buffer zone surrounds the
core area on all sides, and extends several kilometres further
north and south along the river. The climate of the area is
conditioned by the absence of wind in the gorge, the warmth
and abundance of natural springs and warm mineral waters.
It has thus favoured the development of agricultural activities
since prehistoric times, especially viticulture and
horticulture.
TSUNDA is one of the early fortified settlements, established
on an ancient site. It had an administrative unit (saeristavo)
and a royal summer residence in the 3rd century BCE. After
Christianization in the 4th century, the king of Kartli invited
a bishop and builders from Greece to erect here one of the
first Christian churches of Georgia; an Episcopal see was
founded here in the 5th century.
The Arab invasions of the 8th and 9th centuries caused a
gradual decline of Tsunda, and the removal of the political
centre to the fortified city of TMOGVI. The site is mentioned
in historical sources from the 10th century onwards, and
controlled main roads leading to Georgia from Asia Minor.
Severely damaged by earthquakes (in 1089, 1283, and 1319),
it was restored several times. In 1578 the site was occupied
by Ottomans and returned to Georgians only in 1829. Today
it is in ruins.
The landscape is of strong visual nature with sublime rock
formations of volcanic origin, contrasting with the green
plains of the plateau above. The area is characterized by the
mixture of natural and human elements, contributing to an
effect of drama. The fortresses and churches integrate with
the rocky hills and mountains, emphasizing verticality but
maintaining great harmony and a feeling of grandeur.
Because of the rough soil conditions, agriculture only
became possible by building terraces that stretch along both
sides of the river. Closely linked with these terraces are the
numerous rock-cut monastic ensembles at different levels,
the churches, fortifications, and remains of villages.
The site of KHERTVISI fortress is associated with the name of
Alexander the Great. However, the existing construction
seems to date from the 10th century. It was renovated many
times in its history, and was in use until the 18th century.
Of the royal monasteries, the earliest cells of VANIS KVABEBI
date from the 8th century; the monastery was enlarged from
the 9th to 11th centuries. In 1089 its central part was
destroyed by an earthquake. It was rebuilt and enlarged in
the 12th century, and the monastic enclosure was restored in
1204. In 1283 it was again damaged by an earthquake, but
revived in the 14th and 15th centuries. From the 16th century
onwards it was subject to looting by invaders.
The KHERTVISI fortress is situated at the junction of two
rivers on the top of a high rock formation. It is one of the
best preserved forts in Georgia. The construction in
sandstone and volcanic granite includes a citadel at the
higher level and an enclosure (50–100m x 200m) built at a
lower level with a group of residential buildings. The citadel
has three towers of square plan and the remains of a church.
Near the fortress there is a village and fruit gardens.
The largest rock-cut monastery was the VARDZIA complex,
started by King George III (1156–84) and considerably
enlarged by his daughter, Queen Tamar (1184–1213). The
main church in the centre of the complex was painted in
1184–85, commissioned by Rati Surameli, a Kartli ruler
(eristavi). The rock-cut village of Ananauri (10th–11th
centuries) and its church with murals (13th–15th centuries)
were integrated into the complex. An earthquake damaged
the monastery in 1283, and it was renovated in the 13th and
14th centuries, including the erection of a porch and bell
tower. The complex was plundered by the Persians in 1551
and the service was only restored in 1861. Today the site is
in ruins, and includes a museum (1938).
About 2.5km to the south is the rock-cut settlement of
GELSUNDA, and the caves of Navardzievi across the river
higher up on the mountain. The settlement of PIA is situated
3km further south, with simple rock-cut dwellings and two
churches. The better preserved church of St Theodore is built
in well dressed stone and an inscription gives the date 995.
There are fragments of mural paintings, and a quotation from
the Gospel of St John in Asomtavruli script. This is the oldest
painted script in southern Georgia, dated to the late 10th to
11th centuries.
About 8km south of Khertvisi the gorge widens and there is
a little lake. This is the site of the ancient settlement of
19
Management
TSUNDA, which is believed to have been the centre of the
princedom in the 3rd century BCE, including the royal
summer residence and the Episcopal See. Nothing remains of
the fortified city, which declined around the 9th century, but
there are churches dating to the 12th–14th centuries. The
fortress of TMOGVI was built over a large rock formation, and
the church of Zeda Tmogvi is located at some distance to the
north. The church contains several inscriptions, and there are
two stone stelae from the 7th to 9th centuries. Further south
there are several cave complexes, including the VANIS
CHABEBI and the church of GAMOGMA CHACKARI.
The management of the nominated area is the responsibility
of the Vardzia Museum Reserve of Monuments of Art,
History ,and Architecture, and of the Main Board for
Protection and Utilization of Monuments of History and
Culture of Georgia.
Up to 1990, the issues of management were not causing any
problems, but since then the social, political, and economic
changes in the country have considerably reduced the
resources. There is also a serious lack of professional skills
required for the tasks. This has caused a certain stagnation in
activities.
The largest monastic complex is that of VARDZIA GRAND
MONASTERY, which is cut in the middle of a steep rock,
stretching over a length of some 500m, and comprising more
than 600 compartments, including fifteen churches. The
construction dates mainly from the 12th–13th centuries. The
village of Ananauri and its church are also part of the
complex. The caves of Vardzia are arranged in tiers, ranging
from five to thirteen, connected one to another through holes
and tunnels. The front of the caves has collapsed. Originally,
there were roofed corridors arranged along the tiers. The
eastern part of Vardzia has the main church of the monastery,
a spring, "Tamar’s Room," meeting hall (sadarbazo),
reception hall (salkhino), pharmacy, wine cellars, and a
secret tunnel. The church is entirely covered with mural
paintings that date from 1184–85, including portraits of the
royal family. These paintings are considered of high artistic
merit, recognized as masterpieces of medieval painting.
There are, however, some fund-raising initiatives, including
the joint programme of the World Bank and the Georgian
Government. Financial assistance from the Dutch
Government assisted a conservation project for the Vardzia
complex in 1998. The project for the restoration of the
Khertvisi fortress has been prepared by the Main Board for
Protection of Monuments, and a major part of the project has
already been implemented.
The strategy for tourism development and management has
been prepared by the Centre for Architectural Heritage
Conservation (1999), and the Fund for Preservation of
Cultural Heritage of Georgia is working to raise the
necessary funds for implementation.
In addition to the medieval structures and remains, the gorge
has various archaeological sites dating to prehistoric era,
even to 4th or 3rd millennium BCE. There are burial sites
particularly in the area of the former settlement of Tsunda,
dating from the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
Human habitation in the area of Vardzia-Khertvisi is of
ancient origin, but the existing remains date mainly from the
Middle Ages. Having undergone a series of destructions, the
remains have become a part of a rich cultural landscape with
its cultivation, fortresses, and churches. There have been
some initiatives for the consolidation and restoration of the
Vardzia caves, which had suffered from recent collapses.
There have also been some limited restorations in the various
churches and fortresses.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The nominated area forms part of the Vardzia State Museum
Reserve of Monuments of Art, History, and Architecture. It
comprises 79 sites, out of which 46 are defined as
architectural, 12 archaeological, and 21 monumental art.
Based on the Law of Protection of Cultural Heritage of
Georgia (25 June 1999), the properties within the reserve are
in state ownership. The nominated area also comprises seven
villages with arable land. Based on the Law on Land
Ownership (24.11.1998), arable land is given in private
ownership to the users.
Authenticity and integrity
The nominated property may be considered to fulfil the test
of authenticity and integrity seen as a historical and cultural
landscape and considering that it has been conditioned by
various factors. The main roads that used to go through this
area have been located elsewhere since the 19th century. In
the Soviet period the region was a frontier area, and therefore
only accessible with special permission. Traditional farming
has continued there, contributing to the maintenance of its
character.
The Vardzia Museum Reserve was founded on the basis of
Decree No 319, 21.04.1981 of the Council of Ministers of
Georgian SSR, and was adopted in 1985 (Decree No 1204).
This document contains the conservation and management
plans for the site, as well as general regulations for its
protection. The latest version of the statutes of the Reserve
defines the aim, objectives, organisational structure,
accountability, financial resources, relation with the state
budget, and regulations for site protection.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission will visit the site in April 2001
after this evaluation had to be sent for press.
At the present, there is a process to confer the status of
Protected Natural Site on the Vardzia Museum Reserve. This
means a strict protection zone regulated within the limits of
the Protected Natural Site, which will comprise the
nominated area.
Qualities
Georgian culture has always been characterized by its
openness and its ability to integrate influences from different
cultures. The nominated area is a cultural landscape in the
gorge of the Mtkvari River, which has a rich variety of
20
ancient sites and monuments starting from prehistoric times
and is closely associated with significant stages of the history
of the Georgian kingdom in the different phases of
Christianity in this region.
Recommendation and statement of significance
Subject to a favourable expert mission report, ICOMOS
recommends that this property be inscribed on the World
Heritage List on the basis of criteria ii, iii, iv, and v:
The Mtkvari River basin testifies to long interaction between
man and nature, expressed in the series of terraces built along
both sides of the river, which document continuous
cultivation of the area from the ancient times to the present
day, favoured by a warm climate and good water sources.
The Vardzia-Khertvisi historical area has strong
historical associations, ranging from prehistory to the
beginnings of Christianity in the 4th century, and the
development of monasticism in the 8th–9th and the
12th–13th centuries. The area contains some of the
earliest prototypes of the later churches in the region.
The area also contains the remains of the first capitals of
the Georgian kings, as well as a series of fortresses, such
as Khertvisi, and remains of villages Mild climatic
conditions have attracted settlements from ancient times,
and the interaction between man and nature is attested by
the cultivation terraces that are still in use.
The area has some of the first Christian churches set up in
Georgia as early as the 4th century, soon after Constantine
the Great had declared Christianity to be the state religion in
Rome. The rock-cut monasteries of the area document two
significant stages of the evolution of monasticism, the 8th–
9th and the 12th–13th centuries, providing a complete
picture ranging from simple to complex ensembles. Of
particular interest is the period from the 12th to the 13th
centuries, when the Georgia was liberated from Seljuk
dominion and revived as an independent kingdom.
The mural paintings of the Vardzia rock-cut monastery
testify to contacts with the Christian Orient and the
Byzantine world, but applied using local artistic traditions.
The paintings also differ from the mixed techniques of
Byzantine murals. Chronologically, Vardzia represents the
earliest murals of the 12th/13th centuries, introducing a new,
decorative, and dynamic style in Georgia, and representing
the humanism of the period.
ICOMOS, March 2001
Comparative analysis
In terms of its constructions and the rock-cut ensembles, the
Vardzia-Khertvisi area may be compared with other sites of
the Near East and the Mediterranean area. The most relevant
of these are Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of
Cappadocia (inscribed on the List 1985: cultural criteria i, iii,
v), Petra (1985: i, iii, iv), and I Sassi di Matera (1993: iii, iv,
v).
The significance of this area is in its close association with
the development of Christianity and monasticism, and it
represents a wide range of early examples, from simple to
more complex, documenting the evolution of such
architecture and ensembles. The area has early examples of
the types of churches that later became characteristic, as well
as having preserved the earliest mural paintings representing
a new humanism of Georgia in the 12th and 13th century.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
Comments will be eventually formulated on the basis of the
ICOMOS evaluation mission to be undertaken in April 2001.
Brief description
The Vardzia-Khertvisi historical area in Georgia is a cultural
landscape in the gorge of the River Mtkvari, which has
strong historical associations, ranging from prehistory to the
beginnings of Christianity in the 4th century, and the
development of monasticism in the 8th–9th and the 12th–
13th centuries. The site contains remains of ancient rock-cut
medieval monastic ensembles such as Vardzia, fortresses
such as Khertvisi, churches, and villages. The landscape
merges the architectural remains with terraced fields and
sublime rock formations.
21
serious risk of losing its identity owing to major changes
threatening its historic district.
Criterion v
Tbilisi (Georgia)
The fertile cultural traditions and the continuously advancing
position of the capital city encouraged creative processes
providing many brilliant artists with equal opportunities.
Tbilisi was praised in the songs and verses of poets and
witnessed the debut or crucial moments in the career of
famous singers (Theodore Shalyapin), poets (Alexandre
Griboedov), writers (Boris Pasternak, George Gurijiev), and
painters (Niko Pirosmanashvili). The city flourished
especially in the 19th century with its workshops and
markets, bathhouses and gardens. Tbilisi is directly linked
with the life and creative activity of Georgian Romanticism,
associated with Alexander Chavchavadze, Gregory
Orbeliani, and Nikoloz Baratashvili, and literature with Ilia
Chavchavadze and Akaki Tsereteli. It was the inspiration of
avant-garde Georgian poets, the Tsisperkantselebi group, and
Galaktion Tabidze, symbol of modern Georgian poetry, as
well as an attraction to many foreign painters and poets.
Criterion vi
No 1020
Identification
Nomination
Tbilisi Historic District
Location
Region Kartli, Central Georgia
State Party
Georgia
Date
9 December 1999
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.
Justification by State Party
Tbilisi, an urban heritage site, can be considered a meeting
place of diverse nations and cultures, where foreign
influences were filtered through national traditions and
established in the specifically Tbilisian form of interpretation
of the imported themes. The capital of a country and
residence of successive invaders, Tbilisi underwent a
continuous metamorphosis, being enriched in the process
and never losing its own identity. The historic buildings of
western and oriental influence, the churches, synagogues,
and mosques bear vivid witness to the intense cultural and
spiritual interrelations that contributed to its architectural
diversity and urban fabric, still continuing to sustain age-old
traditions of different origins merged with local culture.
Criterion ii
History and Description
History
Human life in the area of Tbilisi has ancient origins, and has
been traced back to the 5th millennium BCE, demonstrated
by rich archaeological evidence. The first urban settlements
date from the end of the 1st millennium BCE, and the earliest
evidence of a construction is from 4th century CE, a
fragment within the Narikala fortress from the time of
Persian occupation. According to legends, the capital was
moved from Mtskheta to Tbilisi by King Bakhtang Gorgasali
and his son Dachi Ujarmeli in the late 5th and early 6th
centuries. There is evidence of active building shown by
several early medieval churches (Anchiskhati Church, Sioni
Cathedral).
Tbilisi has always been a multi-national and multi-cultural
city, where the immigrants felt at their ease and were able to
retain their own religions, languages, and ethno-cultural
peculiarities, contributing to the process of the development
of a Tbilisian mode of life, character, and relations. This
unity has to a certain extent helped to resist pressure of
ethnic confrontation, being particularly important in the
Soviet period.
Criterion iii
Tbilisi was destroyed by Buga Turk in 853, but a century
later Armenian and Arab writers mention it as a flourishing
town. This sequence is symptomatic, considering that Tbilisi
has been destroyed and revived some twenty times in its
history. In 1121, after a victorious battle, Tbilisi was released
from the Arab domination, becoming the capital of the
united Kingdom of Georgia. The period of King David the
Builder (1089–1125) marks its heyday as the largest and
richest city in the Near East, the period when Lurji
Monastery was founded, Sioni Cathedral renovated, and
Metekhi Church built. From 1226 to 1230 it was attacked
several times and then invaded by the Mongols. In the 13th
century King Demetre the Self-Sacrificer commissioned
restoration and rebuilding. The domed church of St Nicholas
was built in the Narikala fortress, and records mention 65
baths over hot springs.
The Tbilisian mode of life and daily activities have
contributed to a typically Tbilisian spatial organization of the
residential districts. Here, interiors and exteriors were
connected via balconies; courtyards were the focal points for
various activities, often partly open toward the street,
creating connections to the different parts of the house and
linking with the staircases. All this played a role in the
development of an open and communicable type of dwelling,
corresponding to the conditions of the city and the needs of
the inhabitants.
Criterion iv
Tbilisi belongs to a number of cities which have undergone
significant evolution in the course of history, being a
settlement, a fortress, a fortified city, and a capital. Having
become a capital city, it has acquired cultural, administrative,
and trading functions that it still retains, not only for the
country but for the whole region. At present, Tbilisi faces the
The period from the 15th century onwards is marked by
devastating invasions by Tamerlan and the troops of Safavid
Persia, lasting until the treaty between the Persians and the
Ottomans in 1639. Taking advantage of the relative peace,
22
The Abanotubani quarter, to the south of Kala, is so named
because of the abundance of bathhouses. The areas around
the Narikala fortress have less well preserved medieval
fabric, while the Garetubani quarter, on the right bank of the
river, houses many significant public buildings. Sololaki is a
regularly laid-out quarter, built in the late 19th century on the
site of the former royal gardens. On the north side there is the
Mtatsminda quarter, which developed on the slopes of
Mount Mtatsminda, retaining its Tbilisian character, as does
the somewhat later Vera quarter. In the 20th century a series
of large public buildings were built on two main axes that
were opened into the historic fabric.
Tbilisians started rebuilding their town, resulting in a number
of churches of different beliefs, palaces, and caravanserais.
However, in 1795, Tbilisi was again completely burned
down, this time by Aga-Mahmad-Khan. At the beginning of
the 19th century, Georgia was annexed to Russia and Tbilisi
became the centre for the whole Transcaucasus. This resulted
in a new wave of building activity, giving the city the
character that has survived till the present.
The new constructions were built on old foundations,
respecting the urban layout in the area of the Narikala
fortress and the Metekhi plateau. Old residential areas such
as Kala, Isani, Kharpukhi, and Avlabari were extended into
the Gare Avlabari, Sololaki, Mtatsminda, and Vera quarters,
as well as on the left bank of the River Mtkvari. The
architectural character of the old quarters was changed to
some extent: for example, the old darbazi dwellings
disappeared. Many features such as churches and the fortress
were also preserved, although the old city walls and towers
were demolished in the early 19th century. The residential
areas were built with wider streets and to a regular grid
pattern. European architectural styles merged with traditional
building traditions, especially from the mid 19th century
onward. Thus, the city had no equivalent elsewhere in
Russia. The Soviet period brought many changes to the
townscape, including the construction of embankments and
city squares, based on the new urban master plan. In the
1960s the Rike quarter near the Metekhi plateau was
demolished, producing an urban void.
The fortifications were demolished in the 19th century, but
there are still remains, such as the ruins of the Narikala
fortress, which dominate the silhouette of the old town.
The historic district includes a large number of religious
ensembles, such as the 16th century church of Anchiskhati,
the oldest preserved in Tbilisi, renovated in the 17th century,
a typical example of Georgian basilicas. The Subgevork
church, acquired by the Armenian community in the late
Middle Ages, has a large 17th century dome. The other
buildings include the 19th century Roman Catholic Church,
the Synagogue of 1904–13, and the 17th century Mosque of
Shah Ismail, transformed in the 19th century and damaged in
the 1930s. The remains of a fire-worship temple, Ateshgha,
were transformed into a mosque in the 18th century and are
now in ruins.
There are a number of interesting residential buildings that
represent the Tbilisian typology, particularly in the Kala
quarter. The houses are built in brick or earthen structures,
using plenty of wooden finishes, and are characterized by
open balconies, inner courtyards, and various decorative
features.
With growing heritage consciousness in the 1970s, Tbilisi
became subject to campaigns of regeneration and
reconstruction. The remaining old houses in the area of
Metekhi were restored and new strategies were developed
based on emerging international principles, gradually leading
to integrated conservation. However, the first step was often
an improvement of the exterior, followed by the restoration
of the rest of the building. Several historic areas were
targeted for renovation or reconstruction, including
Baratashvili Street (1979), Kibalchich Hill (1980), Leselidze
Street (1983), the right embankment area (1983), and the
Abanotubani quarter (1984). All these works brought public
attention to the historic centre, but there were also losses,
such as those in the Vera quarter in the 1980s, and
particularly those caused by war damage in 1991–92 and the
subsequent reconstruction period.
Some ancient palaces still remain, such as the Sachino
Palace built by Queen Darejan and King Erekle II in 1719,
and there are a number of bathhouses, of which the oldest
date from the 17th century. The many caravanserais have
unfortunately been lost.
Many of the public buildings date from the 19th century, and
include the Palace of the Vice-Gerent (present Students’
Palace) with its "Persian Hall" with stucco ornaments, the
present Major Office and Opera House in pseudo-Moorish
Oriental style. The Rustaveli Theatre was built in 1901 and
reflects late Eclectic styles; the Hotel Majestic (Hotel Tbilisi)
was built in 1911–14 in a neo-Renaissance style with good
detailing, and the National Bank of Georgia is a good
example of Art Nouveau style in the town. Finally, the
Government Palace, built from 1938 to 1953, dominates the
area of Rustaveli Avenue with its Soviet character.
Description
The nominated historic district of Tbilisi is situated in the
centre of the city, on the west side of the River Mtkvari. The
area is reported to have some 138,000 inhabitants, while the
indicated buffer zone has some 118,000 inhabitants.
Even though Tbilisi has experienced a long series of
destructions, the townscape of a medieval feudal city still
survives, and a number of historic monuments are embedded
in the urban fabric dating from the 19th and 20th centuries.
In the areas around the citadel in the narrow gorge of the
River Mtkvari, the architectural dominants include Narikala
fortress and the churches of Metekhi, Sioni, and Anchiskhati.
The oldest part of the city is in the area of Kala, which has
retained its medieval layout as well as a number of typical
Tbilisian residential houses. This spontaneously evolved area
is characterized by irregular streets, narrow lanes, blind
alleys, and houses that reflect the fantasy of the builder.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The historic district of Tbilisi has legal protection under the
national legislation: Decree No 141, 25.02.1975, of the
Council of Ministers of Georgian SSR (Establishment of
State Protection Zone of Tbilisi Historic District), Decree No
76, 29.01.1985, for the further enlargement of the State
Protection Zone and perfection of protection measures. The
List of Monuments of History and Culture in Tbilisi was
adopted in 1976 and an additional list in 1986.
23
structures antedating the 19th century remain and many of
the existing buildings are in a poor condition.
The properties were in State ownership until 1992. Since the
adoption of the Law on Privatization of Dwellings, most
residential buildings have been given to private ownership.
Part of the buildings belong to various institutions, such as
banks and commercial firms. Since 1997 a Decree of the
Parliament of Georgia has prohibited privatization of listed
monuments. Listed residential buildings that had not been
privatized therefore remain the property of the municipality.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission will be visiting Tbilisi in April
2001. In the meantime, the ICOMOS International Scientific
Committee on Historic Towns and Villages (CIVVIH) has
been consulted.
Management
The declared State Protection Zone secures protection of the
historic area in terms of urban planning and urban fabric,
landscape, as well as the possibility to reconstruct lost
elements and parameters.
Qualities
ICOMOS notes the cultural value of Tbilisi, recognized in
the different centuries, and particularly in its having provided
a creative and inspiring cultural context for the development
of literary and artistic works of great significance for Georgia
and even the whole region.
The Management Plan of the Urban Planning Board of
Tbilisi Historic District (Municipality Architecture Services)
envisages the following activities: updating the existing
master plan, recording the historic quarters, preparation of
projects for reconstruction, investments, building of
infrastructures, launching of competitions for key areas, and
design projects for individual sites.
The existing building stock, which dates from the 19th and
20th centuries, represents an integration of influences from
the Orient and from European countries, which in itself
certainly is of interest.
With respect to the proposed criteria, many cultural aspects
are certainly valid. Nevertheless, the loss of much of the
historic fabric, the rapidly deteriorating condition of the
residential fabric, the increasing pressures, the difficulties
met in management, and the resulting deterioration of
authenticity and integrity, means that inscription of the site
will meet with some difficulties. Nevertheless, ICOMOS
wishes to postpone its recommendation until it has reviewed
the results of the expert mission to the site.
The management of the historic district of Tbilisi is the
responsibility of the Tbilisi Municipality Architecture
Services and of the Urban Planning Board of the Tbilisi
Historic District. The scientific supervision of conservation
projects is guaranteed by the Cultural Heritage Department
of Georgia.
Conservation and Authenticity
Comparative analysis
Conservation history
The Tbilisian residential typology is a special one, reflecting
an openness in its plan as well as details that recall the
architecture of the Black Sea region, northern Iran, and
Turkey. Many comparisons could thus be made with other
historic towns in the region. However, the particular cultural
context, characteristic to Tbilisi, gives it its own specificity,
which is difficult to find elsewhere.
The history of Tbilisi records a long series of successive
destructions and reconstructions. The last major destruction
occurred in 1795; since then the town has been rebuilt, but
has suffered from further demolitions and damages, such as
those during the 1991–92 war. In the current situation, the
city still retains some of its medieval fabric, some ancient
monuments, especially churches, and areas of residential
housing of typical Tbilisian character. Unfortunately, much
of the historic fabric is not in good condition, and the area is
subject to pressures from development, illegal construction,
air pollution, lack of experienced personnel, lack of quality
equipment, and lack of funding. The town is situated in a
seismic risk zone, and the Armenian earthquake of 1989
already increased the vulnerability of the historic housing
stock. There are no risk preparedness programmes for
cultural heritage. Furthermore, there is increasing pressure
from tourism; the number of visitors was 85,000 in 1996 and
over 300,000 in 1997.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
The ICOMOS recommendations will be formulated on the
basis of the results of the expert mission to take place in
April 2001.
Brief description
The historic centre of Tbilisi, the capital of Georgia,
represents a long historical evolution from the Middle Ages
till the present. The typology of the current fabric of the
town, dating mainly from the 19th and 20th centuries,
characterizes the open and multicultural society of Tbilisi.
Authenticity and integrity
The historic district of Tbilisi undoubtedly possesses many
qualities, partly owing to its multi-cultural society, partly
owing to its built fabric, characterized by the open nature of
its residential quarters. These qualities have been much
spoken about by writers and poets and illustrated by painters.
It is also true that, despite the many destructions even in the
recent past, the area is still notable for its traditional housing
stock, mainly dating from the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Recommendation
Because its expert mission will not take place until after this
volume is delivered to the printer, ICOMOS will defer
presenting a recommendation until the meeting of the Bureau
in June 2001
ICOMOS, March 2001
Nevertheless, the integrity of the historic area has certainly
been impaired to a considerable extent. Relatively few
24
archaeological remains, preserved in superb condition for
hundreds of years.
Acre (Israel)
It is enough to walk around old Acre of today in order to
get a constant sense of Ottoman culture because of the
unusual degree to which its lifestyle has been preserved
within the city walls and due to its geographical location.
This happened despite the fact that changes in the socioeconomic conditions led the wealthy classes to leave the
city.
Criterion iii
No 1042
Acre demonstrated settlement and utilization of available
land by great masses of people by military means, for a
specific religious purpose. This was not in fact settlement
for its own sake but in order to provide a stepping stone on
the way to Jerusalem. Thus the city was a mixture of
garrison and way station. This manner of settlement as part
of a historical process over a short period of time is
unique.
Identification
Nomination
The Old City of Acre
Location
Western Galilee
State Party
Israel
Date
30 June 2000
The Crusaders created a new culture in the land which did
not seek either to perpetuate its influence on local culture
or to absorb the influence of local culture. Thus in a
moment Crusader Acre ceased to exist as soon as it was
captured by the Mamelukes and the Crusades were over.
There was no continuity of the special life style that had
existed until that point.
Criterion v
Justification by State Party
During its existence, Acre has been a unique example of
the symbiosis between different cultures and values. Its
geographical position made it a meeting point between east
and west. The fact that various cultures struggled for
control over the city ensured that all parties were exposed
to each other’s influence.
Acre is directly connected with a number of important
historical world events, and also to the Baha'i faith.
In 1189 the Crusaders under King Guy de Lusignan laid
siege to Acre in a two-year operation that went
unparalleled in the tales of medieval wars of both the
Christian and Muslim worlds. Salah-A-Din, Richard the
Lion Heart, and Philippe II all participated in the war and
Acre surrendered to the Crusader forces on 12 July 1191.
Acre experienced its golden age as the capital of the
second Crusader kingdom from 1191 to 1291. It stood at a
junction of international routes and was a trading centre
between Europe and Asia. In 1291 the city was finally
captured by the Moslems and systematically destroyed on
the orders of Sultan El Ashraf.
Acre’s uniqueness becomes apparent when examining the
Crusader city. The Crusaders brought European building
technology with them to the Holy Land whilst utilizing
local materials. They built in accordance with various
needs that were dictated by the city’s geographical
position. Their relationship with the place and the local
population led to the development of the hybrid city of its
period, of which no comparable example exists in Europe
Crusader Acre evolved for 200 years, reaching the peak of
its importance on a world scale at the time when it was the
capital city of the Crusaders, and a main entrance for many
visitors to the Holy Land. Another example of the city’s
uniqueness may be found in the way that Crusader Acre
eventually played a role in Ottoman plans for building.
After the Mamelukes captured the city they attempted to
bury the original city. However, during rebuilding in the
18th century, the original Crusader buildings were used as
foundations for the new buildings, thus keeping the basic
Crusader city plan.
Criterion ii
In 1799 Acre became world-famous owing to the failure of
Napoleon’s army to capture the city after laying siege to it
for a long time. The city’s defenders, with the active aid of
the English, managed to repel the French forces, forcing
them to withdraw. “Tel Akko,” previously called “King
Richard Hill,” was renamed “Tel Napoleon.” The failure of
the siege of Acre marked a turning point in Napoleon’s
career.
In 1868 the Baha’ullah arrived in Acre as a prisoner of the
Ottoman Empire. He spent the remaining 24 years of his
life in the city, first imprisoned in the city’s fortress and
later kept under house arrest in a small building in the
alleyways of the old city. During his sojourn in Acre, the
Baha’ullah wrote his most important work, setting out the
laws and precepts to be observed by Baha'i adherents. He
was freed towards the end of 1870 and went to live on a
nearby estate outside the walls of the city. He died in 1892,
his remains were buried on the estate, and to this day his
tomb is the holiest shrine of the Baha'i.
Acre is a living witness to the existence of two now extinct
cultures – those of the Crusaders in the Holy Land and of
the Ottomans. A Crusader city for pilgrims such as Acre
could only exist in the Holy Land. As things developed in
the region, Acre became the second most important city in
the country after Jerusalem.
Since Acre was the capital of the second Crusader
kingdom it offers today unique evidence of the highly
particular lifestyle of the Crusaders, which lasted for a
relatively short period in history before disappearing. The
crux of this evidence of culture and life style is to be found
in the lower level of the city in the multitude of
During the British mandate in Palestine nine freedom
fighters from the resistance were executed in the Gallows
Room, part of the British prison occupying the citadel.
Criterion vi
25
dwellings. During the two centuries of Crusader rule Acre
developed into a wealthy and thriving trading city. It
symbolized the interchange between the eastern and
western cultures better than any other city.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.
In 1187, after the debacle at Hattin and the destruction of
the Crusader army, the Moslems captured the whole of the
land of Israel and Acre was held for four years. It was not
until 1191 that the Third Crusade led by Richard the Lion
Heart led to the recapture of Acre and the shores of
northern Israel. A second Crusader kingdom was
established with Acre as its capital, since the Crusaders
were not able to retake Jerusalem.
History and Description
History
Ancient Acre was situated on Tel Akko (or Tel El Fukhar),
about 2.5km to the east of the location of the old city.
Settlement at the tell appears to have began during the
Early Bronze Age (c 3000 BCE). Around 1900 BCE the
town was fortified by a high earthen rampart with a brick
gateway facing the direction of the sea.
From 1191 to 1291 the second Crusader Kingdom
expanded its borders. New neighbourhoods such as
Monmizar to the north were built and Acre was given a
new double city wall. More palaces, churches, and public
buildings were erected, at a time when styles in the west
were changing from Romanesque to Gothic. This change
in style was put into practice in Acre and recent
excavations have revealed buildings that reflect the
transition between styles and the initial establishment of
the Gothic style in the 13th century.
Acre was founded on the peninsula during the Hellenistic
period (3rd–2nd centuries BCE) and named Ptolemaeus
after the name of its founder, Ptolemy II of Egypt. There
are still traces of fortifications, a wall, and tower from this
period. Acre was a centre for international trade because of
its strategic position and its natural port.
The city fell to the Roman conquest of the land of Israel
and in the 1st century CE it was granted the status of
colonia. The first Christian pilgrims passed through Acre
on their way to Jerusalem. In 330, during the Byzantine
period, the land of Israel passed into the control of the
Eastern Roman Empire. This was a time of economic and
demographic expansion, when hundreds of churches and
monasteries were established all over the Holy Land. The
larger cities expanded and were encircled by new
fortification systems; Acre retained its status as the
principal port of the land of Israel.
The Mameluke period (named after the Moslem rulers of
Egypt) began in 1291 with the conquest of Acre and
continued until 1517. The city was destroyed and totally
abandoned, with only a few buildings remaining around
the port.
During the Ottoman period (1517–1917) Acre was
described by pilgrims and merchants who visited it in the
16th and 17th centuries as a deserted ghost town, with
some structures from the Crusader period still standing,
some jutting out of the earth, and others buried.
Reconstruction did not begin until the middle of the 18th
century, under Daher El Amar, who renewed the port,
manned it with officials and merchants, built a palace for
himself, and rebuilt the fortifications.
During the early Arab period (638–1099), many of the
country’s cities were abandoned and destroyed. Acre
decreased in importance as an international port and the
city limits were reduced to include several quarters around
the port, where a Moslem naval fleet was stationed. Acre
began its economic recovery during the 10th and 11th
centuries and the port and city walls were rebuilt.
The building of Ottoman Acre in the 18th and 19th
centuries buried the remains of the Crusader city, thereby
preserving the Crusader remains. In 1799 Acre attained
world fame after Napoleon failed to capture the city, under
the command of its Turkish ruler Ahmed El Jazar, after a
long siege.
The Crusader period began for Acre in 1104, some five
years after the fall of Jerusalem. Baldwin I, King of
Jerusalem, and the Genoese commercial fleet cooperated in
laying siege to Acre from land and sea until the city fell to
the Crusaders. A new and special model of settlement
evolved, characterized by defined and autonomous
quarters. The king settled in the northern part of the city,
where he built a fortified palace.
Acres enjoyed renewed economic expansion in the 19th
century. Mosques, bathhouses, and caravanserai were built.
Wealthy merchants settled there, building grand mansions
in the eastern Neo-Classical style of the end of the 19th
century.
Genoese, Venetian, and Pisan merchants built autonomous
quarters nearby the port. The military orders installed
themselves nearby – the Hospitallers in the north of the
city to the west of the palace, the Templars in the southwest of the city, and the German Knights close to the
eastern wall of the wall. Other important quarters included
those of the Patriarch (in which the Church of the Holy
Cross, Acre’s main cathedral, was built), the French
merchants (the Provençal quarter), and the English
merchants. Moslem and Jewish merchants also settled in
the city.
In 1868 Baha’ullah, founder of the Baha'i faith, arrived in
Acre as a prisoner of the Ottoman Empire. He spent the
remaining 24 years of his life in the city, first imprisoned
in the city’s fortress and later under house arrest in a small
building in the alleyways of the old city. During his
sojourn in Acre, the Baha’ullah wrote his most important
work, setting out the laws and precepts to be observed by
Baha'i adherents. The Baha’ullah was freed towards the
end of 1870 and went to live on a nearby estate outside the
walls of the city. He died in 1892, his remains were buried
on the estate, and to this day his tomb is the holiest shrine
of the Baha'i.
Many public buildings were erected – fortified buildings,
churches, bathhouses, bakeries, courts and hostels for
pilgrims and merchants, covered markets – and also private
After capturing Acre in 1918 and being given control of
Palestine by mandate of the League of Nations, the British
26
George's Church, one of the most ancient in Acre and
referred to in 17th century pilgrims' description as St
Nicolas's Church (it is constructed on Crusader crossvaults, which matches the description of St Lawrence’s
Church).
used the fortress as a prison. Several leading Jewish
settlers were imprisoned there, and hangings also took
place. The British developed the city outside the
boundaries of the walls, constructing dwellings and
administrative buildings. However, they did nothing to
alter the fabric of life within the walls of the old city. The
port fell into disuse as the nearby modern port of Haifa
superseded it.
There are eight mosques within the nominated old city of
Acre. The El-Jazar mosque, built in 1781 by El-Jazar, on
the remains of the Holy Cross Cathedral, is one of the most
important mosques in the country. It comprises religious
institutions and a famous library. El-Jazar, Suliman Pecha,
and their families are buried in the courtyard. The ElZaituna mosque was built in 1745 by Husain Abed Elhadi.
What are believed to be remains of the Hospitallers’
Church are incorporated in its structure. The Snan-Basha
mosque was built in 1806–7 by Suliman Pecha above the
remains of the mosque built by Snan-Basha in the 16th
century. The Elmualic mosque was originally a synagogue
of the Jewish community in Acre and was converted into a
mosque by Dahar El-Amar in 1746. Like most of the
mosques in Acre it overlies Crusader remnants: this is also
the case of the A-Ramal (1704) and A-Magdala (1710)
mosques. The Shazalia mosque was built in 1862 by the
Sheikh Ali Nur A-Dean El-Yasruti, founder of the Shazalia
cult, whose body and those of his family are buried nearby.
Also of importance is the El Burg’ mosque, located near
the wall at the Lion Gate.
During Israel’s war of independence the Jews captured
Acre on 16 May 1948. At first only a few Moslem
residents remained in the old city, but after the fighting had
died down many Palestinian Arab refugees from other
places began to arrive and settle in the old city, whilst
many Jews settled in the new sections. At the present time
the five thousand inhabitants of the walled city are
exclusively Arab and some 80% are migrants from other
parts of Israel.
Description
The built city comprises two levels:
The Crusader city, mainly subterranean remains, partly
revealed and in a very good state of preservation – wall,
quarters (Hospitaller, Genoese, Pisan, Venetian, Burgus
Novos, etc), open and covered streets, monuments,
drainage tunnels, systems of hideaway passages, shops,
and dwellings.
Other fine examples of Moslem architecture in Acre are
two bathhouses: the large Hammam El-Basha built by ElJazar in the 18th century, apparently on top of an ancient
bathhouse, and the small Hammam built by Dahar El-Amar
in the 18th century and in continuous use until the 1940s.
The Ottoman city, built over the ruins of the Crusader
city, using the earlier structures as foundations and
thereby helping in the preservation of the remains of the
Crusader city and its outline. The Ottoman city is
characterized by its narrow alleyways, monuments, and
inhabited dwellings with inner courtyards.
Among the historic khans (caravanserai) are Khan El
Umdan, built in 1784 by El-Jazar; Khan El-Farang’, built
in the 16th century by French merchants in the central
courtyard of the Crusader-period Venetian quarter; Khan
A-Shauardee, built in the 18th century by Dahar El-Amar;
Burg’ El-Sultan, a Crusader tower, reconstructed for use
by the Mamelukes and later incorporated into the khan; the
Donkeys Khan, built in 1810 and ruined by an explosion at
an ammunition depot; and Khan A-Shune, built in the
period of Dahar El-Amar over the remains of the Pisan
quarter.
The system of fortifications comprises the city walls, gates,
towers, and moat. The walls were built in stages between
1750 and 1840. They include the ruins of the Daher-ElUmar’s wall (built 1750–51) and its Lion Gate, the ElJazar wall, and the city gates (the Landward Gate, built by
El Jazar, the Seaward Gate, and two entrances in the
northern walls opened in 1910).
Two elements of the water-supply system survive: the
remains of the water aqueduct, built by either Dahar El
Umar or El Jazar, which brought water from the Kabri
fountain to the city and supplied it to the bathhouses and
the public fountain, and a reservoir constructed of five
Ottoman barrel vaults.
Two Baha'i holy sites are also in the area of the old city
nominated for inscription: the Jabotinsky Tower and the
Abud House.
There are two markets: the Turkish Bazaar (El-Jazar
Market) and Shuk El-Abyad (the White Market), built by
Dahar El-Amar and reconstructed in 1817 by Suliman
Pecha after a fire.
There are several noteworthy tombs of sheikhs and
cemeteries, including the Nebi Tzalah Tomb in the
cemetery near the eastern wall, the Sheikh Yanis Tomb
inside a room in a southern wall of the Jabhanee opposite
to the Jazar mosque, the Sheikh Ana’am Tomb built in
1807–08 by Suliman Pecha, the Sheikh Az A-Dean Tomb
north of the wall by the sea (traditionally considered to be
the tomb of Dahar El-Amar), and three cemeteries – the
Muzoleom, a cemetery behind Hann-Shuni, and the
cemetery of St George’s Church.
The main Government Building is the Citadel, which was
the Ottoman governors’ palace and a prison during the
British Mandate. It was built over the citadel of the
Hospitallers, which includes the Knights' Halls, the Grand
Munier, the Crypt, the "Beautiful Hall," and the courtyard.
The Seraya is thought to have functioned as a courthouse
during the Ottoman period
Acre has four historic churches: St John's Church, built in
1737 by the Franciscans, probably on top of the Crusader
St Andrew's Church and now used by the Roman Catholic
community; the Maronite Church; St Andrew's Church,
apparently built on top of the Crusader St Anne's Church
and now used by the Greek Catholic Church; and St
The urban structure of contemporary Acre is based on the
following fundamental factors:
- Acre’s geographical position on a natural bay was a
significant reason for its development as a port. Being
located on a peninsula with its limits defined by its walls
27
the typological and morphological characteristics of the
city’s construction.
and by the sea that defined its boundaries dictated the
need for dense building, a characteristic feature of
medieval cities.
- The Crusader city was built in clearly defined quarters.
Management and Protection
- The Ottoman city blended with the Crusader remains,
using them as foundations. It is characterized by its
layout of blocks and buildings set around inner yards.
Legal status
The old city of Acre is designated an antiquity site under
the provisions of the 1978 Antiquities Law. Article 29.a
prohibits any of the following activities without the written
approval of the Director of the Israel Antiquities Authority:
At first glance, Acre’s winding streets and blocks of
buildings appear to have grown in an unplanned way: it is
difficult to perceive any particular order according to
which the city might have been arranged. It was, however,
carefully laid out: it is arranged around two complementary
hierarchies, the hierarchy of areas of transit and the
hierarchy of built areas and blocks of buildings.
- building, paving, the erection of installations,
quarrying, mining, drilling, flooding, the clearing away of
stones, ploughing, planting, or interment;
- the dumping of earth, manure, waste, or refuse,
including the dumping thereof on adjoining property;
The built areas consist of quarters, blocks of buildings,
individual buildings, and apartments. Apartment dwellings
form blocks set around inner courtyards, the blocks
forming larger blocks and quarters.
- any alteration, repair or addition to an antiquity located
on the site;
- the dismantling of an antiquity, the removal of part
thereof or the shifting thereof;
The boundary of every built component of the city is
defined by some kind of wall.
- At city level by fortified walls that surround the old
city in its entirety, detaching it and cutting it off from
anything outside.
- writing, carving, or painting;
- At block level by uninterrupted stone fascias at ground
level which constitute a “wall."
- any other operation designated by the Director in
respect of a particular site.
- the erection of buildings or walls on adjoining
property;
- At larger block level by the formation of inner
courtyards.
Management
Ownership of the property is divided between three main
owners: the Israeli Land Administration (80%), the
Muslim Wakf and the Christian Churches (15%), and
private ownership (5%).
The urban characteristic of Acre is one of looking inwards
and containment, reflecting the role of the home in
traditional Moslem society. The fascias of buildings serve
to separate the home from the street, thereby protecting the
inhabitants. Upper floors were built on at a later stage and
clearly reflect western influence, with less closure and
containment, reflected in large picture windows and
balconies.
Following the establishment of the Old Acre Development
Co Ltd (OADC) in 1983, a steering committee for urban
planning drew up a new Master Plan for the old city of
Acre for the years 1993–2000. The plan takes into account
the international heritage of Acre, and takes account of the
requirements of the Building and Urban Planning Law
while considering the possibility of turning the city into a
tourist attraction.
The areas of transit are also arranged according to
hierarchy, following the same hierarchic principle as in
built areas – division and gradual passage:
- Main thoroughfares running between the city churches
and public centres and the perimeter route running
parallel to the city walls.
The main provisions are:
- Preservation of the special character of the old city of
Acre – cultural, architectural, and aesthetic values.
- Alleyways leading from the main thoroughfares into
the built-up masses of dwellings and circular alleyways
that encompass the blocks.
- Preservation of the physical fabric whilst adapting to
the modern quality of life.
- Provision of a solution to the inhabitants in the fields
of residential accommodation, environment, community
services, infrastructure, employment, and involvement in
the process of developing whilst involving the public in
the planning process.
- Secondary cul-de-sac alleyways that run into the
blocks, usually as far as the inner courtyards and
sometimes connecting with another thoroughfare.
The large blocks are set around inner courtyards, giving
the impression from outside that they are built very densely
and closed. Within, the courtyards form intimate empty
spaces that allow access to fresh air and sunlight. Inner
courtyards are found in a number of styles: at ground level,
open to the sky; at ground level, but covered; set on roofs.
They fulfil a number of roles: they may serve a single
apartment or dwelling, they may serve as nuclei for a
number of buildings grouped together into a block, or they
may be located between blocks. The courtyards are part of
- The development of tourism as a principal economic
activity in Acre, Western Galilee, and throughout the
State of Israel.
- Determining the permissible type of usage for each plot
of land and building.
- Determining
resources.
28
priorities
and
the
distribution
of
been carried out during the British Mandate. An extensive
survey was made in 1962, and this served as the basis for the
first master plan. From 1993 onwards there was a series of
surveys of individual buildings, monuments, and blocks, and
these have resulted in a number of technical manuals
designed to provide architects, engineers, institutions, and
private individuals with field solutions relating to specific
aspects of the conservation and restoration of buildings.
Restoration and conservation work on many of the major
buildings are accompanied by scientific excavations, which
are revealing many facets of the Crusader city.
- Provision of general planning whilst providing
solutions to suitable specific programmes at the planning
and execution stage.
- Provision of a solution for the planning framework of
urban systems: ie transportation, infrastructures, sign
posting, maintenance, management and preservation of
the environment.
Preparation of the Plan involved a number of studies and
surveys. These included a condition survey of the
buildings, the development of a traffic plan, a study of the
morphology of residential houses, a survey of potential
tourist needs, and a survey of infrastructure of services
(water, electricity, etc). As a result, areas in need of urgent
intervention and priorities were identified.
At the present time the residential areas of the old city show
little outward sign of the conservation effort over the past
eight years. The facades of many of the buildings are in poor
condition and there is substantial evidence of the use of
inappropriate materials. The surfaces of many of the smaller
streets and open spaces are poorly maintained. There is a
profusion of cables and other infrastructural elements on the
facades and pavements everywhere.
The agencies with management authority under the terms
of the Master Plan are the Acre Municipality, the OADC,
the Israel Antiquities Authority (and its Conservation
Department), and the Israel Land Administration (National
Housing Authority). Site management is the responsibility
of the OADC, a wholly state-owned professional body
with expertise in management economics and marketing,
and it is the OADC which coordinates the activities of the
other partners. The Conservation Department of the Israel
Antiquities Authority, which has a staff of conservation
architects, engineers, archaeologists, and specialized
conservators, is responsible for all conservation work.
This appearance is, however, slightly misleading. The initial
surveys showed that a large proportion of the housing stock
was seriously decayed, to an extent that buildings were at
risk and consolidation was urgently needed. This interior
structural work has now been completed, as has the
provision of underground conduits for electricity, telephone,
and other services.
For the next stage of conservation and rehabilitation, a pilot
project in a largely traditional residential area was selected.
Work is in progress on this neighbourhood, adopting an
overall approach rather than a piecemeal one directed to
individual structures.
Monitoring and control activities carried out under the
plan are:
- Municipal inspection for enforcing the Building and
Urban Planning Law;
Excavation of the Crusader city beneath the Ottoman city is
proceeding steadily. A number of innovative civil
engineering solutions have been developed to stabilize
cleared areas and permit exploration to continue.
- Archaeological inspection under the Antiquities Law
(article 29.a);
- Conservation inspection;
- A Conservation Steering Committee composed of
representatives of the following bodies: Conservation
Department of the Israeli Antiquities Authority, the
District Engineer, the Old Acre Development Company
Ltd, the National Housing Authority, the Master Plan
architect, the District Architect of the Israeli Land
Administration, and a representative of the local
community.
Authenticity and integrity
Two periods in history have contributed to the appearance
of contemporary Acre: the Crusader period and the
Ottoman period. The special nature of the city’s evolution
has led to the preservation of its authenticity and the
principal values of each of the two periods and of the city
in general.
- A municipal tourist police.
Crusader Acre is today mostly subterranean and has only
begun to be uncovered recently. The well preserved
remains include large portions of the fabric of urban life
and buildings with all parts intact – walls, quarters, streets,
alleys, fortresses, public buildings, religious buildings,
dwellings, and shops, together with the subterranean
infrastructure, architectural details, original plasterwork,
and masonry. Building plans are clearly identifiable and
building technology and materials can be accurately
determined.
Regular monitoring of the buildings in the old city is
shared between the Municipality, the National Housing
Authority, and the Conservation Department of the Israel
Antiquities Authority, all of which are represented by
inspectors on site.
ICOMOS considers that this plan and its implementation
fulfil the requirements regarding management planning
laid down in paragraph 24.b.ii of the Operational
Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage
Convention.
The Ottoman city was built on the Crusader city and took
the form of an urban system of alleyways, courtyards, and
squares, reflecting the values of Moslem society. The
geographical conditions that determined its development,
together with its socio-economic structure, maintained the
integrity of Acre as essentially an Ottoman city, without
significant changes in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
A programmed approach to the conservation of the old city
of Acre began in the 1990s. The first buildings survey had
29
Furthermore, it did not form part of the itinerary of
pilgrimages to the Holy Land. At first glance Famagusta
seems similar to Acre: it is an example of a walled
Ottoman port city that has undergone some changes. The
essential difference between the two is that the Crusader
city of Famagusta is not preserved in its entirety beneath
the Ottoman city: it has instead been blended with
Ottoman structures.
Acre has retained its character as a port city, with a blend
of public buildings, caravanserais (khans), and religious
buildings alongside markets, small shops, and large
residential quarters, together with an active port which is
still a source of income and access to the city. The major
proportion of Acre's individual buildings have remained
largely in the same form as when they were built, with few
alterations over the last 150–300 years. Ottoman Acre
exists in an architectural/social bubble reflecting the
meeting between east and west.
Sidon was also an important port city during the Crusader
era, but it was one of many port cities whereas Acre was
the capital. There is also far less evidence of the Crusader
City in Sidon than in Acre.
It may therefore be concluded that Acre fulfils all the
criteria regarding integrity and reliability of information
sources as expressed in the Nara Document and as required
by paragraph 24.b.i of the Operational Guidelines.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
There is no buffer zone to provide protection of the setting of
the old city of Acre defined in the plans provided with the
nomination dossier, as required by the World Heritage
Committee. This must be defined and appropriate regulations
enacted before the property can be inscribed on the World
Heritage List.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
A ICOMOS expert mission visited Acre in February 2001. A
evaluation of the "outstanding universal value" of the
nominated property was provided by the ICOMOS
International Scientific Committee on Historic Towns and
Villages (CIVVIH).
The most serious problem confronting those responsible for
the conservation and maintenance of the old city is a social
one. There is an almost total absence of pride of place. Few
of the present-day inhabitants have any family ties with the
city and so there is a lack of identification with it.
Furthermore, many of the inhabitants are unemployed or
poorly remunerated and so cannot afford to live elsewhere. If
and when their personal fortunes change, they will
immediately seek housing outside the walled city. As a
result, they do not feel themselves under obligation to respect
the appearance of what is to them no more than a transitory
place of residence.
Qualities
Acre is a well preserved example of a walled city of special
historical interest. It was of major significance during the
Crusader period in the Holy Land, first as its principal port
and later as the capital of the second Kingdom of Jerusalem
for a century. Following a long period of decline, during
which it was still the main entry port for Christian pilgrims
visiting Jerusalem, it flourished again in the 18th century as
the capital of this part of the Ottoman Empire. Its historical
trajectory gives it a unique character, in that the substantial
remains of the Crusader city are preserved virtually intact
beneath the typical Moslem city of the present day, and have
in recent years been revealed by scientific excavation.
The task that confronts the managers of Old Acre is therefore
fundamentally one of education, so as to demonstrate to the
inhabitants that they live in a city with a long history and a
rich heritage. The efforts already made over the past two to
three years, since it became known that Acre appeared on the
tentative list of Israel, need to be maintained and intensified.
The educational programme should be accompanied by an
intensified social programme aimed at improving the quality
of life of the inhabitants of Acre.
Comparative analysis
There are three similar Mediterranean towns with which
Acre may justifiably be compared: Rhodes in Greece
(already on the World Heritage List), Famagusta
(Magussa) in Cyprus, and Sidon in Lebanon. All three
towns have long histories, and the relevant periods for
comparison are from the Crusader period onwards.
Brief description
The townscape of the walled port city of Acre is
characteristic of Moslem perceptions of urban design, with
narrow winding streets and fine public buildings and houses.
Beneath it lies almost intact the remains of its predecessor,
the Crusader city, which is being revealed by archaeological
excavation.
Rhodes was founded after the expulsion of the Crusaders
from the Holy Land and was exclusively a city of the Order
of St John (Hospitallers). By contrast, Acre was founded
during one of the peaks of the Crusader period, it became
the capital of the kingdom, and its inhabitants represented
the full range of Crusader orders, reflecting the history of
the Crusades in the Holy Land.
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
Contemporary Rhodes is more like a medieval European
city than Acre, which is in its present form an Ottoman
city. It has also not undergone major restoration projects in
the 20th century.
That this nomination be referred back to the State Party,
requesting the definition and regulatory protection of an
appropriate buffer zone. The State Party should also supply
information regarding existing and proposed educational and
social projects relating to heritage protection and
conservation. In the event that this information is provided
by the State Party, ICOMOS recommends that this property
be inscribed on the World Heritage List on the basis of
criteria ii, iii, and v:
After the capture and partial destruction of Acre,
Famagusta inherited its position as the main trading port in
the region, although it never attained either Acre’s
significance or the rate of development that it underwent at
its peak. Famagusta essentially represents a city built
during the process of withdrawal of the Crusaders.
30
Acre is exceptional in that beneath its present-day
appearance as a typical Moslem fortified city lie the
remains of an almost intact medieval city on the
European model. It bears exceptional material testimony
to the Crusader kingdom established in the Holy Land in
the 12th–14th centuries, and also to the Ottoman Empire
in the 18th and 19th centuries.
ICOMOS, March 2001
31
Category of property
Noto (Italy)
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this
nomination consists of eight separate groups of buildings.
No 1024
History and Description
History
Identification
Nomination
Noto and late Baroque architecture
in south-eastern Sicily
Location
Provinces of Catania, Ragusa, and
Syracuse, Sicily
State Party
Italy
Date
22 June 2000
Some of the nominated towns (Caltagirone, Mitello) were
of pre-medieval origin, and all were in existence in
medieval times, characteristically around a castle and
with monastic foundations. Most seem to have been
changing during the 16th and 17th centuries and then
been affected differentially by the 1693 earthquake,
which resulted in some 93,000 casualties. Catania, for
example, was destroyed, as was Noto on top of Mount
Alveria, whereas Mitello was partially destroyed and
Ragusa seriously damaged. Reactions to the earthquake
also differed, ranging from Catania’s complete rebuild on
the same site, through Mitello’s partial abandonment and
Ragusa’s combination of new and old, to Noto’s
complete rebuild on a new site. All the towns saw
considerable building activity through the 18th century,
notably of churches, large public buildings, and palazzi.
Another serious earthquake in 1990 affected some parts
of some towns, Ragusa in particular. The nomination is
almost entirely based on 18th century urban art and
architecture and says nothing about urban economy or
urban/rural relationships.
Justification by State Party
The historic centres and urban environments of the
towns proposed for inscription are a masterpiece of the
human creative genius of the late Baroque epoch.
Criterion i
The historic centres and urban environments of the
towns proposed for inscription reveal a remarkable and
unique exchange of human values accomplished in the
collective effort to reconstruct the towns after the 1693
earthquake. The social classes of that period (clergy,
aristocracy, and the new urban middle classes) together
with the Spanish government, architects, and craftsmen,
co-operated in the recreation of entire urban realities.
Criterion ii
Description
The territory of south-eastern Sicily, once the territory
of the ancient province of Val di Noto, contains an
exceptional homogeneity and quality of urban centres
within it. They are characterized by a large number of
late Baroque buildings and monuments, all built after
earthquakes on 9 and 11 January 1693, which seriously
damaged about sixty towns in that territory. The seismic
area, which had its epicentre in the Valley of Noto,
stretched from Calabria to Malta to the northern African
coast.
The historic centres and urban sites proposed for
inscription bear witness to cultural traditions that have
disappeared elsewhere: eg the design abilities and the
innovative approach typical of the post-1693 era, in
which major and minor art forms intertwine into a
peculiar unity, and the exceptional skills of workmen in
using local stone.
Criterion iii
Most of the towns in south-eastern Sicily were rebuilt
on the original site (eg Catania). Some, such as Noto,
were rebuilt on new sites. Others, like Ragusa and
Palazzolo Acreide, were "doubled up," with new urban
centres created next to the ancient ones. Yet others
either moved to adjoining areas that were already
partially urbanized (eg Scicli and Modica) or were
simply repaired (eg Caltagirone).
The historic centres and urban sites proposed for
inscription are instances of great importance for the
high concentration of monumental late Baroque
buildings of outstanding architectural and decorative
value: eg the plans and layouts of religious buildings
and facades with bell-towers. Facades as urban
monuments peak with San Domenico in Noto, San
Giorgio in Ragusa Ibla, and San Giorgi' in Modica.
Criterion iv
The rebuilding of the Val di Noto was a chance for an
enormous artistic, architectural, and anti-seismic
renewal of the cities, medieval in their styles until 1693.
The architecture and "modern" town-planning of southeastern Sicily became the first specific response to
seismic disaster, carried out by a host of people ranging
from famous architects like Rosario Gagliardi and
Giovan Battista Vaccarini to many inspired artists and
thousands of skilled but anonymous craftsmen. Strongly
influenced by external Baroque fashions, the "Sicilian
style," including not least its characteristic tower in
facades, developed to become itself influential, its
achievement possible because of a strong economic
interplay of different social groups in the aftermath of
disaster. Enormous state intervention and great
The historic centres and urban sites proposed for
inscription are vulnerable because of their location in an
area of high seismic risk and because of the poor state
of much of the stonework, especially the limestone. In
addition, Catania is at risk from volcanic eruption.
Criterion v
32
organizing ability seem to have been the two conditions
that achieved such an original and impressive solution,
seizing the chance to turn such a disaster into an
opportunity. Two hundred years later, as a result of
long-term degradation and further seismic activity, there
are still a great many buildings and monumental
complexes
which
require
major
restoration,
consolidation, and maintenance interventions.
the earliest site of all, the Greek Akrai. The two
churches of St Sebastian and Sts Peter and Paul were
largely rebuilt after 1693, the latter the centre of the old
nobility, the former marking the quarter of the new
urban classes.
RAGUSA, the ancient Ibla, is built over three hills
separated by a deep valley. It, too, consists of two
centres, one rebuilt on the old medieval layout and the
other, Upper (present-day) Ragusa, newly built after
1693. It contains nine major churches and seven major
palazzi, all Baroque. Upper Ragusa has been adversely
affected by inappropriate modern development and the
town overall is adversely affected by the proximity of
chemical, industrial, and mining activities.
The eight separate inner cities and urban areas proposed
for inscription on the World Heritage List should be
considered as representative of a great, post-seismic
rebuilding achievement in the decades following 1693.
CALTAGIRONE: the most westerly of the eight cities
nominated, its inner city is significant for its multifaceted town planning and architectural facades, and for
its unusual link between the pre- and post-1693 periods.
Its rich architecture exists inside an urban context
resulting from the configuration of the site. The most
important buildings include the Churches of Santa
Maria del Monte, St James the Apostle, St Joseph, St
Dominic, the Holy Saviour (and Monastery of the
Benedictine Sisters), St Chiara and St Rita (and
Monastery of the Poor Clares), Jesus (and former
College of the Jesuits), St Stephen, and St Francis of
Assisi and, among secular buildings, the Corte
Capitanale, the Civic Museum, the former Pawnshop,
and the San Francesco Bridge.
SCICLI: the via Francesco Mormina Penna stretches to
the nearby Beneventano palace, perhaps the only one in
Sicily to display fantastic decoration, in an urban setting
where churches rise alongside patrician buildings of late
Baroque age. Three churches (St John the Evangelist, St
Michael, and Saint Teresa) are of the 18th century.
The whole area is a Level 2 seismic risk area (the most
recent earthquake was in 1990) with an expected
intensity of c 4.5 on the Richter scale. Caltagirone and
Noto could also be subject to post-seismic landslides
and Catania could be affected by volcanic eruption from
Mount Etna. All of the towns in the nomination have
Civil Protection Plans identifying main evacuation
routes in the event of disaster.
MILITELLO VAL DI CATANIA is significant for its
wealth of architecture from the 14th century onwards,
and for the outstanding 17th century, walled preearthquake town plan which was in the vanguard of
Sicilian feudal towns and was then faithfully followed
in the late Baroque reconstruction. Principal buildings
include the Churches of San Nicolò and Santa Maria
della Stella, the latter completed in 1741 on the site of
St Anthony the Abbot, and the former in the San
Leonardo area.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The majority of the properties in all eight of the towns are
in private ownership. The religious buildings open to
worship are mostly owned by the Diocesan Curias; some
are owned by the Italian State through its Ministry for
Internal Affairs. Most of the monumental buildings of
architectural value are owned by the local authorities. All
such are public bodies, and the assets for which they are
responsible are considered as public property.
CATANIA acquired a particular quality of urban design
when it was rebuilt on a comprehensive, geometric
unitary plan among the rubble of the destroyed city. At
its core are the outstanding Piazza del Duomo and the
Via dei Crociferi, together with the nearby Badia de
Sant’Agata, the Collegiata, Benedictine Monastery, and
Palazzo Biscari.
Management
The main protection and conservation measures are
provided by the national and regional legislation for the
protection of the artistic, monumental, landscape, natural,
seismic, hydrogeological and forestry heritage, in
particular by Acts 1089/39, 1497/39, 64/74, 431/85, and
Regional Acts 61/81 and 15/91. Within the bureaucratic
infrastructure for implementing these provisions, the
various Sicilian sections of the Soprintendenze ai Beni
Architettonici e Ambientali report directly to the Regional
Department for Cultural Heritage. Because of the seismic
factor, the Civil Engineers Office plays an important role
in monitoring the safety of buildings and therefore in the
maintenance of fabric; it reports direct to the Regional
Public Works Department.
MODICA consists of two urban centres, the older
perched on the rocky top of the southern Ibeli hill, the
other rebuilt further downhill after the 1693 earthquake
with imposing and conspicuous urban monuments such
as the Cathedral of St George and the Church of
St.Peter.
NOTO, outstanding among the towns that were totally
rebuilt on a site close to the original town, is on two
levels, an upper part on the plateau and a lower, newer
part on the slope below. The latter accommodates the
buildings of the nobility and the religious complexes of
the 18th century, the topography, town-plan, and
architecture combining to create a spectacular "Baroque
stage set." It includes nine religious complexes and
numerous palazzi.
The Regional Provinces of Catania, Ragusa, and
Syracuse and the Municipalities of the eight towns in the
nomination have the responsibility for looking after the
urban and architectural heritage in their respective
territories. In the case of religious buildings and their
artistic contents, responsibility rests with the four
Diocesan Curias, any one of which may approach any
one or more of five different agencies from state to
municipal level in the event of works being required.
PALAZZOLO, like Modica, has two centres, the
medieval one on which a new town was reconstructed
on the old site but along a new axis, and a post-1693
"new town" which was developed along a crescent up to
33
The eight towns in the nomination come under the
various regional plans, exemplified by that for Regional
Economic and Social Development, within which are
"Implementation Projects" such as those for Tourism and
Cultural Heritage. Regional Guidelines on Landscape
Planning identify, inter alia, four "strategic intervention
axes directly involving the protection and enhancement
of the landscape and environment," which include
conservation and qualification of the heritage of historic,
archaeological, artistic, cultural, and documentary
interest. The eight towns are identified in the respective
town plans as Homogeneous Territorial Zones or Historic
Centres, where the existing urban and architectural
heritage can be submitted only to rehabilitation and
maintenance works in full respect for the historic and
cultural vocation of each town. Ragusa has its own FiveYear Plan.
Over 2 million visitors came to the area in 1999 but the
nomination does not regard them as in any way
threatening the historic, artistic, architectural, or
environmental heritage, or the traditional life-style of the
residents.
Conservation is funded annually in the normal way as
part of the regional, provincial, and municipal budgets.
Ragusa and Ibla enjoy special Regional funding. Lit
2849,000,000,000 was made available for public
buildings of architectural importance immediately after
the earthquake of 13 December 1990, and is still the main
source of special funding. Lit 970,000,000,000 was
additionally made available for privately owned historic
buildings.
In artistic, architectural, and aesthetic terms, authenticity
and integrity are high, both in original quality and
survival. Additional quality and interest, again in both
authenticity and integrity, are provided by the almost
complete survival, with little inappropriate intrusion, of
town plans expressing a variety of reactions to a single,
disastrous event in 1693.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The conservation history of all eight nominated towns is
simply summarized as long-term maintenance battling
with long-term degradation and punctuated by earthquake
disasters (plus volcanic eruptions in the case of Catania)
in a permanent regime of seismic potential.
Authenticity and integrity
Evaluation
There is in fact no management plan in the nomination,
though a document with that title is included. This is,
however, concerned only with the future. It stresses the
considerable difficulties involved in attaining agreement
on any sort of management uniformity in eight different,
quite widely spaced, and diverse municipalities over a
large area involving different agencies in an
administrative hierarchy. It nevertheless lays out the steps
by which such a plan could be achieved, and lists thirteen
goals concerning further research, database development,
anti-seismic
measures,
monitoring,
programme
integration, private sector partnership, fund-raising
including tapping European sources, local community
regeneration, and improving access.
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the nominated towns
in January 2001. ICOMOS also received comments from
its International Scientific Committee on Historic Towns
and Villages (CIVVIH).
Qualities
The towns offer a plethora of late Baroque art and
architecture of high quality and of a remarkable
homogeneity as a result of the circumstances of time,
place, and social context in which they were created.
Their current contexts vary between considerable urban
extents in basically untouched 18th century streetscapes
to the largest place, Catania, where the geometry of the
1690s town plan and the grandeur of the buildings exist
in the bustle and traffic of a busy modern city. Overall is
the evidence of slow decay in the stonework and,
inevitably in a well recorded earthquake zone, an
awareness of further potential disaster. Catania could also
be affected by volcanic eruption.
It identifies the need for a Supervisory and Monitoring
Committee to carry out, supervise, and update the Plan.
This Committee is envisaged as consisting of
representatives of the parties to a Programme Agreement
(the municipalities, the relevant Soprintendenze, and the
Region of Sicily). The Church will also have to be
involved. A Standing Committee already exists to cover
the period of the nomination.
Comparative analysis
It is envisaged that the final draft of the Plan will be
submitted for public consultation, one aim of which will
be to raise awareness about the importance of inscription
on the World Heritage List and the size of the
commitment that the local communities have to take on
to ensure the conservation and management of this
heritage (in an area, ICOMOS notes, which according to
EC economic indicators is one of the poorest in Europe).
The existing and continuing "burden represented by the
management and maintenance of (generally large)
buildings which have lost their original functions" is quite
properly emphasized; integrated planning which sees
such buildings acquiring new functions is posited as the
answer. The general tone of the document is realistically
optimistic.
For the Baroque age in Europe, there is no other urban
and architectural phenomenon of comparable interest. Its
context in post-earthquake reconstruction adds to that
interest.
A similar reconstruction effort was simultaneously
carried out in Malta, though the 1693 earthquake there
was less destructive. The ancient centre of Mdina was
rebuilt, like Catania, on the same site, whereas Valletta,
of more modern construction, was less affected. Overall,
Malta confirms certain Sicilian traits as representing a
Mediterranean reaction to earthquake disaster in the
Baroque period, but the Maltese reconstruction
phenomenon is much smaller and produced fewer and
more easily managed monuments.
34
The 1755 Lisbon earthquake destroyed that city, with
30,000 casualties. Its main relevance to Sicily is not so
much in architecture as art as in architecture as structural
engineering. Pioneer research into anti-seismic
construction was undertaken in Sicily after 1693 and the
first anti-seismic regulations were built into the Sicilian
reconstruction, notably at Catania It was this aspect
which was taken forward in a systematic way by the
Portuguese in the second half of the 18th century.
Recommendation and statement of significance
That further consideration of this nomination be deferred,
inviting the State Party to reconsider the nature, size and
structure of a renewed nomination including a
Management Plan.
ICOMOS, March 2001
ICOMOS comments and recommendations for future
action
ICOMOS notes that the eight nominated towns are a
careful selection from many more towns affected by the
1693 earthquake. Nevertheless, it wonders if it would not
be possible to express the glory of the local late Baroque
and the universal value of the phenomenon of postseismic urbanism that are at the core of this nomination in
other ways – namely, by an even greater level of
selection.
The inclusion of the setting of one or more towns would
add to the validity of a future nomination. A thematic
study of urban Baroque, perhaps even post-earthquake
rebuilding, could help place south-eastern Sicily in
context.
If inscribed on the World Heritage List, the property
would bring with it four long-standing challenges to
management:
i. it is in an economically poor area;
ii. it is in an area with a high potential for natural
disaster, notably earthquakes;
iii. all the historic buildings require long-term
maintenance and many, because of the material of their
construction, are in a poor state of conservation;
iv. the organizational and bureaucratic complexity in
managing as a World Heritage Site a property consisting
of parts of eight towns dispersed over an extensive area.
Such factors need to be taken into account in considering
in advance the management of this potential World
Heritage Site. During the ICOMOS mission, discussions
with all relevant authorities, and a draft document, about
such management, mark important steps towards a
Management Plan. ICOMOS recommends that, building
on these developments and following reconsideration and
reformulation of the nomination, an appropriate
Management Plan be included with a renewed
nomination.
Brief description
The eight nominated towns in south-east Sicily were all
rebuilt after 1693 on or beside towns in existence at the
time of the earthquake in that year. They represent a
considerable collective undertaking, successfully carried
out at a high level of architectural and artistic
achievement, broadly within the late Baroque style of the
day but with distinctive innovations in town planning and
urban building.
35
History and Description
History
Lamu Old Town (Kenya)
-
No 1055
THE EARLY PHASE
The town of Lamu represents the Swahili culture, resulting
from interaction between the Bantu, Arabs, Persians, Indians,
and Europeans (in Arabic sawāhilī, "of the coast"). The
Swahili language is principally a mixture of Bantu and
Arabic. The relevant cultural region extends from the island
of Lamu in the north to Tanzania and Mozambique in the
south, along the East African coast.
Identification
Nomination
Lamu Old Town
Location
Coast Province, Lamu District
State Party
Kenya
Date
3 July 2000
The origins of the town of Lamu date back to the 12th
century, but the site was probably inhabited earlier.
Archaeological evidence shows that there were two early
Swahili settlements surrounded by walls, one to the south
and the other to the north of the present town, which
flourished in the early 13th century among the independent
city states on the East African coast. It has been recorded as a
large town with the office of Qadi (Muslim judge) in the mid
15th century. It first developed in the form of small clusters
of stone buildings, including the Council Chamber, in the
northern part of the present town (Pangahari, Yumbe) where
the Friday mosque still is. The original market (Utuku Mkuu,
the Great Market) lay west of this area. Later the town
extended to the south (Mtamwini), an area north of the Fort,
thus representing the full extent of the town in the 18th
century. Lamu then came under Omani rule and was subject
to the influx of Indian merchants from Gujerat in the 19th
century. This period saw the building of the new Fort, and
the development of the bazaar street, Usita wa Mui, and the
area along the shore line.
Justification by State Party
Lamu is one of the oldest and the best preserved living
settlements among the Swahili towns on the East African
coast. Its buildings and the applied architecture are the best
preserved and carry a long history that represents the
development of Swahili technology. The old town is thus a
unique and rare historical living heritage with more than 700
years of continuous settlement. It was once the most
important trade centre in East Africa before other towns such
as Zanzibar and Mombasa took over.
Lamu was first developed by local Bantu people together
with maritime traders from the Arabian Peninsula, the
Persian Gulf, and the Far East. The town merchants
prospered acting as middlemen between the interior and the
sea, exporting ivory and timber in exchange for
manufactured goods such as cloth, porcelain and spices
across the Indian Ocean. In 1506 Lamu was invaded by the
Portuguese, who monopolized shipping and suppressed
coastal trade; consequently, the once prosperous city state
lost its position, and gradually declined. In 1585 and 1588
Lamu and other coastal towns suffered from raids by Turks
and rose in rebellion but were crushed by the Portuguese. In
1652 the Sultanate of Oman was persuaded to help the city
states to overthrow the Portuguese regime, which was
accomplished in 1698.
Since the 19th century, Lamu has been regarded as an
important religious centre in East and Central Africa due to
the tarika activities introduced by Habib Swaleh, a Sharif
descendant of Prophet Mohamed (PBAH). There are many
descendants of the Prophet in Lamu. Their presence has kept
up that tradition, which continue to the present day Lamu in
form of annual festivals known as Maulidi. These festivals
are endemic to Lamu and draw the Muslim community from
all over East and Central Africa, part of North Africa, as well
as the Gulf region. Lamu is an Islamic and Swahili education
centre in East Africa with an important Islamic college.
Researchers and scholars of Islamic religion and the Swahili
language come to Lamu to study this cultural heritage, which
is relatively unchanged. The island town has adopted very
little modern technology owing to its isolation.
- THE OMANI PERIOD Under Omani protection the coastal
commerce slowly regained its momentum, leading to a
further development of Lamu and the construction, by skilled
craftsmen and slave labour, of town houses and mosques
using coral stone and mangrove timber. The merchants’
houses were decorated with Chinese porcelain, and slaves
were used to maintain plantations, keeping a share of the
crops in return. In 1744 the Mazrui clan started ruling
Mombasa, forming an alliance with the town of Pate in the
north and forcing Lamu to strengthen its defences. After
winning a battle in 1813, Lamu invited Seyyid Said Ibn
Sultan-al-Busaidi, the Sultan of Oman, to install a garrison to
protect the town, leading to the construction of the Fort,
which was completed in 1821. In 1840 the capital of Seyyid
Said was transferred from Oman to Zanzibar, helping Lamu
to prosper. In the 1880s the Sultan of Zanzibar was granted
the islands of Zanzibar, Maria, Pemba, and Lamu, and a strip
Lamu exhibits an interchange of human values over a span of
time on developments in architecture with its unique fusion
of Arabic, Indian, European, and Swahili building styles.
The town has been inhabited continuously since its
foundation. Lamu is a reservoir of the Swahili culture and
plays an important role as a religious Islamic centre as well
as Swahili education centre for whole of East Africa.
Criteria ii and vi
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.
36
of the mainland up to Kipini in the north. The inland was
declared open for European exploitation.
are marked with simplicity and uniformity in their exteriors,
but they have elaborately carved wooden doors particularly
characteristic to Lamu. The massive walls are 40–60cm thick
covered with lime mortar. The houses have an entrance
porch (Daka) and an interior vestibule (Tekani) with seats.
Inside the house the spaces develop around small courtyards
(Kiwanda) and open galleries (Misana); they are decorated
with painted ceilings, large niches (Madaka), small niches
(Zidaka), and pieces of Chinese porcelain.
Until the end of the 19th century the population contained a
large number of slaves providing cheap labour and living
both in the hinterland and in households. Freemen consisted
of three social groups: the often land-owning merchants who
lived in stone houses, the shariffs who claimed to be
descendants of the Prophet Mohammed, and the fishermen
and artisans. In the 19th century Lamu became an important
religious centre as a result of tarika (The Way of the
Prophet) activities introduced by Habib Swaleh, a shariff,
who had many ancestors traced directly back to the Prophet
Mohammed. The religious annual festival of Maulidi has
continued up to the present day, attracting Muslim followers.
Lamu has also become an important Islamic and Swahili
educational centre in East Africa, owing to the relatively
unchanged and conservative character of its Muslim society.
-
The town of Lamu is divided into small wards (Mitaa), 36 in
total, which provide the framework for the social structure.
The LAMU FORT was built between 1813 and 1821 in the
southern corner of the old stone town, encouraging new
development, particularly on the seafront. The Fort is a
massive multi-storey building with a central courtyard and
has become an image of the Lamu community, being now
used for weddings, meetings, and theatre productions. It also
hosts the Lamu Conservation Office which manages the
conservation and development of the town. The BUILDINGS
ON THE SEAFRONT with their arcades and open verandahs
provide a unified visual impression of the town when
approaching it from the sea. One of the largest buildings on
the seafront (dating from 1892) has been acquired as the
Lamu Museum, exemplifying the finest characteristics of the
verandah-style construction in the 19th century.
THE BRITISH PERIOD
In 1890 the entire coastal strip north of Zanzibar was
assigned to the Imperial British East Africa Company. The
East African Protectorate was established in 1895 and
organized into provinces and districts under the new British
administration in 1898. Lamu became the headquarters of
Lamu District, administered by a resident British officer
together with a Muslim officer (Liwali, Viceroy). During the
British rule many houses were built on the reclaimed
seafront, but after the construction of the railroad from
Mombasa to Uganda in 1901 and the transfer of Protectorate
government from Mombasa to Nairobi the town’s economy
gradually declined. This was caused partly by the abolition
of slavery at the end of the 19th century and the loss of cheap
labour. In a way, this contributed to Lamu retaining its
traditional character.
-
The section consisting of MUD-BRICK BUILDINGS covers an
area of some 21ha and is spread between Langoni (the oldest
part south of the Fort), Tundami (north of the old town), and
Gademi (the newest part west of the old town). These are
almost exclusively residential areas, with some commercial
developments
recently.
Having
first
developed
spontaneously, many of the houses have been transformed
into permanent buildings with concrete block walls and
corrugated iron roofs. Such development has taken place
particularly after fires in 1962 and 1981.
KENYA
In 1963 Lamu became part of the independent state of
Kenya. Aware of the cultural significance of the town, the
government authorized the first conservation study,
sponsored by UNESCO, in 1974 and the old town was
gazetted as a national monument in 1983.
Management and Protection
Legal status
A UNESCO-sponsored survey in 1975 provided the
framework for the development of a conservation master
plan, and the historic town was protected by law (The
Antiquities and Monuments Act) in 1983. The gazetted area
(about 3km x 4km) includes the entire historic town with its
surroundings, and extends to the east across the water to
Manda Island, where both the mangrove forest and the
skyline are protected. Following this, all buildings, streets,
frontages, open spaces, streetscape elements, and
environmental features in the conservation area are preserved
as historical and architectural features.
Description
The town of Lamu is located on an island known by the same
name on the east coast of Africa some 250km north of
Mombasa. In 1986 the population of the town was some
12,000. The town is made up of two distinct sections, one
built in stone and the other in mud brick. The old town
centre consists of large houses built in coral stone and
mangrove timber. The relatively larger, surrounding area
consists of mud, wattle, and makuti houses. The whole built
area covers about 37ha, while the stone town is about 15.6ha
(750m x 280m), articulated in three distinct areas: the oldest
part of the town is in the north, the areas of Pangahari and
Yumbe with the Council Chamber and the Friday Mosque,
then expanding to the west and south in the 18th century (the
Mkomani area); the bazaar street runs north-south behind the
seafront; the Fort and the houses on the seafront were built in
the 19th century.
Protective procedures for the Lamu Old Town stipulated in
the Antiquities and Monuments Act of Kenya are
implemented following the Lamu Old Town Conservation
bye-laws of Lamu County Council. Any development,
improvement or alteration of buildings or plots in the Old
Town as well as in the outer protection area are subject to
approval by the local Planning Commission.
The c 400 houses of the Mkomani area date mainly from the
18th century, forming the largest and historically and
architecturally the most interesting part of the old town. It is
characterized by narrow streets and two to three story
buildings, mingled with small gardens. The SWAHILI HOUSES
The series of sand dunes extending on the waterfront south
of the town form the principal area for fresh water and are
being gazetted separately to guarantee their protection
against any development. Furthermore, special protection is
provided to the mangrove thickets on Manda Island.
37
Management
open lifestyle, with consequent social conflicts. There is also
an increase in the demand for visitor accommodation and the
consequent conversion of private houses into guesthouses.
The Lamu Museum was established in 1968, marking the
start of an active interest in the conservation of Swahili
culture. Several surveys and conservation plans have been
prepared and published since: the first one in 1976 (Usam
Gaidan), 1981 (W.H. Mangelus), and 1984–85 (F. Siravo).
The last plan was adopted and the Old Town of Lamu was
gazetted as an historic monument in 1986. The Lamu Town
Planning and Conservation Office was established in 1987.
Authenticity and integrity
Lamu Old Town is a rare example of a settlement that has
maintained its social and cultural integrity until the present
day. The same applies to the historic fabric, which has well
maintained its historical authenticity, both in material and in
design. As a result of the efforts to provide training in
traditional Swahili skills, there is currently a basis for the
continuation of repair and maintenance respecting the
cultural significance of the place. The town has also
maintained its relationship with the surrounding landscape
intact, and efforts have been made to extend environmental
protection both to Manda Island and to the sand dunes in the
south.
The management is controlled and executed by several
authorities, each in the relevant field, including the Ministry
of Home Affairs, National Heritage and Sports the National
Museums Board; the Director General of the National
Museums of Kenya (in Nairobi) the regional unit of Coastal
Archaeology and the Conservation and Planning Unit for the
Coastal Region (in Mombasa) the Lamu Museums, the Lamu
Town Conservation Office, and the Lamu County Council
(in Lamu).
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
The District Commissioner as the Chairman of the District
Development Committee is the coordinator of all
development activities between the different parties in Lamu.
The Chief Curator of the Lamu Museums is in charge of
everyday conservation management, and the Lamu County
Council manages services needed by the residents. At the
top, however, is the local planning commission which brings
all the players together with the representatives of the
community, and authorizes developments.
An ICOMOS expert mission visited Lamu in January 2001.
Qualities
Lamu Old Town is the oldest and best preserved example of
Swahili settlement in East Africa: it has maintained its social
and cultural integrity, as well as retaining its authentic
building fabric up to the present day. Once the most
important trade centre in East Africa, Lamu has exercised an
important influence in cultural as well as in technical terms.
Characterized as being a conservative and closed society,
Lamu has retained an important religious function with
annual celebrations, and it is also a significant centre for
education in Islamic and Swahili culture.
There are currently plans to upgrade the drainage system in
Lamu by a Small Town Development Project. National
resources are complemented by international and foreign
funds from, for example, UNESCO and several development
agencies. The European Union, in conjunction with the
National Museums of Kenya, is sponsoring a programme for
the renovation of Swahili houses. Expertise has been
provided with the help of sponsors and on-site programmes
have been organized to train local technicians in traditional
Swahili artisan skills.
Comparative analysis
The East African coast had commercial developments since
the Roman period through Arabic and Indian merchants, and
particularly following the introduction of Islam by Persian
merchants from Shiraz in the 7th century. In this coastal
region, there developed a particular Swahili culture, a
mixture of African, Arabic, Persian, Indian, and later
European (Portuguese) influences finding an expression in
the development of architecture and settlements as well as
language. The oldest remains of Swahili settlements date
from the 8th or 9th centuries, such as those of the ancient
town of Manda, close to Lamu, and the ruins of Kilwa
Kisiwani and Songo Mnara (inscribed on the World Heritage
List in 1981: criterion iii) in Tanzania. From the 13th to the
15th century there were over a hundred city states along the
east coast, but most of these have either fallen into ruins or
have been transformed into modern towns. In Kenya,
Mombasa, Malindi, Witu, Faza, and Lamu continue to exist;
of these, Lamu is the best preserved example. Amongst the
other Swahili towns are Mogadishu in Somalia and Zanzibar
in Tanzania. Zanzibar is already on the World Heritage List
(2000: ii, iii, vi), while Mogadishu and Mombasa have been
subject to changes in the modern period. Most of the others
are of later date or are only ruins.
The number of visitors to Lamu has been about 15,000–
20,000 per year, with about one-third from Kenya. The
airport is situated on Manda Island and receives direct flights
from Nairobi, Mombasa, and Malindi. The Lamu Museum is
a resource centre for tourism, providing information and
organizing tours. On Lamu Island there are two major hotels,
in addition to private accommodation and smaller hotels in
the area, amounting to some 500 beds.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The old town of Lamu has survived until the present owing
to fortunate circumstances, partly due to the remoteness of
the area and the absence of roads and vehicles and partly to
the decline in development during the 20th century. Being
built in stone, the structures have resisted weathering and are
relatively well maintained at the present. Efforts are currently
being made to improve garbage collection and drainage.
Compared with Zanzibar, Lamu presents some similarities
due to similar influences, but also many differences. The
differences are particularly in the construction techniques as
well as in building typology, in the way the town developed,
and how the spatial quality of single buildings evolved. The
community of Lamu has been more conservative than that of
Recent increases in population and numbers of visitors are,
however, creating pressures for change and have resulted in
some problems despite the control mechanisms that are in
place. The changes are felt especially in the gradual widening
of a society with a previous emphasis on privacy into a more
38
Zanzibar, partly for cultural and religious reasons, partly
helped by the smaller size of the town, its distance from
major cities, and the absence of any motorized traffic. As a
consequence, the town has also best preserved its particular
Swahili character, and represents an excellent complement to
the sites on the World Heritage List.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
The ICOMOS expert mission confirmed the value of Lamu,
and its authenticity and integrity. The mission drew the
attention to potential risks to the area, such as fire, the
construction of hotels just outside the historic area, and the
need to strengthen collaboration between the different
authorities. Particular attention was given to the role of the
buffer zone, the need for continuous updating of action plans
related to management of change, and the possibility of
exchanging management experiences with the Zanzibar
Stone Town Authority.
While recognizing the serious efforts already undertaken by
the authorities, ICOMOS wishes to underline the importance
of the social and cultural quality of Lamu and the need to
search for culturally sustainable development. Such efforts
should certainly include continuous education as well as
training programmes.
On the basis of the recommendations of the expert mission to
Lamu, ICOMOS recommends that the buffer zone be
extended to some 2km on the shoreline in order to guarantee
control of new constructions, that a more detailed
management plan be prepared with clearly defined tasks for
the authorities, and that the possibility of establishing an
inter-departmental Lamu Town Authority be considered.
Brief description
Lamu Old Town is the oldest and best preserved Swahili
settlement in East Africa, retaining its traditional functions.
Built in coral stone and mangrove timber, the town is
characterized by simplicity of structural forms enriched by
features such as inner courtyards, verandahs, and elaborately
carved wooden doors. Owing to the conservative character of
its Muslim community, Lamu has continued important
religious celebrations from the 19th century, and has become
significant for the study of Islamic and Swahili cultures.
Recommendation and statement of significance
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on
the basis of criteria ii, iv, and vi:
Lamu Old Town is the oldest and best preserved
example of Swahili settlement in East Africa. It has
maintained its social and cultural integrity, as well as
retaining its authentic building fabric until the present
day. While built using traditional Swahili techniques, the
unique character of the town is reflected in the
architectural forms and spatial articulation. Once the
most important trade centre in East Africa, Lamu has
exercised important influence in cultural as well as
technical aspects. It has retained an important religious
function and is a significant centre for education in
Islamic and Swahili culture.
ICOMOS, March 2001
39
The present town dates from 1765, when the Alaouite Sultan
Sidi Mohamed ben Abdellah decided to build a port that
would open Morocco up to the outside world and assist in
developing commercial relations with Europe. He sought the
help of Nicholas Théodore Cornut, a surveyor specialist in
military fortifications from Avignon, who was strongly
influenced by Vauban’s defences at Saint-Malo. He partially
dismantled the Portuguese fortress to build an esplanade with
a row of cannons, known as the Sqala. He laid out a
checkerboard plan for the town with forts of Roussillon type,
in the European tradition. The entire town was enclosed by a
defensive wall on the Vauban model.
Essaouira (Morocco)
No 753rev
Identification
Nomination
The Medina of Essaouira (ancient Mogador)
Location
Province of Essaouira, Tensift Region
State Party
Kingdom of Morocco
Date
7 September 1995; revised text 21 July
2000
During the reign of this Sultan, Mogador assumed a major
commercial and fiscal role. In order to control maritime
trade, he closed the southern coast to European traders,
obliging the European consuls at Safi, Agadir, and Rabat to
move to Mogador, where all southern mercantile activities
were concentrated. The new port became one of the country's
main commercial centres; it was called "the port of
Timbuktu," since it was the destination of caravans bringing
a variety of products (including slaves) from black Africa.
The town was made up of three separate districts. The
Kasbah comprised the old administrative district. The
Medina was built between the 18th century and the early
20th century. It was crossed by two main axial streets, one
running from Bab Doukalla to the harbour and the other
from Bab Marrakech to the sea. At their intersection, known
as Souk Jdid, there were four markets, for fish, spices, grain,
and general goods respectively. Each of the districts bears
the name of one of the tribes that were involved in the
building of the town.
Justification by State Party
Since its foundation in the 18th century and up to the
beginning of the 20th century Essaouira has played a
fundamental role as an international trading port between
Morocco and the rest of the world. A number of consulates
and traders from different countries were established there.
The Mellah is the Jewish quarter; it played a very important
role in the history of the town, since the Sultan made use of
this community to establish relations with Europe and to
organize commercial activities with them. They were given
the title of Toujjar Es-Sultan (Royal Merchants), giving them
considerable economic and political privileges.
Essaouira is a leading example of building inspired by
European architecture. It is a town that is unique by virtue of
its design: it was created in conformity with a predetermined
plan (the Cornut plan). Since the beginning, the medina of
Essaouira has been a major place for the peaceable coming
together of the architectural and town-planning models of
Europe and of Morocco itself. In this way a symbiosis was
achieved between building techniques from Morocco and
elsewhere which gave birth to some unique architectural
masterpieces (the Sqalas of the port and of the medina, the
Bab Marrakech bastion, the water gate, mosques,
synagogues, churches, etc).
Criteria ii and iv
Description
The main features of the town are:
•= The ramparts, most of the northern section of which
survives.
•= The town gates, especially the ornamental Sea Gate
(1170–71).
•= The bastions and forts (borjs), especially the Sqala of the
Port and the Sqala of the Medina and the Bastion of Bab
Marrakech.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of property set out in Article 1 of
the 1972 World Heritage Convention, the town of Essaouira
is a group of buildings.
•= The Kasbah, which was originally the seat of power and
the military garrison, and now integrated into the town
proper.
•= The Mellah (Jewish quarter), which retains many of its
original special features.
History and Description
History
•= The prison, located on the offshore island (now a refuge
for rare birds, such as hawks).
Archaeological excavations have shown that the site of
Essaouira was originally a Phoenician trading settlement;
they were followed by Cretans, Greeks, and Romans. The
earlier name of Mogador derives from Migdol, meaning a
small fort. In 1506 it was to become the site of a Portuguese
fortress, but this was abandoned soon after.
•= The many mosques, in a characteristic style, and
especially the Mosques of the Casbah and Ben Yossef.
•= The synagogues (in particular the 19th century
synagogue of Simon Attias), which preserve the
dynamism of the Jewish inhabitants.
40
•= The late 18th century Portuguese church.
some measure of authenticity has been lost owing to repair
and reconstruction work involving modern materials,
especially concrete.
•= The Dar-Sultan (old Royal Palace).
•= The very attractive private houses.
The harbour of Essaouira is approached through a sheltered
narrow channel. It is flanked by large expanses of sand
dunes, beyond which lie the argan (Argania spinosa) forests
unique to Morocco.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
ICOMOS consulted its International Scientific Committee on
Historic Towns and Villages on the cultural significance of
the site. An ICOMOS expert mission visited Essaouira in
February 1996. A second ICOMOS mission visited the town
in April 1997 and a third in May 2001.
There is at present no detailed survey and inventory of the
buildings in the three districts, with descriptions, plans, etc,
but this is essential for future restoration and conservation
projects.
Qualities
Essaouira is an excellent example of the translation of the
urban design and fortification principles of 18th century
Europe to the Moslem world.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The only monuments in Essaouira protected by the series of
statutes and regulations, the most recent of which is Royal
Decree No 22/80, which imposes controls over any work of
demolition, alteration, extension, and reconstruction of listed
buildings, are the fortifications, which have been legally
protected since 1924 as a historic monumental ensemble.
ICOMOS observations
When it first evaluated the property in 1996, ICOMOS was
concerned that there was no programme for the restoration
and preservation of this town, and in particular for its
fortifications, or for the survey and inventory of the existing
stock of buildings and monuments. It was also not
convinced that the town possesses the "outstanding universal
value" needed for inscription on the World Heritage List.
The first urban planning legislation was enacted in 1954. In
conformity with Royal Decree No 12/90, there are strict
controls on development, based on individual town plans.
It accordingly recommended to the Bureau of the World
Heritage Committee at its 20th session in Paris in June 1996
that the property should not be inscribed on the World
Heritage List. The Bureau decided, however, to defer the
examination of the nomination until its 21st session, so that
the Moroccan authorities might submit additional
information concerning the site Following receipt of this
additional information by ICOMOS, the second mission took
place in April 1997.
Management
Ownership of the elements that make up the historic town of
Essaouira is divided between the State, the municipality, the
Habous, the Alliance Israëlite, cooperatives, and private
individuals.
The 1988 urban plan No 4001 provides for a zone round the
historic town within which no construction is permitted.
Conscious of the threats to the cultural heritage of Essaouira,
the provincial and municipal authorities have since 1996
been carrying out a number of studies, some with the support
of international bodies (UNESCO, UNICEF, GTZ,
CNUEH/Habitat, etc).
Whilst the 1997 mission confirmed the ICOMOS
reservations expressed above regarding the conservation and
management of Essaouira, it dissented from the view that the
property does not possess “outstanding universal value.” It
stressed the fact that the fortifications are of outstanding
quality, and also that the urban fabric and the traditional way
of life survive intact.
Two significant measures of protection and management are
currently in the final stages of application. These are the
Schéma Directeur d'Aménagement Urbain de la Ville
d'Essaouira and the Plan de sauvegarde de la médina
d'Essaouira, both prepared by the Ministère de
l'Aménagement du Territoire, de l'Environnement, de
l'Urbanisation et de l'Habitat. These fully conform with the
requirement of the Committee relating to management plans
(Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World
Heritage Convention, paragraph 39.b.2).
At the 21st session of the Bureau in Paris in June 1997
further consideration of this nomination was deferred, to
enable the State Party to formulate and implement a
management plan.
Recommendation
Confirmation that this property was to be presented to the
Bureau in June 2001 was not received by ICOMOS until
after its World Heritage Panel had met at the end of March.
In addition, this text has been prepared before the report of
the expert mission has been received. ICOMOS will make a
formal recommendation to the Bureau in June.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
There appears to have been little, if any, conscious
conservation policy in Essaouira until recently.
Authenticity
The authenticity of the ensemble is high: the original street
plan and the defences survive virtually intact. However,
ICOMOS, April 2001
41
resides in the combination of these factors, man being an
agent of practice and of tradition.
Criterion ii
Guimarães (Portugal)
No 1031
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.
History and Description
Identification
Nomination
Historic Centre of Guimarães
Location
Province of Minho, District of Braga
State Party
Portugal
Date
27 June 2000
History
Guimarães was situated on the most important early
medieval route of communication connecting Monçao and
Braga with Viseu and Caminha, the seat of the Portuguese
(Portucalense) Counts from the 10th century. This urban
settlement developed as a result of two forces, a monastery
and a fort, one in the valley, the other on the hill, surrounded
by two rivers. The town thus dominated the fertile plain that
extended towards the sea. The two focal points continued
growing in parallel until they were brought together within a
single enclosure in the 13th and 14th centuries.
The early history of Guimarães is closely associated with the
forming of the national identity and the language of Portugal,
being associated with the early Portuguese sovereigns. The
region was given as a feudal property to the family that
created the country in the 12th century. In 1139 Count Dom
Afonso Henriques declared the independence of Portugal
from León and took the name of Afonso I as the first king of
the new kingdom. Because of the association of the family
with the region, the monastery of Guimarães was
transformed into a royal college, thus obtaining a primary
institutional role in the country. It also became a pilgrimage
place on the route of Santiago de Compostela because of an
image of the Madonna that was considered to be miraculous.
Justification by State Party
The historic centre of Guimarães is an ensemble and a
testimony of urban development that brings together
renowned examples of a special type of construction.
Because of its unity, its construction system (in traditional
techniques), its architectural characteristics (diversity of
typologies, illustrating the evolution of the city at different
periods), and its integration with the landscape setting, the
town represents outstanding universal values.
The zone proposed for inscription contains an urban fabric
that has medieval origins and includes a succession of places
of great formal significance, where the built structure (mainly
from the 17th century), while representing a variety of types,
is built using traditional technology, ie the colombage and
the pisé de fasquio in which timber is a fundamental element.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Bourg developed a variety
of activities, including the manufacture of cutlery and
jewellery, the treatment of leather, and marketing of the
goods. The production reinforced the position of Guimarães
on the route between the coast and the inland. The
establishment of Dominican and Franciscan orders outside
the walls of the Bourg contributed to the beginning of
urbanization extra muros, including an area for the treatment
of leather close to the river Couros. The economic and social
status of the town was recognized in the new charter granted
by Dom Manuel in 1517.
The authenticity and integrity of the traditional construction
methods remain a living presence in the city. This type of
construction is still widely used in the urban area and
represents a cultural heritage to be safeguarded.
The authenticity and the strong visual impact of the historic
centre of Guimarães result from the unified protection
strategies that have been implemented by the Municipal
Technical Offices (GTL). The policies of urban conservation
have been based on the promotion of rehabilitation and the
re-evaluation of public spaces, retaining the resident
population, protecting and maintaining the existing historic
structures built in traditional technology, as well as
guaranteeing a strict implementation, which have resulted in
an exemplary case that distinguishes Guimarães amongst the
other towns of the country.
The 18th century was a period of intensive construction
activity, particularly marked by noble residences. It was also
the period of the first urban master plan, though most of the
implementation took place in the first half of the 19th
century. There were also new access roads, which came to
modify the medieval situation, establishing the basis for the
present-day layout in the region. The medieval defence walls
and gates, which had already lost their function in the 16th
century, were gradually demolished starting from the 17th to
19th centuries.
The exemplary results have been recognized by several
international and national awards, such as the Prix Europa
Nostra in 1985.
In the 20th century the town expanded at an increasing speed
due to industrial development. In the 1980s the municipality
recognized the importance of the historic centre of the town,
establishing a technical office responsible for the strategies
of conservation and rehabilitation.
The traditional techniques used in Guimarães derive from
experience and from oral transmission, transferring the past
to the present and guaranteeing continuity to the knowhow
and manual skills. The wealth of traditional techniques
42
defence. Part of it was demolished in the 18th century and it
has been subject to restorations in the 19th and 20th
centuries.
Description
The nominated area of Guimarães (16ha) consists of the
historic centre as it was formed at the time of the
construction of the medieval enclosure of the 13th century.
This core area is surrounded by a buffer zone (45ha), which
roughly corresponds to the built area in the first half of the
20th century. The nominated area has a population of about
1000 and the buffer zone 1850 inhabitants.
Close to the castle, there is a small Romanesque church, SÃO
MIGUEL DO CASTELO, which was consecrated in 1239.
Having been ruined in the 19th century, the building was
restored in the 1920s.
The church of NOSSA SENHORA DA OLIVEIRA was founded in
the 12th century on the site where the first monastery had
existed some three centuries earlier. The church was
completely renovated from 1387 to 1413, with three naves
and a wooden roof structure, according to the Portuguese
Gothic model. The cloister was added in the 16th century
and the present sanctuary to the church in the 17th century.
The urban layout of the historic centre is an area some 850m
long and about 250m wide, with the castle in the north and
the original monastic complex in the south. The different
constructions fall into several periods, though the single
buildings may have undergone various changes and
additions over time. The following have been identified as
the main periods of construction:
I.
The PALACE OF THE DUKES OF BRAGANÇA is a large complex
built in stone down the hill from the castle. The first
construction dates from 1420–22, most probably under
French influence. The building, a late medieval type, was
conceived as a symbol of the pride of the Bragança family.
The building underwent various vicissitudes, serving as a
military headquarters in the late 19th century. It was restored
in the 1930s, much of the restoration based on hypothesis.
The early settlement, 950–1279;
II Unification within one enclosure, 1279–1498;
III Renaissance to Baroque, 1498–1750;
IV Rococo to Neo-Classicism, 1750–1863;
V Eclectic to industrial period, 1863–1926;
The TOWN HALL, in the square in front of the church of
Nossa Senhora, dates mainly from the 16th and 17th
centuries. The palace, primarily in stone, has one main floor
with large doors opening to a balcony along the main facade.
The ground floor is characterized by open arcades. In the
same square, in front of the church, there is also a 14th
century Gothic arch, a monument commemorating the
victory of Dom Afonso IV in the battle of Padrão do Salado.
VI Modern expansion, 1926 till today.
The historic centre is characterized by a large number
buildings from the different periods. Period I and II have a
number of stone constructions, including the two poles
around which the town initially developed, the castle in the
north and the monastic complex in the south. The third and
forth period are characterized by noble houses and the
development of civic facilities, city squares, etc. The fifth
and sixth period are characterized by some modern changes,
though the town essentially has maintained its medieval
urban layout.
The core area and the buffer zone contain several interesting
religious buildings, such as the CONVENT OF SANTA CLARA
from the 17th and 18th centuries and the CHURCH OF
MISERICÓRDIA from the early 17th century.
The systems and techniques of construction and building
types have evolved over time. The residential buildings in
the nominated area are characterized by the use of two
construction techniques, one dating from before the 16th
century, called taipa de rodízio, a particular type of halftimber structure, which mixed granite with a structure in
timber and a filling in sun-dried brick, using clay mortar. The
other technique, called taipa de fasquio, came into use in the
19th century and was built entirely in timber. These
techniques are still mastered today. This technology was first
developed in the region of Guimarães. From here it was
exported to Portuguese colonies in other parts of the world,
becoming a distinct characteristic of the personality of
Portuguese colonial architecture.
Guimarães has a rich typology of houses and palaces ranging
from the 16th to the 19th and even the 20th centuries,
continuing to use similar traditional techniques. The
BOURGEOIS HOUSES OF THE 16TH CENTURY have a ground
floor in granite and the upper floors are built using the halftimbered structure of taipa de rodízio. The 16th century
houses of noble families have often been an alteration of a
previous structure, and have generally their elevation built in
granite, as a sign of distinction.
The typical HOUSES OF THE 17TH CENTURY continued using
the same construction technique, ie granite in the ground
floor and half-timbered structure in the upper floors, usually
three, which extend stepwise over the ground floor. Another
type of house of the same century was built with a peristyle
and arcaded ground floor, and is usually found in public
squares. The noble palaces were built in granite ashlar,
including a series of recesses. The building extended along
the street front with its characteristic windows and balconies,
giving it a dignified aspect. More modest town houses have a
simple facade without any decorative features.
Considering that the town had begun to develop extra muros
in the 16th century, the historic area is not limited to the core
zone within the original medieval enclosure. The core area
and the buffer zone contain several listed monuments of
national and public interest: 12 in the core area and 10 in the
buffer zone. Furthermore, the municipality has identified
buildings of particular heritage interest: 36 in the core zone
and 24 in the buffer zone.
The NOBLE PALACES OF THE 18TH CENTURY were built in
ashlar stone with recessed elevations, but more modest
dimensions than in the previous century. In the transition,
from the 18th to the 19th and 20th centuries, the
constructions still continued using certain traditional
features, but they are distinguished by their size and the
The monuments of national interest include the medieval
CASTLE, built on the site of the first fort of the 10th century.
The present construction was built in stone, begun at the time
of Afonso I in the 12th century and continued with various
modifications in the following centuries. The building is an
austere crenellated structure with towers, designed for
43
horizontal accent. In the 20th century it is fashionable to use
azulejos as a decorative element in the elevations.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The continuity in traditional technology and the maintenance
and gradual change have contributed to an exceptionally
harmonious townscape, but limited to the core area. The
buffer zone has several interesting monuments, including an
entire traditional street, Rua Dom João I, though otherwise
the area results from industrial housing developments in the
20th century.
The town of Guimarães has been fortunate in that it has
never been subject to any major disasters in its history. As a
result the town represents an exceptional harmony in the
continuation of eventual changes and developments. This is
also due to the continuity in the use of traditional techniques
and materials since the Middle Ages. Although the different
epochs have introduced a variety of building types, the
typology as a whole also represents a continuity that gives
the town a remarkably well balanced townscape.
Management and Protection
So far as the single buildings are concerned, there have been
various interventions, changes, and additions, resulting from
changes in uses. Some of the public buildings, such as the
Castle, the Bragança Palace, and several churches have been
subject to restoration in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
These restorations have been carried out following the
criteria of the time, including reconstructions on the basis of
evidence or sometimes based on hypothesis. However, these
interventions can be seen as part of the history of the place
and they do not impair the overall issue of authenticity.
Legal status
The public areas of the historic centre are the property of the
municipality of Guimarães. Apart from some state-owned
properties, most of the building stock is privately owned.
The historic centre is subject to legal prescriptions regarding
the protection of historic buildings (L. 13/85; L. 120/97;
D.L. 3/98), and related to town planning (D.L. 38/382 of
1951; L. 445/91; D.L. 250/94). The urban master plan dates
from 1994 and includes norms for the protection of the
historic centre.
Authenticity and integrity
ICOMOS regards the historic area of Guimarães to have well
retained its historic stratigraphy and to pass the test of
authenticity. The historic core also presents an area of great
integrity, where the different phases of development are well
integrated into the whole.
In the historic centre there are 14 historic buildings legally
protected as national monuments (8) or as historic buildings
of public interest (6), according to the Portuguese Law on
the Protection of Historic Monuments. Where no protected
zone has been established, the protection also includes
prescriptions regarding the setting of the protected buildings,
up to 50m from the exterior of the construction.
It is also to be noted that the core area obviously represents
the historic centre of a town, which has continued to grow
and develop around it in the 20th century. As a result the
areas outside the perimeter of the protected zone reflect a
more ordinary townscape.
During the mission to the site, the ICOMOS expert noted
that parts of the buffer zone remained outside the protection
zone. While norms for the protection of the historic core area
exist, these have not been established for the buffer zone.
Consequently, the municipality has already taken measures
to rectify the situation and to extend protection to the entire
area proposed for inscription and to prepare the required
norms for the buffer zone.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the site in February
2001. ICOMOS also consulted its International Committee
on Historic Towns and Villages (CIVVIH).
Management
The management of the historic centre is the responsibility of
the Local Technical Office for the Historic Centre of the
Municipality (GTL), established in 1985. Any interventions
related to listed buildings is under the control of the
Portuguese Institute of Architectural Heritage (IPPAR).
Qualities
The history of Guimarães is closely associated with the
creation of the national identity and language of Portugal. It
was the feudal territory of the Portuguese Dukes who
declared the independence of Portugal from León in the mid
12th century.
The ICOMOS site mission was able to verify and confirm
that the conservation and maintenance of the historic area is
exceptionally well managed. In fact, the area is in good
condition, also as a result of the systematic maintenance
programme, sponsored by European funding. Most of the
building stock has already been subject to this maintenance
programme.
Guimarães has well preserved its historic building stock,
which represents the evolution of building typologies from
the Middle Ages to the 19th century. This development is
documented in the rich variety of different building types
that have responded to the evolving needs of the community.
It is noted furthermore that Guimarães has continued to make
use of traditional knowhow and skills up to the present day.
As a consequence maintenance work and repairs have been
executed using traditional methods, thus guaranteeing a
harmony with and respect for the existing historic fabric.
Guimarães also developed a particular version of a type of
construction using granite mixed with a timber-framed
structure, a technology which was widely diffused in the
Portuguese colonies.
The historic town has a considerable number of visitors, out
of whom about 75% are foreigners, mainly from Europe. It is
well equipped to manage such tourism flows.
Comparative analysis
In the Portuguese context there are basically two urban
developments; one is related to the Roman, Germanic, and
Arabic inheritance, such as Evora (inscribed on the World
44
Heritage List 1986: criteria ii, iv), which were then expanded
in the Portuguese period. The other development has a
Portuguese basis, resulting in cities such as Guimarães and
Minho.
As the seat of the king and the government Lisbon has had
its own particular basis for the development. There is also a
difference with cities such as Oporto (1996: iv), which
architecturally represents a different development, becoming
a major metropolis, when compared with the traditionally
evolved Guimarães on a small scale.
While Portugal certainly has a rich heritage with numerous
historic cities, Guimarães is distinguished in particular for its
integrity, where the historically authentic building stock is
presented in an exceptionally well managed context.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
Considering the verified lack of protection in certain areas of
the buffer zone and the lack of specified norms of protection
in the same areas, ICOMOS urges the State Party to take the
necessary action and to provide the required legal protection
and protection norms for the areas concerned.
Brief description
The historic town of Guimarães is associated with the
creation of the Portuguese national identity in the 12th
century. The town is an exceptionally well preserved and
authentic example of the evolution of a medieval settlement
into a modern township, retaining a rich building typology
representing the specifically Portuguese development over
the centuries, particularly from the 15th to the 19th centuries,
and consistently built using traditional building materials and
techniques.
Recommendation
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on
the basis of criteria ii, iii, and iv:
The historic town of Guimarães is associated with the
definition of the Portuguese national identity and
language in the 12th century. The town is exceptionally
well preserved, illustrating the different phases of the
evolution of particular building types from the medieval
settlement to a modern township, and particularly from
the 15th to the 19th centuries, and consistently built in
traditional building materials and techniques. Because of
the role of Guimarães in the exploration of new
territories, the specialized building techniques developed
there in the Middle Ages were introduced to Portuguese
colonies, becoming their characteristic feature.
ICOMOS, March 2001
45
History and Description
Samarkand (Uzbekistan)
History
Located on the crossroads of the great trade routes that
traversed Central Asia, Samarkand has a multi-millennial
history. Archaeological excavations in present-day
Samarkand have brought to light the remains of settlements
related to the first half of the 1st millennium BCE. The
ancient Afrosiab (the predecessor of Samarkand) had a
strategic location at the time of the formation of the first
large states in Central Asia, such as Khorezm, Baktria, and
Sogd, and it was the capital of Sogdiana. It was part of the
Achaemenid Empire (6th –4th centuries BCE) and that of
Alexander the Great (4th century BCE). Situated at the
crossing of trade routes from China, Afghanistan, Iran,
India, and the Caucasus, the city became prosperous and
an important centre of silk trade in the 2nd century CE.
The city was part of a Turkish kingdom in the 6th century,
and was conquered by Kuteiba-ibn-Muslim in 712 CE,
starting the penetration of Islamic culture into the region of
the
present-day
Uzbekistan
(Maverannahr
or
Transoxiana). The Arabs rulers turned the ancient temples
into mosques, administrative centres, places of learning,
courts, and treasuries.
No 603rev
Identification
Nomination
Samarkand – the place of crossing and
synthesis of world cultures
Location
Samarkand Region
State Party
Republic of Uzbekistan
Date
7 July 2000
The Samanids of Iran occupied the place from the 9th to
10th centuries and Turkic peoples from the 11th to 13th
centuries; it was part of the Kingdom of Khwarezm in the
13th century, until it was devastated by the Mongol
invasion of Genghis Khan in 1220. The city emerged as a
major centre through the efforts of Timur the Lame
(Tamerlane) (1369–1404). It was rebuilt on its present site,
south-west of Afrosiab, and became the capital of Timur’s
powerful state and the repository of the material riches
from conquered territories that extended from Central Asia
to Persia, Afghanistan, and India. It remained a cultural
capital of the Timurids until the end of the 15th century,
during the reign of Ulugh Bek (1409–49) and his
successors. Timur built a citadel, the Blue Palace (KukSaray), and other important buildings. The period was
characterized by a new synthesis of arts; local traditions
were influenced from other regions of the empire (Persian
Khorasan, Khorezm), resulting in the construction of major
religious ensembles, such as Bibi-Khanum Mosque in front
of the main city gates, the Gur Emir complex, and the
Grave of Emir near the palace of Muhammad Sultan. The
eastern gates of the town linked with the city centre,
known as Registan Square, where Ulugh Bek started the
construction of a major complex in 1447.
Justification by State Party
The city of Samarkand is a historically well known social,
political, cultural, and economic centre of Central Asia.
Being situated on the crossing of the Great Silk Roads,
Samarkand has preserved the values of cultures, religions,
and arts of the ancient world. Nowadays in the historical
part of the city there are magnificent examples of the
architecture and culture of ancient civilizations (Afrosiab,
Shakhi-Zinda, Registan, Gur-Emir, and others). As
Samarkand was the capital of ancient states various
religions concentrated there: Zoroastrianism, Buddhism,
Christianity, and Islam. The material remains related to
these religions are an evidence of cultures that have
disappeared.
The historical part of Samarkand and its elements reflect
the creativity of human genius and a synthesis of world
arts. The ancient city of Afrosiab has preserved its original
forms and unique wall decorations, which are now
conserved.
The monuments reflect the achievements of material
culture in Central Asian history. The architectural
ensembles of the Timurid epoch have played a great role in
the development of town planning, architecture, and arts in
this region.
Criteria i, ii, iii, and iv
In the 16th century, during the Uzbek occupation (1500),
Samarkand became the Khanate of Bukhara and gradually
lost its earlier importance, though some notable
construction works were still undertaken in the 17th
century. These included the Madrassah of Shir-Dor built
by Yalandtush Bahadur on Registan Square opposite the
Ulugh Bek Madrassah, and was followed by the Tilla Kari
Madrassah, a new Friday mosque, to complete the
ensemble. In the 18th century, the city suffered a serious
economic decline.
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.
In 1868 the Russians conquered Samarkand, making it a
provincial capital (1887) and thus reviving its economy.
The Caspian Railway was brought to the town in 1888,
linking the European part of Russia and Central Asia, and
again reinforcing the role of Samarkand as an important
trade centre. The Russian administration constructed
These monuments are unique and there is nothing
comparable known elsewhere in the world.
These architectural ensembles and archaeological
monuments are the only examples that illustrate the
important stages of Central Asian and world history.
Category of property
46
contains substantial areas of historic fabric with typical
narrow lanes, articulated into districts with social centres,
mosques, madrassahs, and residential housing.
schools, churches, and hospitals, and the western part of
Samarkand was redeveloped according to current townplanning ideas. The period, however, also led to the
destruction of the city walls and gates, as well as of several
monuments, such as Timur's citadel. At the beginning of
the 20th century the city thus included three main sectors
one next to the other: the archaeological area of the ancient
city (Afrosiab), the medieval Timurid city, and the modern
city, the construction of which started in the 1870s. The
city was the capital of the Uzbek SSR from 1924 to 1930
and later an administrative centre.
The traditional Uzbek houses have one or two floors and
the spaces are grouped around central courtyards with
gardens. Built in mud brick, the houses have painted
wooden ceilings and wall decorations. Before 1982, when
Samarkand was provided with legal protection, some large
modern constructions were built in the historic area. Since
the proclamation of the independence of the Republic of
Uzbekistan such large-scale construction works have been
stopped.
Description
When Samarkand was occupied by the Russians at the end
of the 19th century, an extension was designed to the west
of the old town. This area was built according to the
European town-planning ideas of the period, and it was
designed with a series of streets radiating from the former
citadel area. It included a large city park with public
buildings, churches and a synagogue. Much of the
residential housing was still built using traditional
techniques.
Samarkand is located in a large oasis in the valley of the
Zerafshan river, not far from the Kara-Kum desert, in the
north-eastern part of Uzbekistan. Surrounded by high
mountains and having enough water, a fertile soil, and a
rich fauna, this valley has always attracted people.
Evidence of settlements in this region goes back to 1500
BCE. The historical part of Samarkand consists of three
main sections: in the north-east there is the site of the
ancient Afrosiab (founded in the 7th century BCE)
including the necropolis of Shakhi-Zinda; to the south of
this there is the medieval Timurid city; and to the west
there is the area of the 19th century expansion in European
style. The modern city extends around this historical core
zone.
-
THE SHAKHI-ZINDA ENSEMBLE
The ensemble of Shakhi-Zinda, on the southern edge of
Afrosiab, contains a magnificent series of mosques,
madrassahs, and mausolea dating from the 11th to the 19th
century. These domed structures are covered with glazed
tiles, mosaics, and paintings from the different centuries,
and in effect form an architectural museum which hardly
has any parallel elsewhere.
The nomination proposes a series of monuments for
inscription to the World Heritage List. The most important
of these are the following:
1. Shakhi-Zinda ensemble, Hazrat-Hizr Mosque, and
remains of the city walls in the Afrosiab archaeological
area;
-
THE BIBI KHANUM ENSEMBLE
6. The ensembles of Abdi-Darun and Ishrat-khona;
Timur built the Bibi Khanum Mosque in memory of his
wife close to the northern gate of the city in 1399–1405.
Additions were made later in the 15th century. It is an
imposing Friday mosque, built around a central courtyard
and richly decorated with marble carvings, glazed tiles,
minarets, and domes. The original upper part of the
building had collapsed and was recently rebuilt in
reinforced concrete. The ensemble includes the BibiKhanum Mausoleum across the road.
7. The City Garden ensemble in the 19th century town.
-
Afrosiab is the ancient site of the town before the Timurid
period dating from the 7th century BCE to the beginning
of the 13th century CE. It has the form of a triangle and an
extent of about 289ha. Archaeological excavations have
revealed the ancient citadel and fortifications, the palace of
the ruler, and residential and craft quarters. The ruler’s
palace (7th century CE) has important wall paintings, and
there are also the remains of a large ancient mosque built
from the 8th to 12th centuries. In 1962 the road to the
airport was built across the territory of Afrosiab and a new
access road was provided to the archaeological site.
Registan Square was identified as the centre of the new
city after the destruction of Afrosiab in 1220. The site was
constructed in several phases, and it now includes three
large madrassahs, originally built in mud brick and covered
with decorated ceramic tiles. The Ulugh Bek Madrassah is
the oldest, dating from 1420. The Madrassah Shirdor
(1619–32), opposite this, reflects its facade, and the Tilla
Kari madrassah (1641–60) closes the square on the north
side. The buildings have been partly rebuilt in recent
decades.
2. The Bibi-Khanum ensemble;
3. The Registan ensemble;
4. The ensembles of Gur-Emir and Rukhabad;
5. Ulugh-Bek’s Observatory;
-
The medieval town of Samarkand was built by Timur
starting in the 14th century and it retained its integrity
intact until the 19th century. There are several major
monumental ensembles and over 300 ancient monuments.
Since the 19th century, there have been losses, particularly
in the western part (the Timurid citadel), the area around
the Registan Square in the centre of the old town, and the
area around the Bibi Khanum Mosque in the north-east. In
addition, some modern roads have been built across the
traditional urban fabric. Nevertheless, the old town still
THE REGISTAN ENSEMBLE
THE RUKHABAT MAUSOLEUM AND GUR-EMIR
The Rukhabat Mausoleum is situated south-west of
Registan Square. The building was intended for the burial
of Burkhan ad-Din Sagardji, who died in the 1380s. It is a
simple brick structure with central plan and covered with a
dome and has no portal. It was restored in 1996, on the
occasion of the Timurid anniversary. The surrounding
urban fabric was demolished, leading to the discovery of
the remains of related buildings. The Gur Emir ensemble is
situated to the south of the mausoleum and connected with
47
of protected areas is with the Ministry of Cultural Affairs
of the Republic of Uzbekistan, shared with the Office for
Scientific Production of Cultural Monuments, the Board of
the Samarkand Historical-Architectural Reserve, the
Khokimiyat [Municipality] of Samarkand and the Siab
District of Samarkand.
it via a stone-paved alley. The central building has been
restored and its dome rebuilt; the large portal is restored
and the remains of the other constructions of the ensemble
are displayed after excavations.
-
ULUGH BEK’S OBSERVATORY
Over a hill north-east of Afrosiab there are the remains of
the Observatory of Ulugh Bek, the 15th century ruler and
noted scientist and astronomer. The site includes a large
semi-circle dug into the ground (11m deep), forming the
lower part of the 15th century astronomical instrument
built in marble and with indication of degrees. The site is
of great scientific significance.
-
The long-term national heritage programme, “Meros”, is
developed in collaboration between State and municipal
authorities, the Ministry being more focused on
monuments and the municipality on historic areas. The
National Company Uzbekturism conducts projects with the
objective of including architectural and archaeological
monuments in tourist itineraries. The principal financial
resources are provided by the State, but there is growing
participation by non-governmental organizations and the
private sector interested in the preservation of historic
monuments. The technicians and specialists involved in the
preparation and execution of the projects are trained by
national universities and in practical field seminars. An
example of such activity has been the recent involvement
of the Aga Khan Trust in pilot projects on the restoration
and rehabilitation of historic residential areas.
THE CITY GARDEN
The ensemble of the City Garden is situated in the 19th
century part of Samarkand. It includes several religious
and public buildings: Alekseyevsky Cathedral, the RomanCatholic Church, the Armenian Church, Georgievsky’s
Cathedral, the Synagogue, the Palace of the General
Governor, the Russian-Chinese Bank, the Public Meeting
Building, the Military Meeting Building, and Hotel
Zarafshan.
Earlier, several industrial enterprises were located in the
historic area, but these have been systematically removed
since the protection process started in 1982. The aim is to
remove all such activities and locate them outside the
historic area. Samarkand is in a seismic area and relevant
measures are taken, such as strengthening the foundations
of historic buildings. The state of conservation of protected
monuments is regularly monitored by specialists and
materials are tested in scientific laboratories.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The monuments are state and national property under the
provisions of the Constitution of the Republic of
Uzbekistan, the Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan on
Safeguarding and Using of Historical and Cultural
Monuments, and the Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of
the Republic of Uzbekistan (26 May 1982) concerning the
establishment of the State Samarkand HistoricalArchitectural Reserve. The status of the Reserve prohibits
construction of new buildings or carrying out changes that
violate the condition of the territory or cultural monuments
within the boundaries of the Reserve.
The city of Samarkand is a large tourist centre, and the
historic area of the town has some 185,000 inhabitants.
The National Company Uzbekturism as well as
International Charitable Foundation Oltin Meros (Golden
Heritage) publish various brochures, albums, books, tourist
guides, and maps.
Management
Conservation and Authenticity
After the proclamation of independence of the Republic of
Uzbekistan, the Government adopted a number of Decrees
directed to the preservation of historical and cultural
monuments in historic cities. Some large-scale works were
carried on the basis of a long-term programme in two
stages: the first up to 1996 and the second up to 2000,
connected with the 600th anniversary of Mirzo Ulugbek
and the 660th anniversary of Amir Timur. In the first stage
measures on engineering, strengthening, and conservation
of preserved fragments of architectural decoration were
implemented. The second stage has included works
directed to improve the geological situation of the territory,
strictly limiting construction works in the protected areas,
reconstruction of old dwellings with relevant roads and
public centres, and the provision of these areas with
modern technical facilities.
Conservation history
The historic town of Samarkand has suffered several losses
since the 18th century, when its decline started. These have
included the demolition of the fortifications and the ancient
citadel at the end of the 19th century, as well as several areas
of traditional residential buildings even in the recent past.
The ancient religious monuments, madrassahs, and mosques
have also suffered, and many were already in a poor state of
repair in the 19th century. Since then a substantial amount of
restoration work has been carried out, following a variety of
principles. Some of the repairs have been carried out as a
minimum intervention, fully respecting the original fabric; in
other cases, there have been different degrees of restoration
and reconstruction. It should be noted that the restoration
and reconstruction of ancient Timurid monuments has
become a special priority since the independence of
Uzbekistan, because of their identity value to the newly
independent state.
The protected historic sites are managed following the
Instruction on Organization of Protective Zones of
Immovable Historical and Cultural Monuments, dated 24
January 1986, which defines the boundaries of the areas,
the norms for the use and repair of protected zones and
monuments, as well as defining the content and procedures
of projects. The overall responsibility of the management
The Shakhi Zindar ensemble has retained its important
religious significance throughout the years, but the repair and
restoration works have remained minimal until today. In fact,
many of the monuments are in need of repair and
48
This core area is surrounded by a more recent development.
Afrosiab has been partly excavated, and the Timurid city
could be conserved as a living historic urban area. The latter
has lost some of its medieval features, such as the city walls
and the citadel, as well as parts of the traditional residential
structures in areas surrounding major monuments.
Nevertheless, it still contains a substantial urban fabric of
traditional Islamic quarters, with some fine examples of
traditional houses.
consolidation. The Guri-Emir ensemble and the Rukhabad
mausoleum have been restored and they are in satisfactory
condition. The ensembles of Registan and the Bibi-Khanum
have been subject to partial reconstruction using reinforced
concrete structures and reproduction traditional-type glazed
tiles.
So far as the traditional urban fabric of the historic area is
concerned, the conditions vary. Until recently little attention
has been paid to guaranteeing maintenance and repair of the
residential housing, except within the limits of resources
provided by individual inhabitants. The houses are generally
built in mud brick and timber. It should be noted that the
relevant skills still exist in the region and several work sites
have been conducted in recent years for the rehabilitation
and restoration of historic houses. In this context, the pilot
projects of the Aga Khan Trust have been significant.
Generally speaking, the state of conservation of the existing
urban area is variable; some parts are in satisfactory
condition, while others may be close to collapse.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
The site of Uzbekistan was first proposed for nomination in
1990, but it was deferred because some major monuments
had not been included in the proposal. The site was again
proposed in 1991, and the Bureau again deferred
consideration, proposing that only Muslim monuments be
included in the proposal. The site was visited by an
ICOMOS expert in November 1991. ICOMOS recognized
the potential universal value of the site, noting that the
designation should focus on the Timurid achievements and
the pattern of survival of the capital city of Tamurlane. In
respect of the current nomination, a new ICOMOS mission
will visit the site in April 2001. ICOMOS has also consulted
its International Scientific Committee on Historic Towns and
Villages (CIVVIH) and other members.
The nomination document illustrates a project for the
reconstruction of the central part of Samarkand in which it is
proposed to integrate the Timurid city and the 19th century
part of the old town into a large-scale urban planning
scheme. The proposed central axis links the former citadel
area of the old town with a new administrative structure and
public facilities in the south. No details or explanations are
provided about the impact of such a scheme on the historic
town core.
Qualities
Authenticity and integrity
The historic town of Samarkand is well known from history
as a symbol of ancient oriental culture. Although much has
been lost in the past, the existing remains still retain a flavour
that recalls the splendid past of the place. The Timurid
architecture of the mosques, madrassahs, and mausolea is of
fundamental importance to the history of Islamic art and
architecture, leading to the achievements of the Safavids in
Persia, the Moghuls in India, and even the Ottomans in
Turkey. Even in its present state, the city represents
documentary evidence of the development over several
centuries, including the ancient civilizations represented in
the area of Afrosiab and the scientific achievements of Ulugh
Bek’s Observatory.
The question of authenticity in reference to the various
monuments proposed to the World Heritage List varies from
one case to another. The ensemble of Shakhi-Zinda has been
subject to decay and some of the buildings are in need of
repair. Past repairs have been minimal and as a result the
existing structures and materials have retained their
authenticity.
Some of the mosques and madrassahs, however, have been
subject to restoration and reconstruction. The important BibiKhanum Mosque was partly in ruins, having lost its upper
part in an earthquake some two centuries ago (about 50%). It
has now been rebuilt using reinforced concrete over the
existing historic structures. It should be noted that the tone of
the new tiles is slightly lighter than the original. Similar
restoration has been undertaken in Registan and Gur-Emir,
though on a smaller scale and over a relatively long period of
time. The reconstruction has been based on research of the
original architecture and using old photographs and
documentary evidence. Caution is expressed regarding the
limits of this type of work.
The principal significance of the historic town of Samarkand
relates to its being at the crossroads of different cultures and
to its role in the development of Timurid architecture and
building types. In this evolution the historic town should be
seen as a whole rather than as a collection of separate
monuments. Even though the residential part of the city
obviously dates from the post-Timurid period, it does
represent traditional continuity and qualities that are reflected
in the neighbourhood structure, the small centres, mosques,
and houses. Many houses retain painted and decorated
interiors, grouped around courtyards and gardens. The
medieval Timurid city should be seen as a fundamental part
of the integrity of the place, a setting and a support to the
value of the ancient monuments. ICOMOS considers that
Samarkand has the potential for inscription on the basis of
criteria i, ii, and iv.
In other cases, in fact, new parts have been treated as
"neutral," clearly distinguishing modern intervention, such as
the large portal structure of the Gur-Emir complex. Limited
repairs have been carried out in Shakhi-Zinda, which has
preserved its historic authenticity, but the ensemble is in
urgent need of consolidation and repair (obviously to be
done with great care and following internationally accepted
guidelines).
Comparative analysis
On the question of integrity, which is essential in the case of
a historic town, the situation is complex. The different
historic phases of Samarkand’s development from Afrosiab
to the Timurid city and then to the 19th century development
have taken place by side rather than on top of each other.
The significance of Timurid architecture (14th–15th
centuries) should be seen as part of the chain of the
cultural and architectural developments in Western and
49
proposed "Project for the reconstruction of the central part of
Samarkand” should be reviewed in this light. Any further
demolition of traditional housing areas should be avoided
and measures should be taken to encourage their sustainable
development and rehabilitation as part of the whole.
Furthermore, ICOMOS draws attention to the need to review
the issues of authenticity and integrity in the light of accepted
international principles and guidelines within the framework
of the World Heritage Convention.
Central Asia. Following in the footsteps of the great Seljuk
builders (10th–13th centuries) of Isfahan, Tabriz, Bukhara,
or Herat, the Timurids continued and enriched these
building traditions, which were then further developed by
the Safavids in Persia (eg the Meidan-Emam of Isfahan,
inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1979: criteria i, v,
vi) and by the Moghuls in India (eg the Taj Mahal (1983:
i).
Of the other Uzbek sites, the historic centre of Itchan-kala
(1990: iii, iv, v) is distinguished by its medieval fortress in
the form of a rectangle, which is exceptionally well
preserved. The Historic Centre of Bukhara (1993: ii, iv, vi)
was the second largest city in the Timurid period, but its
main development was in the 16th and 17th centuries when
it became capital of the Sheibanid city state. The historic
centre of Shakhrisyabz (2000: iii, iv) was a minor centre
during the Timurid period in the 15th century. All three
centres have ancient origins; they developed in the Islamic
period, were devastated by the Mongols, and were then
revived. In this context, the role of Samarkand is
significant as the most important cultural capital of the
Timurid period in the 14th and 15th centuries; it not only
absorbed ideas but also enriched and contributed to such
traditions. Its fame as an icon of an Oriental city is an
important indication of its influence.
Brief description
The historic town of Samarkand is defined as the crossing
and synthesis of world cultures. Developed from the 7th
century BCE in the area of Afrosiab, Samarkand had its most
significant development in the Timurid period from the 14th
to the 15th centuries. The major monuments include the
Registan mosque and madrassahs, Bibi-Khanum Mosque,
the Shakhi-Zinda compound, and the Gur-Emir ensemble, as
well as Ulugh-Bek’s Observatory.
Recommendation and statement of significance
That the nomination should be referred back to the State
Party in order to redefine the nominated site and its buffer
zone, aiming at a more unified proposal, taking into
consideration the whole Timurid town, the archaeological
area, Ulugh-Bek’s Observatory, and the 19th century
development. ICOMOS further recommends that the State
Party should provide protection and a coherent conservation
master plan for the historic town as a whole as well as
preparing a strategy for the restoration of historic buildings,
consistent with the principles guiding the implementation of
the World Heritage Convention. ICOMOS additionally
proposes that the title of the nominated property might be
simplified to "Samarkand – crossroads of culture."
ICOMOS recommendations
The importance of Samarkand is recognized. However, it is
noted that an historic town is an intricate compound of
different elements, as stated in the 1976 UNESCO
Recommendation regarding historic areas (paragraph 3):
“Every historic area and its surroundings should be
considered in their totality as a coherent whole whose
balance and specific nature depend on the fusion of the parts
of which it is composed and which include human activities
as much as the buildings, the spatial organization and the
surroundings.”
Under these conditions, ICOMOS recommends the
inscription of the site on the basis of criteria i, ii, and iv:
Considering that Samarkand is proposed as a historic place
related to the crossing and synthesis of world cultures, it is
all the more relevant that due consideration be given not only
to a selection of monuments but to the historic site as a
whole. It is unfortunate that several areas surrounding major
monuments such as Registan, Bibi-Khanum, and Gur-Emir
have suffered losses. Nevertheless, considering that most of
the traditional urban fabric is still intact, serious
consideration should be given to its future protection and
conservation as an essential part of the significance of the
historic town.
The historic town of Samarkand has been considered a
symbol of ancient oriental cultures. It has been an important
crossroads of ancient civilizations, documented in the
archaeological area of Afrosiab and the Timurid city. The
principal development of the city coincides with the 14th and
15th centuries, when it was the capital of the powerful
Timurid realm. The contribution of the Timurid masters to
the design and construction of the Islamic ensembles, such as
Bibi Khanum Mosque and Registan Square, have been
crucial for the development of Islamic architecture,
exercising an important influence in the entire region, from
the Near and Middle East to India.
While recognizing the outstanding universal value of
Samarkand, ICOMOS recommends that the nomination be
redefined including the archaeological area of Afrosiab, the
medieval Timurid city, and relevant parts of the 19th century
development in a single large buffer zone. The nominated
units within this buffer zone should be identified as
compounds that include relevant parts of their surroundings.
Consequently, coherent urban conservation and planning
policy should be developed for the management of the whole
historic town (including the nominated areas and the buffer
zone). Such a master plan should provide for an integrated
conservation strategy for the existing residential quarters, as
well as for the sympathetic reintegration and rehabilitation of
the surrounding areas that have previously been demolished.
The large-scale urban planning schemes, such as the
ICOMOS, March 2001
50
has some unusual structural features that are not to be found
in the other churches of the group. The two narrow but lofty
side aisles have flat ceilings; each ends in a subsidiary altar.
The central feature of the main altar is the statue of El
Nazareno de Caguach, the object of veneration at the twiceyearly religious festivals, which was brought there in 1778.
Chiloé Churches (Chile)
No 971
The church of Chelín is located on the even smaller island of
that name (11.3km2), which lies to the north-east of Caguach.
There was some form of chapel there at least as early as
1734. As in virtually all the churches of this group, that of
Chelín commands the small harbour at the southern end of
the island; however, the village itself is located a short way
inland.
Identification
Nomination
The churches of Chiloé
Location
Municipalities of Castro, Chonchi,
Dalcahue, Puqueldón, Quemchi, and
Quinchao, Chiloé Province, X Region de
los Lagos
State Party
Chile
Date
24 June 1999 and 23 June 2000
The church is of more modest proportions than that of
Caguach, measuring 30m by 11.8m, but resembles it closely
in form and materials. The larch cladding of the walls and
tower is in the form of planking instead of shingles, but these
are used for roofing. There is more colour than at Caguach,
however: there is a blue and green frieze above the portico,
the interior of which is painted in yellow and blue, whilst the
two rows of nine wooden columns flanking the nave are
painted to resemble marble.
Management and conservation
Introduction
Legal status
This property was inscribed on the World Heritage List at
the 23rd Session of the World Heritage Committee in Cairns
(Australia) in December 2000. As a result of an
administrative error, ICOMOS did not include in its
evaluation two churches, those of Caguach and Chelín,
which the State Party had requested should be added to the
original group of fourteen.
Like the other fourteen churches, those of Caguach and
Chelín belong to the Ancud Diocese of the Roman Catholic
church, which is an entity in public law and enjoys a special
legal status under the Chilean Civil Code.
Management
Direct management of the nominated churches is the
responsibility of the Ancud diocesan administration and the
local communities. Each church has its own chapel
committee, a tradition that goes back to the work of the
fiscales appointed by the Jesuits, the lay members of which
are responsible for different aspects of the management and
conservation of the church.
ICOMOS has subsequently studied the detailed
documentation for both churches supplied in June 2000 by
the State Party.
Additional properties
The two churches are on two small islands to the west of the
main island of Chiloé in the archipelago of the same name.
Conservation history
The church of Caguach is in the village at the extreme
southern end of this small rocky island, where some of the
most ancient traditions in the region are preserved. The
village is tranquil apart from on two short each year, in
August and January, when the Festival of Jesus the
Nazarene, which is of great significance in Chile, takes place
and there are many pilgrims and other visitors. The original
church, dating from 1782, was completely destroyed by fire
in 1919 during one of the festivals. The five island
communities united in reconstructing it in its original form
Because of the close identification of the local communities
with their churches from the outset, something which has
continued uninterruptedly to the present day, it may justly be
claimed that these churches have been conserved
continuously since they were built. Over the past three
decades their inscription on the national register of historic
monuments has ensured that conservation and restoration
interventions are now carried out in accordance with the
highest modern professional and scientific principles.
The church is an imposing structure, built entirely of wood,
on an impressive site on the spacious esplanade leading
down to the harbour. It measures 16.8m by 47.75m and is
clad in larch shingles, which shows some indications of
having been painted at one time; it is roofed with larch
shingles, as is the tower (23.9m high). There is a portico
2.5m deep with six square-section pillars, again made of
larch. Unlike the other churches in this group, it has a
wooden railing in front of the porch to keep animals out.
Qualities
The group of churches founded by the Peripatetic Mission in
the Chiloé Archipelago in the 17th century is remarkable
testimony to the missionary zeal and skill of the Society of
Jesus and to the effectiveness of its policy of fostering
community development and participation. In the materials
of which they were built and the techniques of construction
and decoration employed the churches represent the
harmonious fusion of indigenous and European cultural and
religious traditions.
In the interior the spacious nave is defined by two rows of
eight cylindrical columns and is barrel-vaulted. The vaulting
51
The churches of Caguach and Chelín complement those
already inscribed on the List because of their remoteness, on
two small islands, and, in the case of Caguach, because of its
high religious significance in the region.
Recommendation
That the inscribed property of the Churches of Chiloé be
extended to cover the churches of Caguach and Chelín.
ICOMOS, March 2001
52
various aspects of forms, themes, and concepts that reflect
the aesthetic and ethical values of Chinese culture. So far as
their artistic style is concerned, they reveal a marked
revolution of localization of the styles of foreign statuary.
Yungang Grottoes (China)
No 1039
The Yungang Grottoes stand as a special evidence to the
great blending of the Chinese nation in the 5th century CE,
and an outstanding representative of the rooting of early
Buddhist art in the central areas of China. Datong was not
only one of the biggest metropolitan centres in the world of
the 5th century CE, but also a hub for the absorption of
culture and art from India and other Central Asian countries,
and the blending of the cultures and arts of the various states
in the Western regions and those of the various nationalities
living in various Chinese regions with a highly developed
economy and culture.
Identification
Nomination
Yungang Grottoes
Location
Datong City, Shanxi Province
State Party
The People's Republic of China
Date
29 June 2000
The Yungang Grottoes are the best works produced during
the second period of the prosperity of Buddhist cave art in
the world. The Five Caves, cut by Tan Yao, an eminent
monk, to symbolize Emperor Dao Wu, Emperor Ming Yuan,
Emperor Tai Wu, Emperor Jingmu, and Emperor Wen
Cheng of the Northern Wei Dynasty have tried to bring out,
in artistic form, the magnificent, simple, and vigorous
appearance of the statues, and to impart, in religion, thinking
about the perpetuity of Buddhist law.
Criteria i, ii, iii, and iv
Justification by State Party
An early masterpiece of Chinese cave art, the Yungang
Grottoes are an important component of cave art not only for
China but for the world. They belong to the period between
the mid 5th and early 6th centuries (the early years of the
reign of Emperor Heping and the era of Emperor
Zhengguang of the Northern Wei Dynasty). The cutting of
the grottoes started in 460 CE; it was intensively carried out
till 490, and lasted until 520 CE. The exquisite carvings
cover a large surface area and deal with a rich variety of
themes. The statues are made in a typical Imperial style. The
Yungang grottoes are different from other grottoes cut earlier
in China and are characterized by their integration in the
distinctive processes of nationalization across China,
developing a style of their own in Chinese cave art. The large
number of images and written records in the Yungang
Grottoes are key elements in showing the development and
changes of style in Chinese cave art and the religious beliefs
in northern China during the mid 5th and early 6th centuries
CE, and made major contributions to the innovation and
development of Chinese cave art. They have a historical,
artistic, scientific, and appreciative value irreplaceable by
any other grottoes cut earlier in China.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
monument.
History and Description
History
Datong, known as Pingcheng in ancient times, became the
capital of the Northern Wei Dynasty between 398 and 494
CE, and thus the political, economic, and cultural centre of
their kingdom. It kept its importance up to 523, when it was
deserted following to a revolt. The statues of the Yungang
Grottoes were completed in the span of 60 years (460–525
CE); this period marks the peak of development in Buddhist
cave art of the Northern Wei Dynasty. When the first
emperor assumed the throne, Buddhism flourished and in
460 the monk Tan Yao started the carving of the Five Caves;
since then, these grottoes became the centre of Buddhist art
in North China. Between 471 and 494 worshipping Buddha
was diffused among the imperial members and nobles. Thus,
as many as 12 large caves and as many as 70% of the total
number of the big caves were dug and Chongfu Temple was
built. By 525 CE the initial project, sponsored by the court,
was mostly completed, but low-ranking officials and monks
continued to dig more caves and carve statues. These caves
are more than 200 in number; although they are relatively
small, some are of excellent quality. During the Liao
Dynasty, wooden shelter structures were built in front of the
caves, turning the grottoes into temple buildings, such as the
Ten Famous Temples. In 1122 CE, these temples were
destroyed in a war. Four-storeyed wooden-structured garrets,
each with five rooms, were constructed in front of Caves 5
and 6, and three-storeyed structures with three rooms each
were in front of Cave 7 in 1651 CE. Since the foundation of
The Yungang Grottoes are one of the great treasure houses of
ancient statuary in the world. The site has 252 caves and
niches, containing over 51,000 statues; the over 18,000m2 of
carved surface extending for 1km. The grottoes are the most
important testimony of the highest quality of artistic
achievement of Chinese Buddhist carving art in the second
half of the 5th century CE. Various caves contain majestic
statues or have decorations that are world-famous in their
bright colours and in their important and even rare themes.
The Yungang Grottoes have made important contributions to
the reform and development of cave art, regarding laws of
aesthetics in religious art in the language of carving. They are
an excellent example of the development and transition of
the Buddhist art of India and Central Asia (the Gandhara and
Mathura art of ancient India) into the Buddhist art of China
in the short time-span of 30 years. These transitions include
53
of the outer walls, there are high double-floored attics, and
monuments stand high in the centre of the courtyard. The
shelters in the style of wooden structures are supported by
octagonal pillars, each carved with a thousand Buddhas. The
walls inside the caves are covered by long rolls of paintings
divided into different layers and columns. All these reflect
the layouts and traditional arrangements of halls in vogue in
China during the Han Dynasty. The themes of the statues are
varied: prominence is given to Sakyamuni, Maitreya,
Prabhutaratna, Manjusri, and Vimalakirti and various
moments of the life and activities of Buddha. Much attention
is given to vestiary: there are thousands of statues of
dignified and amiable Buddha, elegant deities, heavenly
kings, powerful warriors, and lively flying apsaras, all
reflecting the social background and characteristics of the
period, and also gradual maturing in the style and skill of
carving.
the People's Republic of China in 1949, the major caves and
the wooden structures in front of them (caves 5, 6 ,and 7)
have all been conserved. The grottoes are protected and are
open to the public.
Description
The Yungang Grottoes, known as Wuzhoushan Grottoes in
ancient times, are located on the southern foot of the
Wuzhou Mountains, in the Shi Li River valley, 16km west of
Datong City. They consist of 252 caves of various sizes
housing more than 51,000 statues; the site extends much as
1km east–west. Three main periods can be identified in the
construction: the early period (460–65 CE), the middle
period (c 471–94 CE), and the late period (494–525 CE).
The nominated area is about 350ha and the buffer zone is
850ha. Apart from the grottoes, the nominated core area
includes the remains of a castle, a defence wall, and a beacon
tower of the Ming Dynasty on the plain above the grottoes.
In front of the grottoes, in the river valley, there are some
recent constructions, including offices and tourism facilities.
To the east of the core area (within the second protection
zone), there is a workers’ village. In the north-western part of
the buffer zone, there are the Wuguantun coal mines. Other
mines and villages exist to the east outside the protection
area.
The grottoes of the late period (494–525 CE) are located in
the west of the grotto area, mainly Caves 21–45, Cave 4,
those in the Dragon King Temple Valley between Caves 4
and 5, the small niches in the cliffs of Caves 11–13 and also
Caves 14 and 15. In total, over 200 caves and niches were
cut in this period. These caves are of medium and small sizes
with varied and complicated irregular shapes. Decorations
were also carved on the cliff around the door of the caves.
There is a tendency towards simplification of the contents of
the statuary and stylizing the forms, but with a new look of
delicacy and gracefulness. Apart from Buddha in seated
position, Buddhas were carved sitting face to face and
warriors were carved at the cave door.
The grottoes of the early period (460–65 CE) are composed
of five main caves (16–20); these magnificent and simple
caves were dug under the direction of the monk Tan Yao and
are named after him. For the layout of the grottoes, large
caves were dug to house the giant statues (13–15m tall).
They have a U-shaped plan and arched roofs, imitating the
thatched sheds in ancient India. Each cave has a door and a
window. The central images have tall bodies and occupy the
major part of the caves, while on the outer walls a thousand
Buddhist statues are carved, a feature rarely seen in the
tradition of Chinese history of grotto carving. Buddhas of the
past, present, and future, a thousand Buddhas standing
together, are the dominating subject matter. The styles of the
statuary reflect some of the characteristics of the Liangzhou
Grottoes and the Gandhara and Mathura statues,
demonstrating a strong foreign flavour, especially in clothing
and jewellery. For the human forms, features of the ethnic
groups (tall, robust, powerful) living in northern China at
that time may have been imitated, thus creating a new model
for Buddhist statuary.
After the completion of the construction of the grottoes, there
were various events that affected the site. At the time
Emperor Chongxi and Emperor Qingning of the Liao
Dynasty (1049–60) there was an important project including
the construction of the so-called Ten Temples of Yungang,
in front of a series of caves, but these were destroyed by fire
in 1122. In the period of Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing
Dynasty (1651 CE), funds were raised for the construction of
wooden garrets in Caves 5 and 6, resulting in the creation of
the Ancient Temple of the Grotto Statues. During the same
dynasty, several efforts were made to rebuild the shelters of
some caves, to carve and re-paint some statues. The period
also includes some inscriptions.
The grottoes of the middle period (c 471–94 CE) are located
in the east and in the middle of the grotto area. They form the
essence of the Yungang Grottoes, consisting of large caves,
including four groups of twin caves (caves 1 & 2; 5 & 6; 7 &
8; 9 & 10) and one group of triple caves (caves 11–13). Cave
3, the biggest cave of the site, was mainly carved in this
period (with the exception of the three statues of the Tang
Dynasty). In this period there was a rapid development of the
Han style and many new subject matters and combinations of
statues were introduced, shifting the attention to creation of
law-enforcing images and various kinds of adornment; thus
the Buddhist cave art of Indian origin developed into a local
art. These caves are square in plan, usually with chambers
both in front and in the rear. Some caves have so-called
stupa pillars, carved out of rock, in the centre and others can
have ritual passageways carved in the rear wall. In caves with
a square plan, carvings on the walls are divided into upper
and lower bands and right and left sections. Level caisson
ceilings are carved on the roofs in most cases. On both sides
Management and Protection
Legal status
The Yungang Grottoes are owned by the People’s Republic
of China. In 1961 the Grottoes were declared a major
cultural heritage site to be protected at the national level. The
site was listed as a special place open to overseas tourists in
1983 (like the Imperial Palace, the Great Wall, and the
Dunhuang Grottoes) and was included in the State plan on
tourism.
In 1997, the municipal government promulgated the
Regulations of Datong City on the Protection and
Management of the Yungang Grottoes, the first local
regulations in China for the protection of major cultural
heritage areas, giving an important contribution to the
protection and management of the Yungang Grottoes.
The site has different degrees of protection: a. the key area
includes the grottoes, the Ming structures on the plain, and
54
rebuild the shelters of some caves and re-carve and repaint
some statues. The bright colours in Caves 5, 6, and 9–13
indicate such repainting.
an area in front of the caves in the river valley; b. an outer
protection area, including an area of controlled
reconstruction; and c. a buffer zone surrounding the area,
which includes parts of the plain north and south of the river.
Each area is protected according to various civic, cultural,
environmental, and urban planning laws and regulations. The
regulations concern density, height, content, form, and size
of the buildings and settlements.
A few of the caves have suffered damage such as collapse of
the rock of the front walls, weathering of the carved details,
or damage to the limbs of statues. Because of being built in
sandstone, there has been weathering due to water erosion,
and there cracks in the ceilings and back walls of most caves.
These have been sealed, but seepage continues to occur in
some caves in rain seasons. Problems exist particularly in the
northern part of the caves, ie against the hillside. In spite of
many efforts, new technology needs to be developed to solve
this problem which is due to a multiplicity of causes. An
additional problem on the site is caused by pollution from
the industrial areas of Datong, an industrial city using coal as
a fuel as well as from the truck traffic from the coal mines,
which used to pass in front of the caves. As a result, coal dust
has deposited on the statues. Measures have already been
taken in order to correct this problem and a new road has
been built elsewhere, thus considerably reducing the dust in
the area. The nearest mine to the north-west of the caves has
been closed.
The boundary of the site has been identified both above the
ground and underground, taking into account the fact that
Datong is a major coal-producing area and there are mines
around the site. In an area of 300m from the outer protection
area, any mining is banned with a collapse angle of 70
degrees.
The rural villages and buildings near the site have a total of
1700 inhabitants, and there are some 2300 employees. The
villages do not present a hazard to the protection of the site,
but the general policy is to encourage removal of population
to other areas and to ban any new arrivals. All buildings in
the neighbourhood, which could be considered to disturb the
scenery of the site, will eventually be removed.
Management
From 1950 to 1973 conservation work concentrated on
monitoring the climatic conditions in the caves and their
study, survey, and documentation. There has been some
rescue work on various statues and caves, as well as grouting
and solving problems related to water infiltration. From 1974
to 2000 work focused on reinforcing the caves, re-attaching
fallen parts, filling and consolidating the cracks, and
controlling and monitoring climatic changes. The area is
subject to great changes in temperature (-25 +37), and the
average relative humidity is 50–90%. Datong is in a seismic
area and it is exposed to Mongolian sandstorms. In fact,
planting trees has been useful in reducing the sandstorm
damage. There has been collaboration with the Getty
Conservation Institute and the Geology Institute of Giessen
University, Germany, in the studying and monitoring the
climate.
In 1952 a special organization was set up for the
conservation of the grottoes, now known as the Yungang
Grottoes Institute of Shanxi. This institute has organized a
systematic survey and documentation of the site and the
statuary between 1973 and 1999, and has set up an office for
reception and publicity for the site, together with the
necessary staff and professionally trained guides. Tourist
facilities have been set up in various key areas of the site, as
well as other services such as offices, a laboratory, a
projection room, and guest rooms. The Yungang Grottoes
Institute of Shanxi pays special attention to promoting the
coordinated development of tourism in order to prevent
unfavourable influences on the cultural heritage. The number
of visitors has varied from year to year: it has been above
200,000 per year since 1980. Safety precautions are taken to
avoid any damage caused by visitors in peak periods. The
Grottoes are open to the public and the government promotes
the site in the media. In the past decade, a highway and a
coal transportation road have been re-routed to avoid
pollution to the site.
The Plan for the Development of the Yungang Grottoes,
implemented in 2000, and the Ten-Year Programme for the
Development of Yungang Grottoes have aimed at
strengthening the management structures and improving the
protection, study, presentation, promotion, and conservation
of the site. The programme also includes raising awareness
of the local people. The protection of cultural heritage and
the environment and the development of the local economy
have been considered as parts of a coordinated management
effort of the site. Taking into account the various problems of
the context, the grottoes in a fairly good condition and can be
considered to be some of the best preserved examples of
Chinese cave art.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
There are records indicating that some of the grottoes were
rebuilt in 640 CE during the Tang Dynasty. According to
another source, the monk Yan restored the old statues every
time he went to Heng'an. A massive project was launched
between 1049 and 1060 CE and the so-called Ten Temples
of the Yungang were built in the areas linking the front of the
caves with the cliffs. These temples were destroyed in a fire
in 1122 CE. An inscription discovered in Cave 13 indicates
the restoration of 1876 statues during the Liao Dynasty.
There are indications such as holes on the cliff or stylistic
clues that some restoration works were carried out during the
Liao and Jin dynasties. In 1651 CE funds were raised to
rebuild wooden attics with four storeys and five rooms in
Caves 5 and 6, as well as some side halls, passageways, and
gates in order to create the Ancient Temple of the Grotto
Statues. During the Qing Dynasty efforts were made to
Authenticity and integrity
The caves and statues of the Yungang Grottoes have retained
their historical authenticity, although they have been subject
to repairs and restorations in the centuries subsequent to their
construction. These include the construction of wooden
temple fronts, such as the Ten Temples in the 12th century,
destroyed in fire soon afterwards, and other structures in the
17th century. The more recent works have mainly focused on
the conservation of the statues, consolidation of the grottoes,
and the improvement of management. Nevertheless, most of
the statues and grottoes date from the original construction in
the 4th and 5th centuries. Most of the statues have retained
55
and the middle period is also an outstanding example of that
particular epoch.
their original colour scheme, though some statues were
repainted in the 17th century. Subsequent interventions have
not made substantive alterations to this heritage. The site can
therefore be considered to satisfy the requirements of the test
of authenticity and integrity.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
The State Party is encouraged to monitor the situation within
and around the site of the Yungang Grottoes, particularly
regarding mining activities, pollution, and the development
of tourism. It is recommended that a long-term
comprehensive preservation programme should be prepared
with clearly formulated objectives to eliminate and mitigate
the hazards caused by deterioration.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the site in FebruaryMarch 2001.
Qualities
Brief description
Buddhist art was introduced from India to China in the 3rd
century CE, and it reached its greatest development here in
the period from the 5th to the 7th centuries, during the
Northern Wei and Tang Dynasties. The Yungang Grottoes
are considered to be the classical masterpiece of the first
peak in Chinese history, and an outstanding example of the
second period. The statues of the Five Caves built by Tan
Yao (Caves 16–20), the first to be carved in Yungang,
including the statue of "Buddha in the Open," represent the
integration of the Gandhara and Mathura art of ancient India
with Chinese concepts. This is the first large group of
grottoes cut under government control, in part reflecting
Chinese imperial policies and in part representing an
acceleration of the process of integrating Buddhist art into
Chinese heritage.
The Yungang Grottoes, in Datong, with their 252 caves and
51,000 statues, represent the outstanding achievement of
Buddhist cave art in China in the 5th and 6th centuries. The
Five Caves created by Tan Yao are a classical masterpiece of
the first peak of Chinese art, with a strict unity of layout and
design.
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on
the basis of criteria i, ii, iii, and iv:
The Yungang Grottoes were built in a relatively short
time (460–525 CE) and constitute a classical masterpiece
of the first peak of Buddhist cave art in China. The site
integrates influences from southern and central Asian
regions with Chinese culture. It is distinguished by being
the first Imperial commission in China, reflecting the
political ambitions of the time. Yungang also gives this
art a clearly Chinese and local spirit, which was
important for the later artistic developments in the
country.
Comparative analysis
Three sites of Buddhist cave art have so far been inscribed
on the World Heritage List in China: Mogao Caves
(inscribed 1987: criteria i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi), Longmen Grottoes
(2000: i, ii, iii), and the Dazu Rock Carvings (1999: i, ii, iii).
Buddhist cave sites have also been inscribed in India: Ajanta
Caves (1983: i, ii, iii, vi), Ellora Caves (1983: i, iii, vi), and
Elephanta Caves (1987: i, iii); others are in Sri Lanka – the
Golden Temple of Dambulla (1991: i, vi) – and in the
Republic of Korea – Sokkuram Grotto (1995: i, iv).
ICOMOS, March 2001
The Chinese caves are distinguished from the other Asian
sites because of their particular qualities, resulting from
integration with Chinese culture and local characteristics.
The earliest caves are those in Mogao, which range from the
4th to the 14th centuries, integrating influences through the
Silk Road connections. The Longmen Grottoes start in 495
and continue till the mid 8th century; they perpetuate the
style of Yungang, though the sculptures are stylized,
showing a hierarchical verticality, and the bas-reliefs are
softer in character. The Dazu caves represent a relatively late
period from the end of the 9th to 13th centuries.
The Yungang Grottoes represent a turning point in Chinese
cave art, due to numerous new factors. They differ from the
other Chinese regions, such as Mogao, which have strong
influences from India and Central Asia. While developing a
century later (starting in 460) than the Mogao caves,
Yungang distinguishes itself by being the first imperial
commission in China, and thus clearly reflecting the political
ambitions of the time. The decoration represents one of the
first manifestations in China of the Buddhist art that the
Tuoba tribe (who founded the Northern Wei Dynasty and
chose Datong as their capital) brought from Central Asia and
India through Gandhara. The first period of Yungang
represents the classical representation of cave art in China,
56
Norbulingka was an important residence of the Dalai Lamas
in the past, and it is now used for various activities and the
celebration of festivals, such as the Shoton Festival (sour
milk drinking), the typical Tibetan operas from across the
country, attended by farmers, herdsmen and pilgrims from
Lhasa and elsewhere. It is the garden of Tibetan songs and
dances.
Norbulingka (China)
No 707ter
The construction and development of Norbulingka was
closely associated with well-known historic events,
personalities and religious beliefs in the more than 200 years
of history, such as the events related to the agreements
signed by the Tibetan government and the Central People’s
government in the 1950s.
Criteria i, ii, iv, and vi
Identification
Nomination
The Expanded Potala Palace –
Norbulingka – Jokhang Monastery
Project in Lhasa: Norbulingka
Location
Province, autonomous region or
municipality directly under the central
government
of
Lhasa,
Tibet
Autonomous Region
State Party
The People’s Republic of China
Date
30 June 2000
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
monument.
History and Description
History
The site of Norbulingka was a place with gentle streams,
dense and lush forest, birds, and animals known as Lava tsel.
The 7th Dalai Lama is reported to have had health problems
and he used to come here for a cure. The construction of
Norbulingka started in 1751 with the Uya Palace, benefiting
from financial assistance from the central government.
Successive Dalai Lamas continued building pavilions,
palaces, and halls, making it their summer residence, and
soon the site became another religious, political, and cultural
centre of Tibet, after the Potala Palace. The Gesang Palace
was built in 1755 and included a court for debates. The Tsoje
Palace and the Jensen Palace were built by the 13th Dalai
Lama in the 1920s, influenced by his time in Beijing; the
Gesang Deje Palace was constructed in 1926. The Tagtan
Migyur Palace was built in 1954–56 with the support from
the Central People’s Government. Since the departure of the
14th Dalai Lama in 1959, Norbulingka has been managed,
first by the Culture Management Group under the
Preparatory Committee of the Autonomous Region and later
directly by the Cultural Management Committee and Bureau.
Justification by State Party
In history, Norbulingka, since its construction by the seventh
Dalai Lama in the 18th century, was the habitual residence of
successive Dalai Lamas and was known as the Summer
Palace. From the third to ninth month of the Tibetan calendar
each year, the Dalai Lama moved to live in Norbulingka
from the Potala Palace, and all the major functioning
departments of the local Tibetan government also moved to
work in Norbulingka. Like the Potala Palace and the Jokhang
Monastery, Norbulingka exerted a significant influence over
the history, society, and culture of Tibet.
The architecture of Norbulingka is a masterpiece of Tibetan
arts, combining unique architecture, religious traditions, and
gardening. Its architecture mainly follows the Tibetan style,
and at the same time it also incorporates many architectural
elements of the palace and garden architecture of other ethnic
groups, including the Han.
Description
From the overall layout of Norbulingka to the indoor
decorations of single buildings, as well as the handling of
some wooden structural parts, it shows the inheritance of fine
traditional techniques and also influences received from
elsewhere in architecture and the layout and local handling
methods of garden architecture. It reflects the development
of architecture, technology, and social productivity in Tibet,
expressed in the Tsoje Palace, the Dragon Palace, as well as
the Tagtan Migyur Palace, built under the supervision of
Taring Jigme Songtsan Wangbo.
Norbulingka is located at the bank of the Lhasa river about
2km west of the Potala Palace in Lhasa. The name means
"treasure garden." In fact, the site consists of a large garden
with several palaces, halls, and pavilions, amounting to some
36ha. The area is composed of five sections.
The GESANG PALACE group includes the Uya Palace,
Gesang Palace, and Komsom Selon architecture. The Uya
Palace is a two-storeyed Tibetan style building, and it has
fine mural paintings by famous artists. The Komsom Selon is
a two-storied pavilion with a Han-style golden roof, the place
where Dalai Lama watched opera performances.
Norbulingka is a large garden located at a very high altitude.
At an elevation of 3,650m where the pressure is low and
oxygen is lacking, it has a large man-made green area, a
beautiful landscape, and an agreeable environment. It is an
indisputable masterpiece of harmonious coexistence of man
and nature at a high altitude, creating and maintaining sound
ecological environment.
The second group is related to the TSOJE PALACE, including
the Tsoje Palace (Palace in the Lake), Lokang (Dragon
Palace), Lukhangsha (East Dragon Palace), the Druzing
Palace, and lounges. The Tsoje Palace itself is waterside
pavilion architecture, representing the Han style with hip-
57
Authenticity and integrity
and-gable roof, gabled ridge, and overhanging corners.
Lokang was a place for sacrificial activities, held yearly for
the dragon and fortune-telling.
The group of buildings and the surrounding garden of
Norbulingka have been well maintained and have had no
major modifications or damage. Their authenticity and
integrity are therefore intact.
The third group consists of the Jensen Palace, the Gesang
Deje Palace, and the Chimi Chogyal Palace. The Jensen
Palace is noted for its fine carvings, identical with those in
the White Palace of the Potala Palace area.
Evaluation
The fourth group consists mainly of the Shabucho
Monastery, the former offices of the local Tibetan
government and secretariat.
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the property in March
2001.
The fifth group is composed of the Tagtan Migyur Palace
(New Palace), including a small scripture hall on the second
floor, with murals depicting Tibetan history (301 pictures). It
is the most representative modern example in Tibet,
originally with finely decorated features, and adapted to
office use, recreation, and vocation.
Qualities
The palace and garden areas of Norbulingka are intimately
linked with the Potala Palace, despite having been built later
and taking up complementary functions. It became the
summer residence of the Dalai Lamas because of its
favourable climate, almost as an oasis in the otherwise harsh
climate of the high altitude. The constructions represent high
quality in their design and execution, integrated into the
garden layout. The site is also closely linked with religious
and political issues, having been a place for contemplation
and for signing political agreements.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The site is in the ownership by the People’s Republic of
China. It has been designated as a major site of protection for
its historical and cultural value, at the national level, on 13
January 1988. Protection is thus subject to the laws and
regulations of the People’s Republic of China (especially the
Law on the Protection of Cultural Heritage), and the
Regulations of Tibet Autonomous Region on the Protection
and Management of Cultural Heritage. The principal
protection area is defined by the surrounding wall of
Norbulingka; the area within 200m from this wall is a
construction-control zone. Funds are allocated yearly for
maintenance and protection.
As already indicated in the ICOMOS evaluation of the
Potala Palace, Norbulingka will be an important integration
to the existing World Heritage site.
ICOMOS proposes that the previous criteria i, iv, and vi be
retained in the extended nomination, in the light of the highly
creative and artistic ensemble, the fact that it represents an
outstanding example of a type of architecture, and its strong
spiritual and religious associations with Buddhism.
Comparative analysis
Management
The Potala Palace area can be considered unique in the
Buddhist world of eastern Asia, as the long-time residence of
the theocratic government of Tibet.
The management of the site is in the hands of the State
Administration of Cultural Heritage of the People’s Republic
of China, the Department of Culture of the Tibet
Autonomous Region, and the Administration of Cultural
Heritage of the Tibet Autonomous Region.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
Management is exercised within the framework of two
master plans, the Urban Plan of Lhasa and the Norbulingka
Protection Plan. Local government and residents are not
allowed to undertake any construction, renovation, or
addition within the protective zone. In exceptional cases, if
any change is required, authorization is given by the relevant
authorities after an opinion by experts.
The current nomination is an extension to the Potala Palace
nomination of 1994 (criteria i, iv, and vi). It is a follow-up to
the ICOMOS recommendation, which considered the Potala
Palace to be inseparably linked in spiritual and historical
terms with the Tsuklakhang Temple and the holy city of
Lhasa itself and proposed that the Government of the
People’s Republic of China should give consideration to an
eventual extension of the Potala Palace nomination to
include the whole area.
There is a management office on the site, also responsible for
visitor management and tour guides. The number of visitors
is increasing amounting to 100,000 in 1999. The site is
located in a new urban area of Lhasa, where there are several
hotels and visitor services.
ICOMOS recommends that the name of the nomination be
reconsidered, taking into account the previous site (the
Potala Palace, Lhasa) and the extension, The Historic
Ensemble of Potala Palace, Lhasa.
Conservation and Authenticity
Considering the development pressures in the city of Lhasa,
ICOMOS recommends that particular attention be given to
mitigating changes, particularly in the area extending from
the Norbulingka Palace to the properties already inscribed.
Conservation history
The construction history extends from the mid 18th century
until the 1950s, when the Dalai Lama departed. Since then
the site has been under the care, first of a local management
group, then of the Central People’s Government.
58
Recommendation
That the nominated Norbulingka area be inscribed as an
extension to the existing World Heritage Site of the Potala
Palace, Lhasa, maintaining the existing criteria i, iv, and vi.
ICOMOS, March 2001
59
Description
Troodos (Cyprus)
The Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour is a
type of construction that is characteristic of the
mountainous region of Troodos. It is a small building,
rectangular in plan and with a small eastern apse, covered
with a shingle roof. Niches have been cut into the side
walls.
No. 351bis
The church is particularly notable for its very rich wall
paintings. On the side walls the paintings are arranged in
two rows, while the western wall has three rows plus the
gable. The New Testament scenes are arranged on the
upper level and the large figures of saints decorate the
lower part of the walls.
Identification
Nomination
Painted churches in the Troodos region:
Palaichori, Church of Ayia Sotira (Church
of the Transfiguration of the Saviour) –
extension
Location
Troodos Region, Nicosia District
State party
Cyprus
Date
3 July 2000
The New Testament cycle opens with the Annunciation
on the eastern wall and continues on the western gable
with the Crucifixion before ending with the Descent of
the Holy Spirit on the north side.
Several New Testament scenes show the existence of
relations between the painting of Cyprus and that of the
Christian art of the West from a stylistic and
iconographic viewpoint. In the Crucifixion, although the
representation of the thieves harks back to the beginning
of Byzantine art, some details recall western art. For the
Resurrection, the painter uses the western iconography
showing Christ emerging from the tomb and the three
sleeping soldiers in the foreground. The architectural
decoration in the background of several scenes, including
the Meal at Abraham's dwelling reflects a certain Italian
influence.
Justification by State Party
The Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour (Ayia
Sotira) in Palaichori belongs to the architectural type of
the steep-pitched wooden roof with flat hooked tiles. This
type of roofing over a Byzantine church is not found
elsewhere, making the wooden-roofed churches of
Cyprus a unique group example of religious architecture.
The apse houses the representation of the Last Supper,
one of the masterly compositions of the church. Christ
appears twice behind the table: on the left he gives bread
to the twelve apostles, and on the right he gives wine, a
scene from which Judas is excluded. Although the
treatment of the draperies of the figures recalls that of
14th century painters, the unusual treatment of the faces
with its diffused lighting effect lends a certain degree of
emotion to the scene as a whole. In the Last Supper, the
apostles are usually arranged in two groups of six on
either side of Christ, and in Cyprus only two paintings
survive in which the twelve apostles are shown twice, of
which this is one. The other is in the Church of St
Nicholas at Galataria, which is not in the group of
churches already inscribed in the World Heritage List.
The wall paintings decorating the walls of the church are
also of universal importance, dating back to the 16th
century.
Criteria i, ii, iii, iv, and vi
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
monument.
History and Description
The scene of the Thisia (the Sacrifice) is unusual in that it
shows the Christ Child both in the paten and in the
chalice under the silk veil supported by two angels. In
Byzantine art, the Christ Child usually only appears in
one of the two sacred vessels.
History
Although the last line of the inscription indicating the
date of construction and decoration of the Church of the
Transfiguration of the Saviour (Ayia Sotira) has been
erased, research by specialists has enabled it to be dated
to the beginning of the 16th century. As regards the wall
paintings that decorate the interior of the church,
comparative iconographic and stylistic studies with other
churches in the region (Churches of the Holy Cross at
Agiasmati, 1494; St Mamas at Louveras, 1495; St
Sozomenus, 1513; the Archangel-Panagia Theotokos at
Galata, 1514), have dated them to the second decade of
the 16th century. At the beginning of the 17th century, a
surrounding wall was built on the southern and western
sides of the edifice.
The specific style of the wall paintings of the Church of
the Transfiguration of the Saviour which places it at the
boundaries of the 16th century Cretan school of painting,
as already indicated in case of the Last Supper, emerges
more markedly in the figures of the saints in the lower
row on the walls. Already at this point, however, the
Virgin Mary in the apse vault is portrayed with greater
simplicity, particularly as regards the treatment of her
vestments, in which the complex and emphasized folds
have been abandoned by comparison with paintings of
the same subject in other churches in the Troodos region
at the end of the 15th century (eg the Church of the
Archangel Michael at Pedoulas, 1474). What is most
60
innovative, however, is the treatment of the Virgin's face,
where the lighting is emphasized by delicate lines of
white paint which radiate so as to create an expression of
joy.
The church has retained its original use as a place of
worship and, although the number of visitors is not very
large, protective measures should be taken to cope with
an eventual increase.
The faces of the saints in the lower rows in the church,
such as those of St Anthony and St Andrew, are treated
with great variety, as though they were portraits, using
many white painted highlights.
Authenticity
The Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour meets
the criterion of authenticity in its design, materials,
execution, and function. Works needed for conservation
of the structure and wall paintings have in no way
affected the authenticity of the monument.
Management and conservation
Legal status
Evaluation
The Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour is the
property of the Church of Cyprus and the local Church
Committee. Although private property, the church
proposed for inclusion on the World Heritage List is
listed as an Ancient Monument (N2/40) and protected
under the provisions of the basic 1931 Law on
Antiquities. This law states that any intervention requires
approval by the competent authorities (Department of
Antiquities, Ministry of Communication and Public
Works). Severe penalties are imposed in the event of
violation of the law.
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission from ICOMOS is to visit
Cyprus in April 2001.
Characteristics
Furthermore, the law stipulates that listed monuments
must be surrounded by a zone in which the height and
architectural style of any new construction is subject to
control. The Department of Antiquities and the local
authorities have already demolished a recent building in
the vicinity of the church.
The remarkable post-Byzantine wall paintings of the
Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour (Ayia
Sotira) at Palaichori form a complete cycle of paintings
from the second decade of the 16th century. They embody
an iconography, style, and technique which stem from
various sources and foreshadow, in certain of their
characteristics, the 16th century Cretan school of painting.
Through its architecture and its decoration this church
forms a whole and completes the set of nine painted
churches in the Troodos region already included in the
World Heritage List on the basis of criteria ii, iii, and iv.
Management
Comparative analysis
The management of the nominated property proposed for
inclusion is the responsibility of the Department of
Antiquities of the Ministry of Communication and Public
Works, in conjunction with the Church of Cyprus and the
local Church Committee. The Department of Antiquities
is responsible for repair work on the church and the
preservation of the wall paintings.
The specialists consulted by ICOMOS about this
proposal for an extension of the painted churches of the
region of Troodos have confirmed that in the region there
is no other church from the start of the 16th century
which is comparable with the Church of the
Transfiguration of the Saviour at Palaichori.
Conservation and authenticity
[This paragraph will be completed after the expert
appraisal mission to take place in April 2001.]
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
Conservation history
The Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour has
been in the care of the Department of Antiquities since
1935. Structural work has been carried out by the
Department in conjunction with the competent religious
authorities. Starting in 1963 specialists from the
Department cleaned the paintings and undertook their
conservation. Since that time other interventions have
been carried out when they became necessary.
Recommendation and statement of significance
Subject to a favourable mission report, it is recommended
that this extension should be approved.
ICOMOS, March 2001
The church is currently in a good state of conservation.
However, protective measures should be taken to cope
with the increase in the number of visitors.
The improvement of the immediate environs of the
church is covered by a Landscape Plan that is currently
being prepared. This includes the development of an
information centre, sanitary services, and signs for
visitors. Implementation of the Plan will be the
responsibility of the Department of Antiquities, the local
Church Committee, the Church of Cyprus, and the local
authorities.
61
The Mahabodhi Temple is also important as it exhibits an
important phase in the development of architecture. It is one
of the very few well represented temple structures, and also
the grandest one from a period of history when numerous
such brick structures would have been built all over India. As
such, it bears an exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition
and to the prevalent forms of architecture in the late Gupta
period (the "Golden Age" of Indian culture).
Criteria ii and iii
Mahabodhi Temple (India)
No 1056
The sculpted stone railings (partly seen on the site and partly
preserved in the nearby Archaeological Museum) are an
outstanding example of the art and architecture of the period
of Emperor Asoka (3rd century BCE) and soon thereafter.
These railings also present some of the oldest sculptural
reliefs found in the country. As there are few remnants of
such railings, which were a very important feature of early
Buddhist monuments of that time, these are of great
importance.
Criterion iv
Identification
Nomination
Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh
Gaya
Location
State of Bihar, Eastern India
State Party
India
Date
7 July 2000
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
monument.
Justification by State Party
The Mahabodhi Temple Complex in Bodha Gaya (BuddhaGaya) has outstanding universal importance as it is the
hallowed spot where the ascetic Prince Siddhartha attained
Enlightenment and became Buddha. This site is believed to
be one of the four significant sites in the life of Buddha,
including Lumbini in Nepal, his birthplace, which is already
in the World Heritage List, Bodh Gaya, where he attained
the supreme and perfect insight, Sarnath, where he made his
first sermon after Enlightenment, and Kusinagar, where he
passed away.
History and Description
History
The Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is the sacred place
where Buddha (566–486 BCE), while seated under the
Bodhi Tree, attained Enlightenment in 531 at the age of 35.
Emperor Asoka made a pilgrimage to this spot around 260
BCE and built the first temple at the site of the Bodhi Tree,
under which Buddha had meditated. This included a railing
around the Tree and a small temple near it. He offered a
Vajrasana (Diamond Throne), placed in the middle of the
temple, at the place where Buddha was believed to have been
sitting. The Vajrasana was unearthed during the excavations
in 1863 and 1881. The clay plaque of Patna Museum has
inscriptions of the 1st–2nd centuries CE showing that the
Asoka temple had been replaced by a new temple. The
Hindus built the stone railing with carvings of the image of
sun god around the new temple. It seems that many additions
and renovations to the complex were made in the 2nd
century CE.
The Mahabodhi Temple is a living monument where people
from all over the world even today throng to offer their
reverential prayers to the Buddha. The tradition of worship
here has continued over the centuries, as is recorded in the
pillar edicts of Asoka and is seen depicted in the sculpture in
Sanchi and Bharhut, as well as reflected in the accounts by
various travellers over the course of centuries, including the
Chinese travellers of the 4th and 7th centuries. The site itself
is an exceptional testimony of the importance given to it by
pilgrims of various provenances through centuries. It is also
a unique example of the efforts made by the devotees to
preserve and conserve its legacy in time.
The earliest historical account of Mahabodhi Temple is by
the Chinese traveller Fa-Hien in 404–5 CE. The main temple
at the site and the Bodhi Tree are briefly mentioned in his
account. According to him, a great pagoda was built on all
the four important sites in the life of Buddha. In 637 CE,
when another Chinese traveller Hiuen-Tsang came to the city
of Bodh Gaya, he found the Bodhi Tree surrounded by
strong walls. Within the walls, there was the grand
Mahabodhi temple, 160ft (50m) tall, and a large fine
sanctuary. He mentions the bluish bricks, plaster, niches
containing gilded statues of Buddha, and many other details.
In this period, the porch, the corner tower, and the high
plinth were added to the main temple. Various parts of the
existing temple have been dated, such as the railings (3rd or
1st century BCE) and the temple itself, which is from 450 or
the 6th century CE.
In the context of philosophical and cultural history, the
Mahabodhi Temple Complex is of great relevance as it
marks the most important event in the life of Buddha, an
event that was to change the shape of human thought and
belief. Bodh Gaya is the very cradle of Buddhism and
compares as such with Jerusalem and Mecca, which are
themselves the cradles of two great religions of the world.
Criterion vi
The grand 50m high Mahabodhi Temple of the 5th–6th
centuries is of immense importance, being one of the earliest
temple constructions existing in the Indian sub-continent. It
is one of the few representations of the architectural genius
of the Indian people in constructing fully developed brick
temples in that era.
Criterion i
62
a series of recessed niches containing images of Buddha in
seated or standing position with various gestures. Further
above there are mouldings and chaitya niches, and then the
curvilinear shikhara or tower of the temple surmounted by
amalaka and kalasha (architectural features in the tradition
of Indian temples). At the four corners of the parapet of the
temple are four statues of Buddha in small shrine chambers.
A small tower is built above each of these shrines.
There is only limited information about the repairs that have
taken place from the 7th to 11th centuries, but it appears that
extensive works would have been made by the Burmese in
the 11th century. Other repairs are recorded in the 12th
century. In the centuries following the Muslim conquest in
the 13th century, the Mahabodhi Temple was deserted and
gradually started falling into ruins. In the 19th century the
Burmese kings started making repairs. The works were
continued by the British in 1880–84. In 1949 the temple was
protected by Bodh Gaya Temple Act and a restoration
campaign was carried out in 1953–56, to be continued with
further improvements in the following decades.
The temple has entrances from the east and from the north. It
seems that the east entrance was constructed later; at the
present time it is the main one. Although the temple area is
5m below the surrounding land, the photographs of 1863
show the main Temple on a high platform with an archway
leading to it. The Temple faces east (the direction faced by
Buddha while meditating) and consists of a small forecourt
in the east with niches on either side containing statues of
Buddha. A doorway leads into a small hall, beyond which
lies the sanctum, which contains a gilded statue of the seated
Buddha (over 5ft high) holding earth as witness to his
achieved Enlightenment. Above the sanctum is the main hall
with a shrine containing a statue of Buddha, where senior
monks gather to meditate.
Description
The Mahabodhi Temple Complex is located in the very heart
of the city of Bodh Gaya. The site proposed for inscription
covers an area of 12 acres (c 4.8ha), consisting of the main
temple and six sacred places within an enclosed area, and a
seventh one, the Lotus Pond, just outside the enclosure to the
south. Both the temple area and the Lotus Pond are
surrounded by circulating passages at two or three levels.
Surrounding the temple area, to the east, there is a Shiva
temple under the control of a Mahant. The land to the south
of the Temple Complex is the lowest in level and the
Niranjana river flows in this area. In the north are some
shops built by the District Administration. A hotel is under
construction in the south-west corner of the Temple
Complex. To the west, beyond the road, there is a mosque
which, owing to the high ground and its height, competes
with the main temple of the Temple Complex.
Next to the Bodhi Tree there is a place with a statue of
Buddha that stands on a part of the polished sandstone
Vajrasana (the Diamond Throne), originally installed by
Emperor Asoka to mark the spot where Buddha sat and
meditated. A sandstone railing once encircled this site under
the Bodhi Tree, but only a few of the original pillars of the
railing are still in situ; they contain carvings of sculpted
human faces, animals, and decorative details. More granite
pillars were added to enlarge the area in the 5th–6th
centuries CE.
The Temple is enclosed by a boundary wall with an average
height of 11m. The area of the ensemble is 5m below the
level of the surrounding land. From the east a flight of steps
leads down through a long central path to the main temple
and the surrounding area. Along this path there are
significant spots associated with events that immediately
followed Buddha's Enlightenment, together with votive
stupas and shrines.
Further up the central path towards the main temple to the
south is a small shrine with a standing Buddha in the back
and with the footprints (Padas) of Buddha carved on black
stone, dating from the 3rd century BCE, when Emperor
Asoka declared Buddhism to be the official religion of the
state and installed thousands of such footprint stones all over
his kingdom. The gateway to the Temple, which is on the
central path, was also originally built by this Emperor, but
was later rebuilt. Further on the path towards the main
temple is a building which houses several statues of Buddha
and Bodhisattvas. Opposite this building is a memorial to a
Hindu Mahant who had occupied this site during the 15th
and 16th centuries. To the south of the pathway is a cluster
of votive stupas built by kings, princes, noblemen, and lay
people. They vary in shape and size, from the simplest to the
most sumptuous ones.
The most important of the sacred spots is the giant Bodhi
Tree (Ficus religiosa, known in India as the peepal tree).
This tree is to the west of the main temple and is supposed to
be a direct descendant of the original Bodhi Tree under
which Buddha spent his FIRST WEEK and where he had his
Enlightenment. To the north of the central path, on a raised
area, is the Animeshlochan Chaitya (prayer hall) where
Buddha is believed to have spent the SECOND WEEK. Buddha
spent the THIRD WEEK walking eighteen paces back and forth
in an area called Ratnachakrama (he Jewelled Ambulatory),
which lies near the north wall of the main temple. Raised
stone lotuses carved on a platform mark his steps. The spot
where he spent the FOURTH WEEK is Ratnaghar Chaitya,
located to the north-east near the enclosure wall.
Immediately after the steps of the east entrance on the central
path, there is a pillar which marks the site of the Ajapala
Nigrodh Tree, under which Buddha meditated during his
FIFTH WEEK, answering the queries of Brahmans. He spent
the SIXTH WEEK next to the Lotus Pond to the south of the
enclosure, and the SEVENTH WEEK was spent under the
Rajyatana Tree, to the south-east of the main temple,
currently marked by a tree.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The Mahabodhi Temple is the property of the State
Government of Bihar. On the basis of the Bodh Gaya
Temple Act of 1949, the State Government is responsible for
the protection, management, and monitoring of the Temple
and its properties. The Act also makes provision for the
Bodh Gaya Temple Management Committee (BTMC) and
an Advisory Board by the Governor of Bihar, consisting of
20–25 members, half of them being from foreign Buddhist
countries. There is a legal land act to protect the Temple's
land from illegal constructions. All finds in the area are
protected by the Treasure Trove Act of 1878. The Temple is
The MAIN TEMPLE, an ancient structure (5th–6th centuries
CE), is 50m high and built in the classical style of Indian
temple architecture. It has a low basement with mouldings
decorated with honeysuckle and geese design. Above this is
63
The Government of India and the State Government of Bihar
are promoting the site through their Departments of Tourism.
An annual celebration of the Buddhist legacy is held by the
Department of Tourism in Mahabodhi and in other important
Buddhist sites. There are plans to illuminate the approach to
the Mahabodhi Temple Complex. A sound and light show on
the life of Buddha and the events at this historic site is also
under preparation at the behest of the BTMC. There are
currently some 400,000 visitors per year (30% foreign and
70% domestic). During November to February the average is
2000 visitors per day, but during special festivities, there
have been as many as 60,000 visitors in one day.
also protected by the Gaya Regional Development Authority
(GRDA), which is responsible for the planned development
of Bodh Gaya town and is advised by BTMC in matters
relating to the Temple and its environs.
Management
The Bodh Gaya Temple Management Committee (BTMC),
constituted in 1949, is the executive body for the
management of the site; it works under the supervision,
direction, and control of the State Government of Bihar. The
Temple Complex is guarded by its own staff and the State
Police collaborates in its protection. BTMC keeps a
systematic and updated inventory of all the properties of the
temple.
As part of the general scheme, the roads have been improved
to connect the capital city of Bihar to Bodh Gaya and to
other Buddhist sites in Bihar. The Central and State
Governments propose to connect all Buddhist sites through
tourist circuits developed to promote these sites.
Construction of an airport near the site is foreseen by the
Ministry of Civil Aviation. A scheme has also been proposed
by an NGO for the construction of the tallest statue in the
world, a Buddha 152.4 m high.
The sources of finance for the Temple come mainly from
donations. The Committee raises funds by renting property
and other means, which are sufficient for the management
and maintenance of the site. For conservation work, expertise
is given by various ministries.
The BTMC is expected to make provision for the better
management of the Bodh Gaya Temple and properties
appertaining to it. The nomination document indicates that
there is no "property management plan" for the site, but there
are plans and projects related to the redevelopment and the
presentation of the Temple Complex and its setting. Basic
monitoring and documentation of the buildings in the temple
complex are carried out periodically. It is noted that the
parking area has recently been moved away from the Temple
Complex and there are plans to decongest the temple area.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
After the long period of abandonment, the temple complex
was in a poor state, and was extensively restored in the 19th
century, first by the Burmese and then by the British (1880–
84). These works were based on existing evidence and no
new features are reported to have been added. The front
pavilion of the temple was in ruins and it was rebuilt on the
basis of a stone model found at the Temple.
In 1987 the conservation status of the Temple was examined
by the National Research Laboratory for Conservation. In
1997 the Temple Advisory Board and the BTMC carried out
a detailed survey of the site and drew up a Master Plan for
the development of the Temple Complex and the area around
the Temple, proposing to make a Meditation Park, a
Museum of Buddhism, and a Reception and Information
Centre. The plan further proposes to recreate the landscape
of the area as it would have appeared in ancient times,
together with lawns, flower beds, deer park, and meditation
areas.
The next significant work on the site was undertaken after
the approval of the Bodha Gaya Temple Act in 1949. The
repair and development works were made under the
supervision of BTMC (1953–56), including the inner and
outer pathways around the Temple Complex and the
excavation of the Lotus Pond, which was provided with
railings. Other works have been carried out from the 1960s
onwards, including the boundary wall, transforming the
upper shrine area into a meditation hall, and adding other
facilities.
In 1999, at the request of BTMC, the Patna Circle of the
Archaeological Survey of India has prepared an evaluation
for a conservation project for the Temple Complex for the
next two years. The State Archaeology Department of Bihar
has also prepared a project for the excavation and
presentation of the area, uncovering the ancient city, and the
sanctuaries and monasteries built by foreign kings over the
centuries. The project aims at recreating the area to match a
depiction on a terracotta plaque found in the excavations of
Pataliputra (the capital city of Bihar).
At present the site is experiencing strong pressures from
increasing tourism and pilgrimage. This has been
accompanied by various improvement works, and there are
plans for carrying out excavations, improving the
presentation of the Temple, and the construction of more
visitor facilities in the neighbourhood.
Authenticity and integrity
The population of Bodh Gaya town where the Temple
Complex is located was 16,000 in 1991, but this figure is
estimated to have doubled by 2001. Over the years foreign
countries have acquired land to build temples, monasteries,
and residential accommodations for their visiting pilgrims in
the buffer zone of the Temple. There is pressure from
construction activity in the vicinity of the Temple area at the
present time. This is likely to grow owing to further
development of the site and the increase in the number of
visitors, although there the heights of buildings are limited
within 2km distance from the Temple area. All this puts
particular pressure on development in the town and its
suburbs in the near future.
The belief that Buddha has attained Enlightenment in this
particular place has been confirmed by tradition. This has
been documented since the time of Emperor Asoka, who
erected a memorial column and built the first temple here in
260 BCE.
Parts of the present temple complex date from different
periods. The main part of the temple is recorded from about
the 6th century, but it has undergone various repairs and
renovation works since then. Having suffered from long
abandonment, it was extensively restored in the 19th century,
and more works were carried out in the second half of the
20th century.
64
its religious and spiritual significance may face in the future.
The site is currently subject to major promotion for more
visitors and pilgrims. It is noticed that the town of Bodh
Gaya is thought to have doubled its population in the last 10
years. The increasing flux of visitors will obviously have its
impact on the social and economic situation, with
consequences on the built environment of which the temple
is an integral part.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the property in January
2001.
Qualities
The outstanding universal value of the Mahabodhi Temple
Complex in Bodh Gaya lies in its direct association with the
life of the Lord Buddha, as one of four sites: Lumbini, the
Birthplace of the Lord Buddha, in Nepal (inscribed 1997:
criteria iii, vi); Bodh Gaya, where he attained the supreme
and perfect insight; Sarnath, where Buddha preached his first
sermon after Enlightenment; and Kusinagar, where he died.
The current documentation provides little information on the
surroundings of the Temple and on the city itself, which is
essential for the proper planning and management of the site.
There is a lack of graphic documentation of the temple site
and of the town, especially within the limits of the proposed
buffer zone. ICOMOS therefore invites the State Party to
provide more detailed information on the issues raised
above, including precise maps and graphic documents, and
to indicate the expected impact of the development foreseen
for the site.
The area of the Mahabodhi Temple is an ancient site which
has great archaeological significance in respect of the events
associated with the time Buddha spent there, as well as
documenting the evolving worship, particularly since the 3rd
century BCE, when Emperor Asoka built the first temple, the
railings, and the memorial column.
Brief description
The present Temple is dated to the 5th or 6th century CE
and, although it has been subject to various repairs and
partial reconstruction, it remains an exceptional evidence of
the history of architecture. It is considered to be one of the
earliest temple constructions in India still standing and one
of the few built entirely in brick that remain from the late
Gupta period. The sculpted stone railings are an outstanding
example from the period of Emperor Asoka and his
successors, exhibiting some of the oldest sculptural reliefs
found in the country.
The Mahabodhi Temple Complex is one of the four holy
sites related to the life of the Lord Buddha, and particularly
to the attainment of Enlightenment. The first temple was
built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century BCE, and the
present temple dates from the 5th or 6th centuries CE. It is
one of the earliest Buddhist structural temples still standing
in India, and one of the few built entirely in brick from the
late Gupta period.
The site has the potential to be recognized for its outstanding
universal value for inscription on the World Heritage List on
the basis of criteria ii, iii, iv, and vi.
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
While recognizing the outstanding universal significance of
the Mahabodhi Temple, ICOMOS recommends that further
consideration of this nomination be deferred. The State Party
should be requested to provide precise maps of the temple
site and the surrounding built environment, with a clear
indication of the proposed perimeters of the core area and the
buffer zone. Furthermore, the State Party should be
requested to provide more details of the suggested plans for
development and presentation, indicating the expected
impact on the spiritual and historical values of the site.
Comparative analysis
The religious significance of the Mahabodhi Temple for
Buddhism is outstanding, comparable particularly with
Lumbini, the Birth Place of the Lord Buddha. The site has
also been compared with equivalent sites related to other
religions, such as Jerusalem and Mecca. As a place of
worship the site represents a continuous tradition of
philosophical thought and human values since the time of
Buddha.
The Mahabodhi Temple is significant as an exceptional
example of an early Buddhist structural temple still standing
today. There are a few structural temples of the 5th–6th
centuries CE in India, but the Mahabodhi Temple is
considered to be the best preserved, the largest, and the most
imposing.
ICOMOS, March 2001
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
While the outstanding universal significance of the property
is recognized, there is a need for better documentation of the
site nominated for inscription and the surrounding buffer
zone. ICOMOS therefore requests the State Party to provide
precise maps with a clear indication of the perimeter
proposed for the core area and for the buffer zone.
Taking note of the number of ambitious initiatives for the
presentation of the site, providing facilities for visitors, and
the development of the area as a whole, the town, and even
the entire region, ICOMOS is concerned about the increasing
pressures placed on this historic site and the challenges that
65
bell-towers, added to the nave where there had been none
before; they were constructed using the post-frame
technique, and the most frequent variant is the tower with
sloping walls with a projecting bell-chamber. This represents
the rediscovery of the form of medieval fortified towers.
Wooden Churches (Poland)
No 1053
The chosen churches also contain interiors of exceptional
artistic quality, which reflect the development of European
art from the Gothic to late Baroque and contemporary times,
many of them of museum quality. It should be mentioned
that the Polish wooden church took their functional spatial
composition from liturgical requirements adopted from the
West. They form an exceptional enclave situated at the
boundary between the cultures of the East and the West, in
the area of Christian Slavs.
Identification
Nomination
Wooden Churches of Southern Little Poland
Location
District: Malopolskie (Little Poland):
Commune: Biecz, Village: Binarowa
Commune: Jasienica Rosielna, Village
Blizne;
Commune: Nowy Targ, Village: Debno;
Commune: Haczów, Village: Haczów;
Commune: Lachowice, Village Lachowice;
Commune: Lipnica Murowana, Village:
Lipnica Murowana;
Commune: Jablonka, Village: Orawka;
Commune: Sekowa, Village: Sekowa;
Commune: Luzna, Village: Scalowa;
State Party
Republic of Poland
Date
30 June 2000
The proposed group of timber churches are unique relics of
the centuries-old development of a tradition, only dying out
in our times. The demise of this tradition has been caused by
modern demographic conditions, and technological and
stylistic tendencies. These buildings no longer have the
prospect of further development, and have become a
monument to a vanished epoch. As has been emphasized,
they are a unique phenomenon, and appear only in a closely
defined area of Polish territory, at the cultural boundary
between East and West.
Criterion iii
The selected timber churches are pre-eminent examples of
the survivals of a tradition of construction of timber
buildings which was once much more widespread, and
which was connected with the most important ideological
concepts of Christian Europe. They are the most
representative examples of these structures (which is
reflected in the range of their type and identity). These
structures preserve lost technological knowledge and
constructional skills, specific to the historical period in
which they were constructed. Modern technology is no
longer related to these material traditions.
Criterion iv
Justification by State Party
The log-built Catholic timber churches in Poland are unique
phenomena closely related both to general European
architectural trends and the local building tradition. They
were the most valuable and elite buildings, the creation of
which was closely connected with the social, cultural and
political structures of the medieval state. They are witness to
a centuries-long development process, and the oldest source
references about them date back to the 11th century.
Subsequent centuries are well documented in the archival
resources, beginning from the registers of "St Peter’s Pence"
to the detailed reports and inventories contained in the
diocesan records of the Visitations of the bishops to parishes
under their care. Wooden churches became also a motif in
literature and art. They were noticed by foreign travellers as
structures having no equivalents in other countries.
All the proposed structures have fulfilled a liturgical and cult
function for an unbroken period of several centuries. Around
these churches have materialized cultural values having
universal value, and at the same time acting as a focus for
and acting as a document of local cultural identity. Without
change, they fulfil the purpose for which their founders and
builders created them, retaining their historical form and at
the same time fulfilling the needs of modern religious life.
Criterion vi
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.
Although several dozen similar structures have been
preserved in a good state in this area, the buildings presented
here for inclusion are the best-preserved examples of them.
They are the evidence of all stages of the centuries-long
process of transformations of architecture and sacral art
beginning in the Middle Ages, and finishing at the end of the
18th century. They represent the persistence of vanished
archetypes, through Gothic to contemporary, and the
continuation of traditional-type churches related to folk
architecture. The wide application of Baroque motifs resulted
in the phenomenon of “imitating” in wood Baroque
monumental sacral architecture, a unique phenomenon
which never existed in other regions of the continent. Since
the 16th century, south Polish wooden churches acquired
History and Description
History
The history of Poland goes back to the unification of the
Christian lands and the constitution of the kingdom in the
10th and 11th centuries. Marked by important progress and
the foundation of dozens of new cities in the 14th century,
Poland’s most impressive development is from the end of the
15th through the 18th centuries, when it was united with
Lithuania and formed an empire ranging across the entire
66
Description
central Europe. It is against this background that one can also
see the development of wooden architecture in southern
Poland, where it has been an inseparable element of the
cultural landscape.
The nine properties in southern Little Poland represent
different aspects of these developments, and include the
churches of Binarowa, Blizne, Debno, Haczów, Lachowice,
Lipnica Murowana, Orawka, Sekowa, and Scalowa. Most of
these date from the late 15th century, being completed in the
16th century, except for Lachowice and Scalowa, which
were built in the 18th century. They were all designed for the
liturgies of the Roman Catholic Church. They are generally
located in the centre of a village (except for Lipnica
Murowana, which is outside the defence walls). All were
built as horizontal log constructions. The interiors have rich
painted decoration and fittings that initially date from the late
Gothic period, later often over-painted in Baroque and
Rococo styles. The buildings are characterized by high roofs
covered with wooden shingles.
Churches have been of particular significance in the
development of Polish wooden architecture, and an essential
element of settlement structures, both as landmarks and as
ideological symbols. They were an outward sign of the
cultural identity of communities, reflecting the artistic and
social aspirations of their patrons and creators. In early
Poland, churches were elite buildings of exceptional
significance due to the importance of their patrons, usually
monarchs, Church officials, monasteries, and finally knights
(later aristocrats). Construction of churches was not the work
of folk carpenters, except much later, in the 18th and 19th
centuries, in a period of increasing social and cultural
differentiation.
-
The oldest well-preserved Roman Catholic wooden churches
date back to the 15th century. They demonstrate the
participation of professional craft workshops, belonging to
guilds and builders' lodges, sometimes employing both
carpenters and masons. These churches are complex, of good
craftsmanship, and free from improvization in their
construction. The few well-preserved late medieval churches
have many features in common. The typical church building
was composed of a nave, almost square in plan with a narrow
chancel, and generally with a three-sided east end. The
churches were orientated with their altars to the east.
Originally, the churches were built without towers, which
were added later. There were various architectural
developments, such as roof structures, in succeeding
centuries, and some of the solutions are unique in Europe.
The Gothic character of medieval churches was emphasized
by simple stylistic details, such as the shape of door and
window openings, arcades, and arches. Until the second
quarter of the 16th century there was a common plan for the
churches.
The church of Archangel Michael (Binarowa)
The parish church of Binarowa was probably first built
around 1500, with a roof of zaskrzynienia type. In 1595 a
tower was added to the west end, and at the beginning of the
17th century the church was enclosed by an external arcade.
In 1602–8 a ridge turret was added to the roof. The church
was substantially rebuilt in 1641–50, and a chapel was added
to the north end. Window openings were enlarged, and new
polychrome decoration replaced the earlier stencilled work.
The church has a crypt under the sacristy and the exterior,
the tower, and the south porch are roofed with shingles;
other roofs are covered with galvanized metal sheets. The
interior is painted in thin tempera. The earliest, stencilled
ornament of the ceiling is from the beginning of the 16th
century in late Gothic style. Most of the Baroque paintings
are from the 17th century. The Gothic sculptures of the end
of 14th century are probably from an earlier church at
Binarowa and the reliefs of various saints are from the 15th
century. Most other decoration, including the pulpit,
altarpiece, and the Crucifix, are from the 17th century. After
1909, the roofs of the nave, the chancel, and the upper part
of the tower were covered with galvanized sheeting, the
shingle covering of the walls was replaced by weatherboarding, and the zaskrzynienia of the nave was supported
by a pillared arcade.
The internal fittings were in the style of the period, produced
in guild workshops, and the themes and presentations
followed rigorous ideological and iconographic rules. New
architectural elements, such as towers and arcades, started
appearing in the late 16th century, and strict adherence to the
old church type was gradually abandoned. From the
beginning of the 18th century there was a tendency to exceed
the limitations of the traditional model, a symptom of
institutional and social changes, and architects or skilled
dilettantes attempted to apply to wood Baroque concepts
developed in brick architecture. This is an interesting chapter
in the history of the wooden sacral architecture, represented
in basilica- and aisled-hall churches, sometimes with cupolacovered chapels or cruciform buildings with a central plan,
facades with two towers and elaborate interiors with spiral
columns, cornices, all executed in wood in "imitation" of
brick architecture. Later styles, such as late Baroque, the
Regency and Rococo, also had an impact and mural
decoration is used in illusionist compositions to increase the
impression of interior spaciousness. In the 19th century there
were revivals, and wooden churches were built with
classicist or neo-Gothic features but mostly in details and
interiors. The beginning of the 20th century was marked by
an interest in the beauty of folk art and the "rediscovery" of a
"national" architecture.
-
The church of All Saints (Blizne)
The parish church of Blizne is referred to in the 14th and
15th centuries. In 1549 the church had its first bell tower,
and the interior had a rich painted decoration. The
remarkable Last Judgement scene is from this period. The
present bell tower is first mentioned in 1646, when also the
arcades were built around external walls and the interior was
newly decorated. In the early 18th century there were
changes to interior decorations and furniture. The 16th
century altar was replaced in 1720, using parts of the old
one. The church was restored and the arcades were removed
in 1811. The churchyard has a wooden enclosure and there is
a late 20th century chapel. Near the church, there is a
singular group of wooden buildings of the presbytery.
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The church of Archangel Michael (Debno)
The church of Debno is first mentioned in 1335, and it
became a parish church in 1400. The present building is the
second on the site and it dates from late 15th century. The
tower was added in 1601. The arcade around the exterior
wall and the south porch are from the 17th century. The
exterior walls and the roofs are covered with shingles or
67
- The church of St Philip and St James the Apostles
(Sekowa)
weatherboarding. The walls at the top of the tower have
wooden lacework decorations, also found in the interior.
This church has a unique example of medieval decorations.
The ceiling and the interior walls are painted using stencils
from the 15th and 16th centuries. The decoration contains
more than 77 motifs; there are frequent architectural motifs
recalling Gothic forms. There are also animal and human
motifs other than religious. The Crucifix is from the 14th
century, probably from an earlier building, and it is the oldest
element in the church. Similar examples exist in Slovakia
(1330–70) known as "Hungarian Mystical Crosses." The
altar is from the 14th century, a work from a guild workshop
in Cracow.
This auxiliary church (earlier parish church) was built around
1520, on the site of an earlier church. The building has a
square plan with no aisles; the chancel has a three-sided east
end, and the building is covered with a high roof. Some
renovation took place in the 17th century, and there were
further changes in the 18th century with the addition of the
towers, the stone paving around the church, and the high
external arcades. The sacristy and the choir were added prior
to 1819. The ceilings and the interior walls were covered
with neo-Gothic decorations in late 19th century. During
World War I, Sekowa was in the front-line zone, since the
Austro-Hungarian trenches were near the church, which had
some damage during military action.
- The church of the Blessed Virgin Mary and Archangel
Michael (Haczów)
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An auxiliary (earlier parish) church of Haczów has original
Gothic polychrome decoration from the late 15th century,
although the building has been dated to the previous century.
At the beginning of the 17th century the church was enclosed
by an earthen defensive rampart. In 1624, the tower, a ridge
turret and the external arcade were constructed, and the
round window openings were cut in nave walls. In 1784–89
the sacristy was enlarged, the northern chapel was built, a
treasury and new arcades were added and the roof over the
nave was remodelled. In 1864 the interior of the church was
substantially restored and modernised. The roof, damaged in
1914, was renewed in 1915.
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The parish church of Szalowa was built in 1736–56 and
consecrated in 1756. The interior was completed in 1782.
The vestibules in the façade are later additions; there is a
separate, new vestibule by the sacristy. This church differs
from the others because of its architectural form, though it
still built with the same technique as the rest. The church has
a nave and two aisles, and it is built in a basilica form. The
extremely rich Baroque-Rococo polychrome decoration and
fittings date from the 18th century. The west front has two
towers over the aisles, integrated with the facade, and
provided with small onion-shaped cupolas. A 19th century
fence with a masonry bell-tower surrounds the churchyard.
The church of St Peter and St Paul (Lachowice)
The parish church of Lachowice was built in 1789 from a
donation, and it was consecrated in 1792: The bells date
from 1802–06. The furniture was designed in baroque style,
but was substantially altered in 1836. In 1846 the Stations of
the Cross were installed in the external arcade. There have
been more renovations later, but the form and decorations
have been kept. In 1930 the interior decorations were
renewed.
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The church of Archangel Michael (Szalowa)
Management and Protection
Legal status
The monuments are the physical and legal property of the
Roman Catholic Church, represented by Church authorities
(Bishops) and parochial administration.
The monuments are inscribed in the Register of Monuments
and are protected on the basis of the requirements of Polish
law. They are also included in conservation zones, which are
defined in the land-use master plans of each of the
communes.
The church of St Leonard (Lipnica Murowana)
The church of Lipnica Murowana was built at the end of the
15th century. From this date have survived parts of the
polychrome decoration stencilled on the ceiling of the nave.
The church was situated outside the defensive wall of the
township, and had the function of a cemetery church, a
function that it still fulfils. It has been renovated many times,
but this has not significantly affected its form or spatial
arrangement. The ornamental polychrome decoration of the
ceiling of the cancel dates from the 16th century, and the
walls were painted in 1689, those of the nave in 1710–11. In
the 17th century, an external arcade was built around the
church. The western portal was added in 1837. A crypt under
the nave contains Ledochowski family grave.
All the churches are provided with three levels of protected
areas: a direct protection in the indicated core area, a buffer
zone including the immediate surroundings, and a landscape
protection zone, where the main viewpoints from the
surrounding hills indicate the limits of the restricted area.
Management
Direct care of the monument remains in the hands of the
owner (the Church). Monitoring and control over the
conservation work are the responsibility of the Provincial
Commissioner for Historical Monuments and of the Historic
Monuments Protection Service. The administration of some
communes also includes a Department of Architecture,
which is responsible for the protection of the church.
- The church of St John the Baptist (Orawka)
The beginnings of this parish were connected with the reCatholicization of the region by the Austrian emperor
Ferdinand III. The construction of the church of St John the
Baptist began in 1651, and the bell tower is from 1656, but
the church was only consecrated in 1715. A brick-built
chapel was added in 1728. The church was renovated in
1816–19, and the tower was remodelled in 1901. In 1926–27
the chapel was covered with a cupola, which was removed in
1935 and rebuilt as it had been earlier. A new ridge turret
was built in 1935.
The buffer zones defined in the nomination document are
divided into two categories: a. the traditional enlarged
conservation or protection area, and b. the long-distance
protection, including the surrounding cultural landscape
and marking on the map different long-distance view
points to be included and protected by the spatial planning.
The buffer zones around the nominated properties and
68
The rural settings of the churches and their relationship with
the landscape have been preserved. It is noted with
satisfaction that the nominated areas include also the
auxiliary structures related to church functions, and thus
contributing to the integrity of the sites concerned.
conservation areas are mostly defined in accordance with
the borders of the historic settlement. Exception makes the
buffer zone surrounding the conservation area at Lipnica
Murowana, where the church is situated outside the walls
of the medieval settlement being used today as a cemetery
chapel. Here the buffer zone includes the free territory of
meadows and pastureland on the east side used in the past
also by the small villages of Lipnica Murowana Górna and
Dolna.
The buildings have also been in continuous use as church
buildings, a scene of traditional ceremonies and rituals, until
the present. Recent restorations have been carried out
according to modern principles.
During the expert mission to Lachowice, a note was made
regarding the southern border of the buffer zone, limited
by a railway track. Some new housing has been erected in
the vicinity of the churchyard, across the railway. After
discussion, the authorities have agreed to enlarge the
buffer zone to include these lots in order to avoid
uncontrolled building activity in the future.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the nine churches in
January 2001. Particular attention was given to the issues of
protection and management with the proposal to modify the
perimeter of the buffer zone in the case of the church of
Lachowice. While recognizing the justification of the current
nomination, the mission noted the need for a thematic study
of wooden church architecture, which would take into
account the whole cultural region in eastern and southeastern Europe. The mission verified the issues of
authenticity in the church constructions and the integrity of
the sites concerned.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The dates of construction of the churches in the present
nomination range from the 15th to the 18th centuries. During
the centuries, the buildings have been subject to some
alterations, thus acquiring a historical stratification.
Typically, the buildings have had the tower added in a later
period, as well as the external gallery that has become a
characteristic feature of several of the churches. Also in the
interior, there have been changes regarding the painted
decoration and the furniture and fittings, respecting the taste
of the time. As a whole, the various additions and alterations
are in harmony with the whole of the architecture, and can
therefore be considered enrichment acquired through their
useful life. The churches have survived surprisingly well
until the present, some with hardly any change. In relatively
few cases the buildings have suffered from damage, such as
the church of Sekowa, damaged during World War I and
subsequently repaired.
Qualities
The wooden churches of southern Little Poland represent an
age-old tradition that goes back to medieval times. The
construction dates range from the 15th and 16th centuries,
the Polish Middle Ages, to the 17th and 18th centuries,
documenting the continuation of the traditions. Built using
horizontal log technique, common in eastern and northern
Europe since the Middle Ages, the buildings present many
characteristic features that qualify their singularity, including
the overall architectural form, the roofs, the towers, and the
arcades around the building. The Polish wooden church took
its functional and spatial composition from liturgical
requirements adopted from the West, forming a sort of
enclave between East and West.
The churches have generally been subject to restoration in
recent decades. This has also meant an opportunity, using
modern scientific methods, to remove later paint layers and
to reveal underlying older decoration. It has thus been
possible to reacquire parts of the medieval appearance of the
interior of the oldest churches. Restoration has also given an
opportunity for methodical survey and research of the
buildings and the verification of their history. It has shown,
for example, that many of the buildings have retained much
of their original material and structure, rare in the case of
wooden constructions, which are generally subject to
weathering and loss of material.
Considering the social and political situation in Poland from
the 15th century onwards, and the commitment of the noble
families to sponsor the construction of church buildings not
only for the cult but also as a symbol of their own prestige,
these churches have strong social significance. They
represent a wooden alternative to the architecture developed
in masonry structures in urban centres, but also an alternative
that used the best available craftsmanship and technology.
Furthermore, the churches are an exceptionally well
preserved testimony of the medieval decorative systems, and
how these concepts were continued and further developed
over the centuries, when other styles became more dominant,
especially Baroque and Rococo. The churches have retained
their original architectural form and the liturgical use, and
also the rural setting of the sites has remained exceptionally
well intact.
Authenticity and integrity
The wooden churches of southern Little Poland have been
preserved exceptionally well through the centuries. They
have all maintained their original structure, much of their
fittings, and even of the first layers of painted decoration.
Some of the churches have been hardly changed since their
completion (including the construction of the tower and the
external arcade, which are often of later date). Others have
been subject to alterations, particularly in the 18th century,
and the redecoration in the baroque-rococo style. Such
changes have however been in the character of the
architectural conception of the buildings, and can be
considered a part of their historical value.
Comparative analysis
The other wooden church buildings on the World Heritage
List include the medieval Urnes Stave Church [inscribed
on the List in 1979: criteria i, ii, iii] in Norway; Kizhi
Pogost [1990: i, iv, v] in the Russian Federation (Carelia);
Petäjävesi Old Church [1994: iv] in Finland, the Wooden
69
Churches of Maramures [1999: iv] in Romania; the
Churches of Chiloé [2000: ii, iii] in Chile. Furthermore,
the Churches of Peace in Poland are presented for
nomination in 2001. A comparative study has been carried
out on Nordic church buildings.
The stave churches of Norway represent a different
architectural and structural system, and the churches of
Finland, Russia, Romania, and Chile date from the late
17th and 18th centuries, as well as representing different
cultural and architectural traditions. The current nomination
is related to the Roman Catholic tradition in wooden church
architecture in southern Poland and its development since
the late Middle Ages, with reference only to the traditional
horizontal log construction. It is noted that there is also a
family of some 70 Greek Catholic churches in southern
Poland, the architecture of which is different from the
Roman Catholic tradition reflecting a particular liturgical
division of interior spaces and influences from the Russian
and Ukrainian wooden church architecture. Nevertheless the
construction technique and many details represent a common
language of traditional wooden church architecture in the
area of Central, Eastern and Northern Europe, and
particularly from Southern Poland to Ukraine, Russia,
Slovakia, Hungary and northern Romania, that is in the
region around the Carpathian Mountains.
Even though the selection for this nomination is of great
interest, a comprehensive thematic study is missing from the
nomination document.
ICOMOS comments and recommendations for future action
Taking into account the fact that the proposed churches are
part of a building tradition that extends to central and Eastern
Europe and even beyond, ICOMOS considers that it is
necessary that a thematic study in wooden architecture
should be undertaken in relation to wooden churches in the
region of the Carpathian Mountains in order to have a more
comprehensive representation of these traditions recognized
on the World Heritage List. Depending on the results of the
study, the possibility of a thematic nomination should be
considered recognizing the different cultural expressions
related to a similar building tradition in this region.
Brief description
The wooden churches of southern Little Poland represent
outstanding examples of the different aspects of the medieval
church building traditions in the Roman Catholic culture as
these developed from the 15th to the 18th centuries. Built
using horizontal log technique, common in eastern and
northern Europe since the Middle Ages, the buildings were
sponsored by noble families and became also a symbol of
prestige, representing a highly qualified wooden alternative
to the masonry structures in urban centres.
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
While recognizing the great interest of the heritage
concerned, ICOMOS considers it necessary to evaluate the
nomination in the larger regional context. Therefore,
ICOMOS recommends that the nomination be deferred to
await the outcome of a thematic study.
ICOMOS, March 2001
70
Catholic Habsburg monarchy. In most of the province
Protestants were persecuted and deprived of the right and
possibility to practise their faith. Through the agency of the
Lutheran king of Sweden, the Emperor finally allowed
(1651–52) the erection of three churches, henceforth known
as the Churches of Peace, in Silesian principalities under
direct Habsburg rule in Glogow (Glogau), which ceased to
exist in the 18th century, Jawor (Jauer), and Swidnica
(Schweidnitz) in the south-west part of present-day Poland.
The Emperor’s consent was, however, given upon conditions
that were difficult to comply with. The churches had to be
built exclusively of perishable materials (wood and clay),
located outside city walls, and built in a limited period of
time. These restrictions, together with the need to provide
adequate space for large crowds of worshippers, forced the
architect, Albrecht von Sabisch (1610–88), a prominent
master-builder and fortification designer active in Wroclaw,
to implement pioneering constructional and architectural
solutions of a scale and complexity unknown ever before or
since in wooden architecture. The timber-framed structures
of enormous scale and complexity were assembled. The
Churches of Peace, as they are still called today, were to be
as inconspicuous as possible in the townscape; they were
to be the refuge of a legally disadvantaged and only
reluctantly tolerated minority, whose role as outsiders
should be evident in the location of the churches outside
the protective city walls.
Churches of Peace (Poland)
No 1054
Identification
Nomination
Churches of Peace in Jawor and Swidnica
Location
Historic region of Silesia, Principality of
Swidnica and Jawor
State Party
Republic of Poland
Date
30 June 2000
Justification by State Party
The Churches of Peace in Jawor and Swidnica give
exceptional testimony to the cultural tradition of timberframe architecture at the peak of its structural and aesthetic
potential. They also bear witness to the coexistence of
Baroque art and Lutheran theology.
Criterion iii
The first permit was given to Glogow (1651) and the site was
located 300m outside the city walls. Building started quickly
and the first service was held in October 1652, but the
church was destroyed by a violent storm in the summer of
1654. A new church was built the following year, but this
burnt down in 1758 and was then replaced by a brick
building. The permit for the other two churches was given in
1652. The church of Jawor was built in 1654–55. In
Swidnica, a temporary structure (Gotteshüttlein, God’s hut)
was built in 1652 and the actual construction was able to
take place in 1656–57, thanks to the donation of Count Hans
Heinrich von Hochberg and support from the Lutheran
magistrate of Swidnica. A new sacristy was erected in 1695
and private loges were built by noble families in the early
18th century. Several auxiliary buildings were added to the
ensemble, including the residences of the pastor and the
vicars, a Latin school, and a German school. The two
churches were designed as basilicas with built-in galleries
but their plans and spatial arrangements differed. In their
décor, integrated into the architectural framework, exuberant
Baroque forms and complex imagery were used in a truly
unique way to convey concepts of Protestant theology.
During the Silesian War, Swidnica was under siege on
several occasions, and the hostilities resulted in the
destruction of the sacristy and structural damage to the
northern wall. All the damage was repaired by 1763.
The Churches of Peace are outstanding, pioneering, and
unique structures, whose construction, spatial arrangement,
and technology were later imitated only in a simplified and
reduced form. Developed in response to imposed external
conditions, their architecture satisfied the expectations and
needs of local communities in terms of space arrangements,
architectural forms, and ideological content.
Criterion iv
The Churches of Peace are directly linked to an important
historical event (the Peace of Westphalia), to a universal idea
(religious freedom), and to ideology (the Christian faith, the
Reformation). Their form and symbolism were closely linked
with the political situation of a large and dynamic population
group defined by its religious denomination – a group which,
as a result of internal conflicts and war, was reduced to the
position of a diaspora barely tolerated by state authorities.
Criterion vi
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
monument.
Description
Unlike the Baroque Catholic churches of Silesia, the
Churches of Peace do not represent a self-confident missionoriented religion, triumphant in its victory over heretics, but
rather they embody a place of refuge for an oppressed
religious minority that wanted to assert its faith, to remain
conscious of its individuality, and to preserve the communal
cult of its traditions and practices. Stability and durability
were achieved ability by means of an efficient structural
system and careful use of traditional techniques in handling
the materials and in connecting the individual timbers with
History and Description
History
The Thirty Years’ War in Europe ended with the Treaty of
Westphalia (1648), which upheld the principle of cuius regio
eius religio, ie the faith professed by the ruler was obligatory
for his subjects. At that time Silesia was a part of the
71
one another. The Churches of Peace are among the latest
examples of an architecture that combines post-and-beam
construction (building with one-piece wall-high posts) with
the techniques of halved joints; the structural framework of
regularly placed uprights and horizontal connecting rails is
reinforced by means of diagonal crossed struts that are
inserted in the posts and rails in a way that makes shifting of
the structural framework impossible. As post-and-beam
buildings, the Churches of Peace are part of a European
tradition that goes back to the 12th century (the Norwegian
stave churches, one of which found its way to Silesia in the
19th century) and continued into the 18th century (eg the
Churches of Grace). The churches in Jawor and Swidnica
differ from one another in the character of their floor plans.
Both have three aisles, both terminate in a polygonal east
end., but whereas in Jawor the eastern end is still a true
chancel, in Swidnica it is only the formal remembrance of
such; its function has become that of a sacristy.
executed in 1752 by the sculptor Gottfried August Hoffman,
replacing an old altarpiece, and he also built the pulpit. The
main organ was built by Christoph Klose in 1666–69; it was
repaired several times in the 18th century and more recently
in 1834.
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The Church of Swidnica and its auxiliary buildings are
legally protected as monuments (No 9/131 of 1950) and have
been placed in Zone A (strict conservation and
archaeological protection) of the historic town, designated in
the current master plan (1994).
Management and Protection
Legal status
The churches of Jawor and Swidnica are both property of the
Diocese of Wroclaw.
The Church of Jawor and its surrounding area (former
cemetery and a Soviet army cemetery) are legally protected
as monuments (No 990/173/L, as of 1963). The current
master plan contains provisions for the protection of the site
(1988, amended in 1994 and 1996).
THE LUTHERAN CHURCH OF PEACE IN JAWOR
The church was designed by the architect Albert von Sabisch
and constructed by the master carpenter Andreas Gamper
from Jawor in 1654–55. Located outside the town, the
church is surrounded by a park, the former graveyard, with
the original layout of tree-lined alleys. The auxiliary
buildings occupy a quarter of the site. The church is in the
form of a basilica with one nave, two aisles, and a
presbytery. The building is a timber-framed structure, filled
with vertical wooden chips wrapped in straw and plastered
with clay. It is covered with shingle roofs. The bell-tower
adjoining the south elevation was erected in 1707 on a
rectangular plan, the first storey in brick and the upper
storeys timber-framed, with an octagonal helmet on top. The
building is 43.3m long and 26.8m wide. Its height from floor
to ceiling is 16.4m and externally to the rooftop 23.7m.
Management
The Churches of Jawor and Swidnica are regularly used for
religious purposes and there is no intention to change this.
The general management and routine maintenance are
carried out and financed by the respective parishes. There are
no particular environmental pressures that would threaten the
churches.
The conservation management of the church of Jawor is the
responsibility of the Lower Branch of Historical Monuments
Protection Service in Legnica and in the case of Swidnica of
the corresponding office in Walbrzych. The protection is
supervised by the Voivodship Conservator’s office in
Wroclaw and the Commissioner for Historic Monuments in
Warsaw. Regular monitoring is carried out by specialists.
The interior has two tiers of principal galleries and two tiers
of auxiliary galleries. The auxiliary galleries were added in
the 18th century. The galleries are divided by screens and
partitions into a complex system of interconnected loges for
local nobility and craft guilds. The original polychrome
decoration consists of ornaments in tones of white and blue
and of 143 biblical scenes with inscriptions. The paintings,
inspired by Mathias Merian, were executed by Georg Flegel.
Similar decoration is also on the auxiliary galleries, and the
décor is supplemented by cartouches bearing coats of arms.
The high altar (1672) is a multi-storeyed structure executed
by the workshop of Michael Schneider of Landshut.
-
Both churches are currently subject to a comprehensive
conservation programme by the Deutsches Zentrum für
Handwerk und Denkmalpflege, Probstei Johannesberg,
Fulda e.V. The programmes are implemented in close
collaboration with the Institute of Science of Historical
Works of Art and Conservation Techniques of the Nicolaus
Copernicus University in Torun; the conservation of
decorations is the responsibility of the Department of
Conservation of the Polychrome Paintings and Sculpture and
the Department of Conservation of Paper and Leather.
THE LUTHERAN CHURCH OF PEACE IN SWIDNICA
The church was designed by the same architect as the Church
of Jawor, Albert von Sabisch, and built by master carpenters
Andreas Gamper (from Jawor) and Kaspar Konig (from
Swidnica) in 1656–57. It is located north of the town centre,
and was incorporated into the outer ring of fortifications in
the mid-18th century. The polygonal site is occupied by the
churchyard with its original layout and surrounded by walls.
The auxiliary buildings include the residence of the head
pastor, the vicarage, and two schools. The church is in the
form of a basilica with a transept and four tiers of galleries.
Its plan is close to a Greek cross. The structure is similar to
the Jawor church. The church is 45.1m long and 20.9m wide;
the nave is 11.5m wide and 14.5m high. Externally the
building is 22.5m tall. The polychrome decoration of the
interior, started in 1693 under the direction of Christian
Sussenbach, was inspired by the Bible. The high altar was
Both churches are included in regional and local tourism
development plans. The sites are accessible to groups and
individual visitors, and have the necessary facilities. Most
visitors come from Germany, the Czech Republic, and
Austria, and amount to 12,000 per year in Jawor and 24,000
in Swidnica.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The embellishment and decoration of both churches lasted
well into the 18th century, including additional structures on
the site. In Jawor some major repairs were undertaken in the
occasion of the anniversaries in 1852 and 1902. Recognizing
72
Qualities
the significance of the building, special care was taken to
minimize interference with the original structure, but
involving repair and replacement of fillings and clay
renderings. The church had structural deformations and,
because of the lack of proper maintenance during and after
World War II, its condition caused serious concern in the
1970s. Thorough survey and recording were undertaken in
this period, followed by the development of conservation
programmes in the 1980s. An immediate result was the
reinforcement of the deformed central roof trusses, thus
preventing further deterioration and without compromising
the authenticity of the building.
Protestant churches were generally built in simple forms,
avoiding excessive decoration. In the case of Silesia, with
an impact of the Counter-Reformation, the Churches of
Peace were the only Lutheran churches in an otherwise
Catholic context. Because of the context and an obvious
competition between the two religions, these churches set
out to match the Baroque language used by the Catholics.
This resulted in a unique phenomenon in Europe both
ideologically and artistically, and gave a particular
significance to these buildings.
The two churches are the only examples of their kind. They
have been built using old traditional techniques, but
reaching exceptional dimensions which have required high
technical mastery as well as outstanding quality in their
architecture. The buildings, in fact, should not be
considered vernacular but as outstanding examples of 17th
century architecture.
In the case of Swidnica, the Seven Years’ War and the
siege by the Prussian army in 1762 caused considerable
damage to the church. The facade away from the city
received so many direct hits that large parts had to be
renewed during repairs the year after the peace treaty. The
new sections were harmoniously integrated with the
existing structure but using joinery characteristic of the
18th century. A new timber-framed sacristy was also built.
As in Jawor, further repairs were carried out in 1852 and
1902. In 1852, a new porch was added to the sacristy and
the so-called nuptial hall was built, both in neo-Gothic
style. A baptism hall was built inside the church. In 1902
the main entrances received timber-framed porches.
Structural repairs were as a rule limited to the replacement
of individual members and the construction has remained
basically that of 18th century. The timber structure was
stabilized and consolidated in the 1960s and 1970s and the
shingle roof was replaced.
Comparative analysis
Before proposing the properties for inscription, the State
Party has undertaken a thorough comparative study. It is
understood that the two extant Churches of Peace represent a
particular phenomenon in the history of art and architecture
with no real analogies elsewhere. This is due not only to the
ideological and artistic content of their design and
construction but also to their size and type of construction.
The scale of the Churches of Peace is nearly matched by only
two other wooden churches. The Lutheran church of the
Holy Ghost in Clausthal, Lower Saxony, consecrated in
1642, is a hall church with two aisles and two tiers of
galleries. It is 36.5m long and 17.7m wide, with an overall
height of 19.5m, and accommodates some 2200 persons. The
Lutheran church in Kerimäki, Finland, was built entirely in
wood in 1848. This building has a cross plan with a dome
over the crossing. The main nave is 45m long and the
transept 42m long; the building is 24m high to the rooftop.
In the past it could accommodate 3600 persons; now this has
been reduced to 3300. Jawor with its 6000 seats and
Swidnica with 7500 thus represent the largest existing
wooden church buildings.
Both churches are currently subject to conservation
programmes, in two parts, one dealing with structural
consolidation and the other with interior decoration and
furnishings. The structural work will be completed in the
near future. The conservation of the décor has been
initiated with a pilot phase and will be continued subject to
obtaining funds.
Authenticity
Both Churches of Peace have a very high degree of
historical authenticity. Their basic historic fabric and their
formal appearance have remained unchanged since they
were built. Any later elements in the interior fit in well
with the older components in the existing architecture and
form an artistic whole. The construction and roof forms of
the external additions are adapted to those of the main
building. Although the churches have had some
restoration, this has been carried out in a correct and
respectful manner. Lutheran services have continued being
held in both Churches of Peace without interruption since
the time of construction, and their relationship with the
setting has remained intact. The churches can therefore be
judged to pass the test of authenticity.
The study indicates that most timber-framed buildings
have followed a simple scheme without aisles. There are
few examples of larger hall churches, and the basilica type
is the most complex. Of the two Churches of Peace, the
plan of Swidnica is the more complicated owing to its
large transept. A limited number of timber-framed
churches with similar structural system were erected in the
early 18th century (Freystadt, Sagan, Wroclaw, Voigtsdorf,
Leipe, Guhrau) but all of these have since been destroyed
or demolished. The only existing ones of this type are the
two Churches of Peace. Considering the required size of
the churches and the conditions imposed on building
materials, the builders had to use the utmost inventiveness
to apply time-tested carpentry techniques at this scale,
resulting in a sophisticated use of such technology.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
The other wooden church buildings on the World Heritage
List include the medieval Urnes Stave Church (inscribed
on the List in 1979: criteria i, ii, iii) in Norway, Kizhi
Pogost (1990: i, iv, v) in the Russian Federation (Carelia),
Petäjävesi Old Church (1994: iv) in Finland, built by a
peasant master builder in 1763–64; the Wooden Churches
of Maramures (1999: iv) in Romania, and the Churches of
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the site in January 2001,
and ICOMOS scientific committees were consulted on the
quality of the architecture concerned.
73
of skilled handicraft, demonstrating what men are
capable of when the utmost is demanded from them.
Chiloé (2000: ii, iii) in Chile. Furthermore, a selection of
wooden churches in Southern Poland is presented for
nomination in 2001. On the occasion of the nomination of
the Petäjävesi church a comparative study identified and
evaluated the different types of wooden churches in
northern Europe. It is noted that the buildings mentioned
above represent different types of all-wooden construction,
whereas the Churches of Peace are timber-framed
constructions. Furthermore, the case of the Churches of
Peace is fundamentally the result of a particular political
and cultural situation in Europe at the time, and the
consequent challenges to find technical, architectural, and
artistic solutions for their design and construction.
ICOMOS, March 2001
In this context the Churches of Peace are distinguished as
exceptional because of their typology and the application of
timber-frame construction to congregation buildings of this
size. At the same time their particular value lies in the
ideological significance of their construction and artistic
expression, where they remain unique. These churches are
the largest sacred timber-framed buildings in Europe and as
such are an engineering achievement that has never been
surpassed in this material and in this building technology.
The construction method and the structural system of the
Churches of Peace are both the result of an historical
situation that existed nowhere other than in Silesia and at no
other time than after the Thirty Years’ War. There was a
need for churches that combined a minimum of expense and
an extremely short building period (one year) with maximum
accommodation for the faithful. The emphasis was not on
development of the liturgy or cultivation of private piety but
rather for the congregation to be brought as close as possible
to the point from which the word of God was proclaimed.
These were the premises for the spatial design, from which
the architect developed a convincing solution in Swidnica:
the cross-shaped central plan with surrounding galleries,
which was prototypical for Protestant church construction up
until the end of the 18th century.
Brief description
The Churches of Peace in Jawor and Swidnica in Poland are
an exceptional achievement, the largest religious timberframed buildings in Europe, at the time of the religious
dispute after the Peace of Westphalia in the former Silesia in
the mid-17th century. Constrained by physical and political
conditions, the Churches of Peace are testimony of the search
for religious freedom and a rare expression given to Lutheran
ideology in using the means generally associated with the
Catholic Church.
Recommendation and statement of significance
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on
the basis of criteria iii, iv, and vi:
The Churches of Peace bear exceptional witness to a
particular political and spiritual development in Europe
and represent outstanding technical and architectural
solutions to meet the difficult conditions imposed on the
builders and the community, using age-old traditional
techniques. They represent architectural and artistic
evidence of the faith of a religious community and its
will to survive. Under difficult circumstances this
community created, in an unparalleled tour de force,
the spaces it needed to exercise its faith up to the
present day. The Churches of Peace are masterpieces
74
religious faiths and political authorities. The Mudejar art
created by the Mudejars (Muslims who remained in the reconquered Christian territories) is a symbol of religious and
political tolerance, as well as of peaceful and positive
coexistence. These monuments show the fruitful interrelation
in medieval Aragón between the Christians and the Muslims,
and even with Jews. These monuments are therefore a
sample of cultural interbreeding and of globalization
(considering that Mudejar art was extended to the whole
peninsula, and even to Spanish America) at the same time as
they determine the singularity of certain locations, of which
the most interesting are those in Aragón. Furthermore, the
study, promotion, and diffusion of the arts of Aragón will
help to develop values of culture and of peace, defended by
UNESCO and continuing to be a delicate issue between the
Islamic and the Western worlds.
Mudejar of Aragon (Spain)
No 378 bis
Identification
Nomination
Mudejar of Aragon (Extension of
Mudejar Architecture of Teruel)
Location
Region of Aragón
State Party
Spain
Category of property
Date
30 June 2000
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of monuments.
History and Description
Justification by State Party
History
The present proposal is intended to extend the existing
inscription of Mudejar properties (Mudejar Architecture of
Teruel, inscribed 1986: criterion iv) to include all Mudejar
architecture in the entire region of Aragón, on the basis of
the same criteria. The reason is simple: because the question
is of the same unique artistic manifestation, of singular
character and of universal value. Obviously, Teruel is not the
only place in Aragón presenting a strong personality; one can
list many others. Furthermore, Teruel has retained close
relationships with the city of Zaragoza due to its
ecclesiastical links. The formal associations of Teruel with
the Islamic tradition in Aragón are identical with those of the
rest of the Mudejar of this region. The most significant of
previous Islamic monuments has been the Aljaferia Palace in
Zaragoza (11th century), where the tradition of Córdoba was
developed in depth, reaching unrivalled quality in
decoration. After the Reconquest (1118), the palace was
transformed into the Christian palace of the Kings of Aragón,
who contributed to the social acceptance and diffusion of this
Mudejar art. The same criteria of the existing World Heritage
site of 1986 can thus be transposed to the rest of the
monuments presented in this new proposal.
The Mudejar art in Aragón is a direct consequence of the
singular nature of the Christian Reconquest in the early
12th century of territories that had been dominated by the
Moors since the 8th century. For various practical and
political reasons the Christians allowed the Moors to
remain in the reconquered territories and keep their own
culture and religion. On the other hand, the Islamic art
fascinated the Christians, who continued using its themes
for a long time. Because of this cohabitation, many Islamic
buildings were preserved, such as the Aljaferia Palace in
Zaragoza and other palaces and mosques in Toledo,
Córdoba, Seville, and Granada. In this cultural context, a
new expression also developed, the Mudejar art, which
represented the fusion of two artistic traditions, Islamic
and Christian. The region of Aragón became one of the
principal locations for this development. Here the easily
available materials were brick, lime, ceramics, and timber,
which were also economical in use. Most master builders
were Moors, who continued to contribute to the
construction. Mudejar art gradually declined with the
interruption of relations with the Islamic world and the
introduction of Italian Renaissance concepts in the 16th
century.
The specific characteristics that are met in all the nominated
monuments make special, though not sole, reference to the
special use of brick ornamentation and glazed ceramics in
architecture, the two elements most specific to Mudejar art in
Aragón.
The history of Mudejar art in Aragón can be articulated in
three phases: the beginning from the 12th to 13th centuries,
the full development and expansion in the 14th and 15th
centuries, and the survival and extension in the 16th and 17th
centuries.
Other artistic elements that may be noted, such as those
related to ornamental systems, are more a result of specific
historic and cultural conditions, which change from place to
place, and therefore cannot be analysed on a comparative
basis. Each location gives its own identity which is just as
valid as in any other.
Only few examples of Mudejar art remain from the period
immediately succeeding the Reconquest. The earliest
surviving buildings are in Daroca and Teruel. In Daroca
these include the tower of Santo Domingo, and the apse of
San Juan, from the mid 13th century. Both constructions
were begun in stone and completed in brick. In Teruel the
earliest examples are the church of Santa Maria de
Mediavilla (the cathedral), and the tower of San Pedro, of a
In addition to these formal criteria, there are also others that
relate to particular social-historical and ethical situations.
These refer to intangible and non-material values, such as the
teaching of tolerance and the cultural coexistence of different
75
Zaragoza
slightly later date. Both of these have very similar decorative
systems and structures: they are gate towers on a square base,
allowing a passage under a pointed vault, reinforced with
buttresses. It is understood that, apart from their religious
and military functions, these bell towers also had an
important town planning function in tracing the routes. The
ceiling of the cathedral of Teruel, dating from the second half
of the 13th century, is the most interesting artistic
achievement of the Mudejar art in Aragón.
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
The full development of Mudejar art in Aragón in the 14th
and early 15th centuries coincides with the introduction of
Gothic to the Hispanic peninsula. In Aragón Mudejar art
continued to predominate over Gothic, except in some
minor areas in the south. The most common type of church
has a single aisle with a polygonal apse of five or six sides
and without any buttresses. The structure presents some
characteristics typical of Gothic architecture, showing the
interrelation between these two art forms. Many of these
churches have been modified in later periods. The churches
of Zaragoza (La Magdalena, San Gil, and San Miguel de los
Navarros) correspond with this type. Perhaps the most
distinguished type of church building in this period is one
with a strongly military function, a fortified church with
tribunes over the lateral chapels, opening towards the
exterior. In fact, the patrons were mainly from military
orders.
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Teruel
Teruel
Teruel
In the last period, starting from the beginning of the 16th
century (1502–26), the Mudejars were forced to convert to
Christianity, becoming "new Christians" or moriscos. This is
followed by a period of intolerance, resulting in the
expulsion of these new Christians in 1609–10. This is also
the period of the decline and extinction of Mudejar art,
though there were still some interesting achievements, of
which there are examples in Zaragoza, Muniesa, Mara,
Tierga, Alcubierre, Utebo, Villamayor, and Ricla.
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Teruel
Description
Teruel
The sites representing Mudejar art in Aragón proposed for
inscription were 157 in the first nomination proposal. This
number was subsequently reduced by the State Party to 64.
These sites are nominated to be added to the four sites of
Teruel already on the List, making the total of 68. According
to the revised list, the sites proposed for inscription are
situated in 49 municipalities, most of them in the province of
Zaragoza (54 sites), and a few in the provinces of Teruel (9
sites) and Huesca (1 site). To this should be added the four
sites in the municipality of Teruel, province of Teruel. The
properties are in variable settings, which may be large urban
areas, small townships, villages, and even open countryside.
b
a
Tower and church: 2 ensembles in 2 municipalities
of Teruel; 21 ensembles in 16 municipalities of
Zaragoza:
Zaragoza
Teruel
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Regarding the definition of the nominations, the sites can be
classified on the basis of what is proposed to be included in
each case. The following list is arranged in groups, indicating
the province, municipality, name of the building, date of
construction, and level of protection (see "Legal status"
below): a. tower alone, b. tower and church, c. religious
building with no mention of tower, and d. other buildings or
parts of buildings. Each group is arranged in an approximate
chronological order.
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Tower, either standing alone or as part of church: 5
towers in the province of Teruel; 13 towers in the
province of Zaragoza, each in a different
municipality:
Zaragoza
76
Daroca (Santo Domingo de Silos, tower of
church, mid 13th c. BIC)
Escatrón (Rueda de Ebro, tower of ruined
monastery, 14th c BIC.)
Longares (Asunción de la Nuestra Señora,
tower of parish church, 14th c. BIC)
Almunia de Doña Godina, La (Asunción de
Nuestra Señora, tower of parish church, mid
14th c. BIC)
Puebla de Alfindén, La (Asunción de Nuestra
Señora, tower of parish church, 14th–16th c.
CAT)
Tarazona (Santa María Magdalena, tower
and ceiling, end 14th–mid 16th c. BIC)
Belchite Viejo (Torre del Reloj, tower of
church in ruins, 15th c. CAT)
Romanos (San Pedro Apóstol, tower of parish
church, 15th c. BIC)
Villar de los Navarros, El (San Pedro, tower
of church, 15th c. BIC)
Utebo (Santa María, tower of parish church,
early 16th c. BIC)
Muniesa (Asunción de la Nuestra Señora,
tower of parish church, 16th c. BIC)
Navarrete del Rio (Asunción de la Nuestra
Señora, late 16th c. BIC)
Olalla (Iglesia Antigua, tower standing alone,
16th c. BIC)
Moyuela (Nuestra Señora de la Piedad, tower
of parish church, 16th c. BIC)
Villamayor (Asunción de Nuestra Señora,
tower of parish church, 16th c. BIC)
Fuentes de Jiloca (Asunción de Nuestra
Señora, tower of parish church, end 16th c.
BIC)
San Martín del Río (San Martín, tower of
parish church, 16th – 17th c. BIC)
Báguena (Asunción de Nuestra Señora, tower
of parish church, 17th c. CAT)
Tauste (Santa Maria, end 13th c. BIC)
Montalbán (Santiago, 13th–14th c. BIC)
Ateca (Santa Maria, 13th–14th c. BIC)
Zaragoza (San Pablo, end 13th–14th c. BIC)
Zaragoza (San Gil Abad, early 14th c. BIC)
Zaragoza (Santa Maria Magdalena, early
14th c. BIC)
Alagón (San Pedro Apóstol, early 14th c.
CAT)
Calatayud (San Pedro de los Francos, early
14th c. BIC)
Maluenda (La Asunción, old tower and
ceiling, 15th c. BIC)
Alfajarin (San Miguel Arcángel, 14th – 15th
c. CAT)
Herrera de los Navarros (San Juan Baustista,
14th – 15th c. BIC)
Zaragoza (San Miguel de los Navarros, end
14th–15th c. BIC)
San Mateo de Gállego (San Mateo, 14th–
16th c. BIC)
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Teruel
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
c
Huesca
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Teruel
Zaragoza
Teruel
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Borja (Santa Maria, parish church, 13th–14th
c. BIC)
Maluenda (Santas Justa y Rufina, church,
early 14th–15th c. BIC)
Magallón(Santa Maria de la Huerta, church
in ruin, mid 14th c. CAT)
Zaragoza (Monasterio de la Resurrección,
14th c. BIC)
Cervera del Cañada (Santa Tecla, parish
church, 14th–15th c. BIC)
Híjar (Santa Maria la Mayor, church, 14th–
16th c. CAT)
Tarazona (Cathedral of Santa Maria de la
Huerta, 14th–16th c. BIC)
Peñarroya de Tastavins (Ermita del
Santuario de la Virgen de la Fuente, late 14th
c. BIC)
Tobed (Santa Maria, late 14th c. BIC)
Torralba de Ribota (San Félix, parish church,
end 14th–15th c. BIC)
Azuara (Nuestra Señora de la Piedad, parish
church, late 14th c. CAT)
Morata de Jiloca (San Martin de Tours,
parish church, 15th c. BIC)
Quinto de Ebro (Asunción de Nuestra
Señora, parish church, 15th c. BIC)
The bell towers represent perhaps the most visible element
of Mudejar architecture and are characterized by great
richness in their decoration: a variety of geometric patterns
of brick reliefs, different patterns of coloured ceramics,
elements in gypsum, as well as various architectural forms,
niches, windows, and buttresses. The towers can have
different forms in the plan: octagonal base (San Pedro of
Alagón, Santa Maria and San Andrés of Calatayud, Nuestra
Señora of Muniesa, Santa Maria of Tauste), or square base
(San Miguel of Alfajarin, Nuestra Señora of La Almunia de
Doña Godina). Several towers have Christian influence, and
have either a square or an octagonal plan, or a mixture of
both forms (square base: Nostra Señora de la Piedad of
Moyuela; octagonal base: Santa Ana of Mainar; mixed base:
Nuestra Señora of Ricla). Their internal structure differs
from the "Almohades model" (with one tower inside another)
and the stairs are additional feature. Some churches have a
ciborium over the nave, in the form of tower with a square
plan, which then becomes octagonal and is crowned with a
bell tower (eg the cathedral of Tarazona, La Seo of
Zaragoza).
Another typical feature of Mudejar architecture is found in
the painted and decorated ceilings in wood, of which the best
known example is in Santa Maria de Mediavilla (13th c.) of
Teruel, already inscribed on the World Heritage List. The
current proposal includes various additional examples (eg
Santa Tecla of Cervera de la Cañada, the chapel of the Castel
of Mesones de Isuela).
Other types of buildings or parts of buildings: 1
church interior in the province of Huesca; 5
churches and 2 castles with extant Mudejar
elements, and 2 residential buildings, in 7
municipalities of Zaragoza:
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Mesones de Isuela (Castillo, interior of castle,
late 14th c. BIC)
Puebla de Castro, La (San Román de Castro,
interior of church, ca. 1400, BIC)
Cetina (Castillo, decorative elements of
palace, 15th c. BIC)
Daroca (Palacio de los Luna, residential
building, 15th c. BIC)
Borja (Casa de la Estanca, house, 16th c.
CAT)
The churches are characterized in three groups: churches
with one nave, fortress churches, and churches with three
aisles. The first type, with one nave, is the most common, eg
San Pedro of Alagón, Nuestra Señora del Castillo of Aniñon,
San Martín of Belchite, Santa María of Borja, and other
churches in Gracian, Calatayud, Cañada, Hijar, Magallón,
Mainar, Rufina, Jiloca, Peñaflor, Tastavins, Ricla, Tauste,
and Tobed. The second type, fortress churches, is represented
by Nuestra Señora de la Piedad of Azura, Santiago of
Montalbán, Nuestra Señora de l’Asunción of Quinto de
Ebro, and San Gil of Zaragoza. The third type of church with
three aisles is rare and is represented by San Pedro de los
Francos of Calatayud, the chapel of the Palace of Aljaferia in
Zaragoza.
Religious buildings (tower not specified): 1 parish
church and 1 sanctuary in Teruel; 9 parish
churches, 1 cathedral and 1 monastery in
Zaragoza, each in a different municipality:
Zaragoza
d
Zaragoza
Aniñón (Nuestra Señora del Castillo, 14th–
16th c. BIC)
Calatayud (Santa Maria, 14th–16th c. BIC)
Belchite Viejo (San Martín, 15th–16th c.
CAT)
Calatayud (San Andrés, 15th–16th c. BIC)
Ricla (Assunción de Nuestra Señora, 15th –
16th c. BIC)
Albalate del Arzobispo (Assunción de
Nuestra Señora, 16th c. BIC)
Peñaflor (Nuestra Señora de los Angeles, mid
16th c. CAT)
Mainar (Santa Ana, late 16th c. BIC)
Monterde (Asunción de Nuestra Señora, late
16th c. BIC)
Paniza (Nuestra Señora de los Angeles, late
16th–17th c. CAT)
Most of the proposed sites are churches or parts of churches,
but the list also includes a monastery (the Real Monasterio of
Zaragoza), and selected elements of two castles (the Palacio
de la Aljaferia of Zaragoza and the Castillo of Mesones de
Isuela). Furthermore, there are three residential buildings,
including the Castillo Palazzo of Cetina, the Palacio de los
Luna of Daroca, and the Casa de la Estanca of Borja.
Daroca (San Juan de la Cuesta, apse of
church, 13th c. CAT)
Almunia de Doña Godina, La (Nuestra
Señora, elements of interior, mid 14th c. BIC)
Belmonte de Gracián (San Miguel, tower of
14th c. and apse of 17th c. in parish church,
CAT)
Zaragoza (La Seo, apse, ciborium & elements
of interior in a church, 14th–16th c. BIC)
Zaragoza (Palacio de la Aljaferia, decorative
elements, 14th–15th c. BIC)
77
Article 83 Planes Territoriales del Patrimonio Cultural.
During the mission to Aragón, the ICOMOS expert was able
to verify that only one such plan existed so far, the Plan de
Restauración del Mudéjar de Teruel, prepared after this site
had been included on the World Heritage List. The other
plans have not yet been completed. In any case, coordination
of management, including scheduled maintenance,
monitoring of the state of conservation, and periodic
reporting, are certainly not easy to guarantee.
Management and Protection
Legal status
There are two basic legal instruments that concern cultural
heritage in the province of Aragón: the national law of 25
June 1985 on the Patrimonio Histórico Español and
Regional Law No 3-99 of 10 March 1999 on the Patrimonio
Cultural Aragonés. The latter law identifies three different
categories of properties for protection: the Bienes de Interés
Cultural (BIC), the Bienes Catalogados (CAT), and the
Bienes Inventariados. The properties proposed for
inscription are either Bienes de Interés Cultural or Bienes
Catalogados. There are 50 properties in the first category
(indicated BIC in the list above), in which any alteration to
the property is forbidden and the owner is obliged to take
necessary measures for adequate conservation. The control is
extended also to the immediate surroundings of the property
(buffer zone). There are 14 properties in the category of
Bienes Catalogados (indicated CAT in the list above), for
which there are fewer obligations. It is understood that,
should such properties be inscribed, they would be protected
under the BIC category.
The authorities of Aragón are aware of the need to promote
the protection and conservation of Mudejar art and
architecture, and it is believed that qualified cultural tourism
can be a useful instrument in this regard. There are different
promotional activities, such as the organization of selected
itineraries to improve the knowledge and diffusion of
information of Mudejar culture. Such itineraries are
promoted in particular by the City Council of Zaragoza.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The present nomination generally identifies the property
within the strict limits of the description (ie the tower, the
whole building, or selected elements). This core area is
surrounded with a buffer zone, which is generally limited to
the public open space, including the facades of surrounding
buildings that have a direct visual connection with the
property. There are some exceptions, such as the church of
Santa Maria in Borja, where the buffer zone includes the
surrounding buildings, and the sites of Torre del Reloj and
Torre e Iglesia de San Martín in Belchite Viejo, where the
buffer zone includes the entire village.
Mudejar architecture is particularly vulnerable to various
causes of deterioration, including climatic factors,
earthquakes, floods, and also damage caused by man and
animals. In the past these have included, for example, the
Civil War of 1936–39, during which several properties were
destroyed. The continuity of use has favoured their
maintenance, but it has also caused problems related to
uncontrolled changes and alterations. The exposed brick
decorations and ceramics are fragile in terms of wind
erosion, temperature changes, and frost. Many of the roofs
and ceilings have been lost as the result of fires and other
disasters.
The Departemento de Cultura y Turismo, instituted in 1999,
includes in its responsibilities issues related to the protection
and conservation of cultural heritage.
The properties proposed for nomination are reported to be
generally in good condition. It is mentioned that about 65%
have been restored. The authorities have estimated that
another decade will be necessary to complete the task,
subject to available finances.
Management
Fundamentally, the responsibility for the management of the
properties is with the respective municipal authorities and the
owners. Finances for interventions can come from different
sources, including the yearly budgets of the responsible
authorities, but also from private sources, and in some cases
from the European Union.
Authenticity and integrity
Mudejar architecture was created in a specific period in time,
ranging from the moment when the Mudejars were allowed
to stay in Aragón, in the 12th century, until their final
expulsion at the beginning of the 17th century. This art has
drawn its inspiration basically from two sources, from
Islamic connections in North Africa and from European
Gothic as this evolved in the same period. The question can
be raised up to what point such traditions can be seen as
having continued beyond those limits, but it would be logical
to limit the consideration to the preservation of the historic
monuments that have survived. In terms of restoration,
therefore, the question concerns assurances that the historical
authenticity of the material is guaranteed and that any
restoration and changes are carried out respecting
internationally accepted principles. The ICOMOS expert has
indicated a variety of situations and approaches in the
different sites that were visited. While many of the
monuments can be considered historically authentic, there
are other cases where the interventions raise problems. It is
noted, however, that, after the visit of the ICOMOS expert
several compromised sites with such problems were removed
from the revised proposal.
The situation regarding the management of the monuments
proposed to the World Heritage List is quite complex. This is
due to the large number of properties (64) distributed in a
vast territory (the Aragón region has a territory of nearly
48,000km2 and about 1.2 million inhabitants), the number of
municipalities and other authorities involved (49), the
number of provinces (3), and the number of owners,
generally private in the case of churches, and users, which is
generally the public. The settings of the different monuments
vary greatly, from urban centres to rural ensembles and even
to open countryside. Most of the buildings are in current use
and management responsibilities may vary greatly from one
case to another. The conditions of the buildings also vary:
some are in good condition, others may be in ruins. Some of
the buildings are in a fairly isolated situation in small rural
settlements and they are rarely open for visits.
According to Law No 3-1999 on the Patrimonio Cultural
Aragonés, Article 78 requires the preparation of a Plan de
Promoción y Conservación del Patrimonio Cultural and
78
The issue of the outstanding universal value of Mudejar art
has already been assessed. There would therefore appear to
be no need to provide any further proof by inscribing more
properties of the same type. A reason for such an extension
as the present one would be the desire to make sure that the
different aspects of the heritage have been covered in the
nomination. It is also considered necessary that such a serial
nomination should have the necessary coherence required for
its protection, management, and monitoring as required by
the Committee.
Regarding the question of integrity, the nomination proposal
raises various issues. The fact that the proposal has focused
on extremely limited elements of architecture – often a
tower, an apse, or a ceiling, in other cases an entire building
– the relationship of these fragmentary elements with their
setting remains unclear. It is appreciated that the decorative
elements of Mudejar art are certainly the most characteristic.
Nevertheless, such elements were conceived as components
of architecture, and even parts of a larger context. The
nomination fails to deal with this issue. Rather, the selection
is made more or less on terms of museum-like preservation.
In fact, even in the case of whole buildings, there is no
indication about the built or natural environment of which
these form part.
ICOMOS recognizes the efforts made by the State Party in
preparing the nomination documents and the intention to
guarantee the protection of the monuments. At the same
time, taking into consideration the large number and the
variable conditions of the monuments concerned, the great
variety of ownerships, and the number of authorities who are
responsible, there are limits to the efficiency of coordinated
management and control. In fact, there are no management
plans as yet, although these are reported to be under
preparation.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
Four Mudejar sites situated in the town of Teruel were
inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1986 on the basis of
criterion iv. The area of the present extension was visited by
an ICOMOS expert in January–February 2001. Following
the mission, the authorities of the State Party prepared a
revised proposal, reducing the number of properties from
157 to 64 and eliminating some of the sites that were not
considered to be of the same quality as the others or where
their condition was not satisfactory.
It is noted, furthermore, that the international coordination of
efforts related to the protection of the sites inscribed have
specific requirements as well as limitations. There is a need
to gather all relevant information in a single document
presenting the proposal, considering that the original
nomination has since been integrated by an addendum,
which has altered the character of the nomination but without
providing all necessary information. No database has yet
been provided on the nomination to indicate the exact
locations of all sites concerned (eg a GIS file), as requested
by UNESCO.
Qualities
The development of Mudejar art was the result of special
political, social, and cultural conditions in Spain after the
Reconquest, a coexistence of Islamic and Christian societies.
This art contains influences from the Islamic world as well as
from European Gothic and is characterized by the extremely
refined and inventive use of brick and glazed ceramics in
architecture, particularly marked in the bell towers. Other
elements include painted coffered ceilings made in wood.
The outstanding universal value of Mudejar art has already
been recognized by the World Heritage Committee on the
occasion of the inscription of the monuments of Teruel in
1986.
While recognizing the potential for the inscription of the
current nomination, either as an extension or perhaps rather
as a new nomination that could integrate the site already
inscribed (Mudejar Architecture of Teruel), it is proposed
that the nomination be reformulated taking into
consideration the various issues raised above. This requires a
strict limitation of the number of the sites to be inscribed
with the object of forming a serial nomination that illustrates
the different aspects of Mudejar art, but without attempting
to include everything that is of value. There is a need to give
serious consideration to the issues of protection and coherent
management and control of the ensemble of sites, not simply
of the single elements but also their relationship with their
settings, in conformity with current World Heritage policies.
Comparative analysis
Mudejar art developed mainly in Spain, though it was also
diffused into a broader context, including even Latin
America. In this context, the region of Aragón has been
recognized as the area where this art reached its most
outstanding achievements.
Brief description
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
The development of Mudejar art in Aragón was the result of
particular political, social, and cultural conditions in Spain
after the Reconquest, the coexistence of Islamic and
Christian societies from the 12th to 17th centuries. This art
contains influences from the Islamic world and reflects the
various European trends that developed in parallel,
particularly Gothic. It is characterized by an extremely
refined and inventive use of brick and glazed ceramics in
architecture, particularly marked in the bell towers.
It is noted that the aim of the World Heritage Convention is
to provide an international instrument for the protection of
cultural and natural heritage of outstanding universal value.
At the same time, as is stated in the General Principles of the
Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World
Heritage Convention (paragraph 6, i), the Convention “is not
intended to provide for the protection of all properties of
great interest, importance or value, but only for a select list of
the most outstanding of these from an international
viewpoint." It is noted that an inscription is subject to the
condition that the site passes the test of authenticity and has
adequate protection and management mechanisms, including
regular monitoring and periodic reporting.
79
Recommendation
While confirming its appreciation of the universal
significance of Mudejar art and architecture and
complimenting the State Party for the serious work in the
identification and documentation of this heritage, ICOMOS
recommends that a further effort be made in order to make a
strict selection of the most outstanding of these sites for
nomination. ICOMOS thus recommends that the nomination
be deferred and the State Party requested to reformulate the
nomination and redefine the properties concerned.
ICOMOS, March 2001
80
conceived work was never to appear again in Mies’s work,
either in Europe or in America.
Tugendhat Villa (Czech Republic)
The Tugendhat Villa in Brno, along with several other works
from the end of the 1920s (Glasraum in Stuttgart, the
reconstructed pavilion in Barcelona), is one of the
masterworks of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. In constructing
this building, for the first time in the history of modern
architecture, Mies realized to a monumental degree the idea
of “new living," based on the new theory of freely floating
space in the house and its relationship to its surroundings.
This idea, which had previously only been touched upon by
Adolf Loos and Frank Lloyd Wright and which had been
applied to a lesser degree in small family houses or in
apartment blocks, resulted in the occupants using the living
space to its greatest extent, and not just a part of it. This in
turn fundamentally changed the relationship that people had
to their spatial surroundings, and even infinite space by
suppressing anxieties that come from unknown distances. It
was a revolutionary approach to construction, space, and
materials and the mutual ties that they and the whole
building have to their natural surroundings.
Criterion i
No 1052
Identification
Nomination
Tugendhat Villa in Brno
Location
Moravia, South Moravian region
State Party
Czech Republic
Date
26 June 2000
The new theory of living space, which was related to
existential philosophy and which transformed isolated living
areas into a living environment without boundaries, brought
new ideas to the development of the family house model and
its variations. Because of its radical nature, these ideas could
only gradually be implemented following World War II.
Criterion ii
Justification by State Party
As is apparent from the great deal of attention that has been
afforded the Tugendhat Villa since its construction, this
building is considered to be one of the most significant
works to have been constructed in the 20th century. Doubts
as to its innovatory concept, which arose for a short period
following 1930, were soon replaced by admiration and
enthusiasm. With time, this appreciation became
unambiguously positive, as did the position that Brno held in
the history of modern world architecture. Theorists, art
historians, and architects are agreed that this work forms a
milestone in the development of architecture, especially in
the modern approach to living space and its construction.
This is first and foremost due to the fact that the inward
fusion and the outward open nature of the space considerably
altered the relationship that one has to the spatial infiniteness
surrounding the building in a similar way in which the
interpretation of space was understood by contemporary
philosophy and physics. From this point of view it is
important to take into account the architect’s designs and
aims when evaluating the Tugendhat Villa, which have
remained intact to the present day, both spatially and visually
– ie they were not altered by the original inhabitants nor by
the later disruptions in the history of the building. Its
extraordinary value is also supported by the fact that the
other ideas included in the architect’s building programme
have either remained intact in their original form or, with the
help of the great deal of planning and photographic
documentation available and technical building analysis that
has taken place, may be restored to this original form. This is
also true for the villa’s sober furniture and fittings, the
majority of which were designed by Mies van der Rohe, the
lightness and relative lack of which lent superiority to the
spatial element; all missing furniture in the main living area
has now been replaced by replicas. It should be mentioned
that the author of this building was able to realize his aims in
full thanks especially to the ideal nature of his co-operation
with the cultured Tugendhat family, which adds to the
singular value and importance of the building. This fact was
probably one of the reasons why such an analogically
In addition, the Tugendhat Villa is a superlative example of
the new concept of villa-type housing for the way in which it
limits the traditional stately nature and formal surroundings
in favour of heightening the standard of living both
physically (comfort provided by technical equipment) and
spiritual (using space as the highest aesthetic category of
living). The building provides an example of a higher
standard of living from the 20th century inter-war period,
showing the lifestyle of a cultured, wealthy, and modernthinking level of society.
Criterion iv
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
monument.
History and Description
History
Tugendhat Villa was designed by the German architect, Mies
van der Rohe (1886–1969), for Grete Weiss and her husband
Fritz Tugendhat, members of wealthy industrial families in
the city of Brno in former Czechoslovakia. The architect
accepted the commission in 1927, and the design process
lasted about two years, parallel with designing the German
Pavilion (1928–29) at the International Fair in Barcelona,
commissioned by the German Government. The construction
of the Tugendhat Villa was completed by the end of 1930.
The architect took charge of the project down to the smallest
detail, also designing all the furniture of the house, designs
that have become world-renowned.
81
which is partly open, partly covered, and has a wide
stairway leading down to the garden level. The ground
level has utility rooms and is used for technical purposes.
Mies van der Rohe was one of the principal architects in the
development of the Modern Movement in Architecture,
which characterized design and construction in the 1920s
and 1930s in Europe and North America. Originally from
Aachen and then working in Berlin, he was influenced by the
work and teachings of Behrens and Berlage, by the principles
of the De Stijl movement, as well as by Frank Lloyd Wright.
His early interests were in developing design concepts for
high-rise buildings in reinforced concrete and glass in the
early 1920s: he designed the Weissenhof apartments in
Stuttgart in 1927, another key work in the Modern
Movement. From 1926 Mies van der Rohe was a member of
the Deutscher Werkbund, and, from 1930 to 1933 he was
Director of the Bauhaus in Dessau. He later moved to
Chicago in the USA, teaching at the Illinois Institute of
Technology and designing large office buildings, his later
trademark. His furniture designs have become classics in the
20th century.
The main structure of the house is made of reinforced
concrete with steel frames. A structure of polished steel
pillars supports the entire house. A steel skeleton also
carries ceramic ceiling panels. The exterior of the house is
rendered and painted white. Light-coloured travertine tiles
are used in the staircases leading down to the garden, and
in the living hall there is an ivory-coloured linoleum. The
entrance is panelled with dark palisander wood. The back
wall of the living area is made of beautiful onyx,
articulated in 3m x 5m panels, the same division as in the
glass wall opening toward the garden. The original
furniture was designed by the architect himself and some
of the pieces were made specifically for this house, such as
the so-called Tugendhat chair, in chromium-plated flat
steel elements and upholstered in stitched leather. The
living area was furnished in such a way that each piece had
its specific place. The mechanical equipment designed and
built for the house was also exceptional, including special
structural solutions for the use of steel pillars, for
processing the onyx wall that was brought from the African
Atlas Mountains, and for the electrically operated large
steel-frame windows. The house had central heating and an
air-conditioning system with a regulated fine-spray
humidifying chamber.
During the German occupation, the Tugendhat family left
Czechoslovakia and the Villa was taken over by the German
State in 1939. It lost most of its original furniture, and was
subject to some alterations and damage – eg that caused by a
bomb explosion in the neighbourhood in 1944. After the
war, the building was taken over by the State of
Czechoslovakia; it served a nearby children’s hospital and
then the national health institute of Brno, becoming the
property of the City of Brno. In 1962 the Villa was protected
as a national monument. There was increasing interest in
restoring it, and the first study to this effect was made in
1971, leading to a restoration campaign in 1981–85, which
guaranteed the continuation of the use of the building on a
provisional basis. The Tugendhat Villa Fund was established
in 1993, followed by the decision of the Friends of the
Tugendhat Fund to undertake a scientific restoration of the
building. This work took place beginning in 1994 and funds
were raised to furnish the building with replicas of the
original designs by Mies van der Rohe.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The owner of the Tugendhat Villa is the City of Brno,
represented by the Brno City Municipality. The
administrator and user is the Brno City Museum. The
Tugendhat Villa is classified as cultural heritage, and as a
national cultural heritage property by Czech Republic
Governmental Statute No 262/1995 Coll. on 16.8.1995. It
is thus subject to protection under relevant legislation (No
20/1987, concerning the state conservation of cultural
heritage and Decree No 66/1988; Construction Act No.
50/1976). A buffer zone has been designated for the
property.
Description
The Tugendhat Villa is a detached house in a residential
area of the city of Brno, in Brno-Černá Pole at 45
Černopolní Street. The entrance to the house is from the
street on the north side of the lot, which slopes down
toward the south forming a small garden. The building is
situated along the street and has three floors, one facing the
street and three developing down towards the garden. The
house has a flat roof, and each floor has a different plan.
The total floor area is about 2000 m2.
Management
The Villa has a property management plan. Since 1994 the
responsibility for the management is with the City Museum
of Brno. The main purpose is to maintain the villa and to
present it to the public. In the past the villa was not
accessible to visitors, but being now open it attracts an
increasing number of Czech and foreign tourists (nearly
8000 in 1999).
The uppermost floor is entered directly from the street
level and includes a terrace that traverses the house and
forms a balcony on the garden side. From here one reaches
a small entrance hall, family bedrooms, and services; the
master bedroom and dressing room are on the garden side.
The garage and caretaker's lodging are at the west end of
the house. From the hallway and from the balcony there
are stairways leading down to the main floor, which has
three parts: the main living area with a winter garden
measuring c 280 m2, almost two-thirds of the entire floor
space, and subtle divisions between spaces with different
functions – reception room, music corner, study and
library, sitting areas, dining room, and services. The
second part has kitchen facilities, and the third part
consists of the servants' area. The living area has large
windows on two sides and is directly joined to the terrace,
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
During World War II the Villa suffered damage and after the
war there were several changes of occupancy, causing some
alterations in the building. Since the 1960s the Villa has been
protected as cultural property and efforts have been made
both to undertake research and care for its condition. The
first restoration took place in the 1980s and another in the
82
(1996: ii, iv, vi) by Gropius in Dessau, the Weissenhof
Building of 1927 by Mies van der Rohe in Stuttgart (an
exhibition settlement designed by the foremost architects of
the time), the Viipuri Library of 1927 in Russia and the
Paimio Sanatorium of 1929 (on the tentative list) in Finland,
both by A. Aalto, and the Villa Savoye of 1928 by Le
Corbusier in France.
1990s. Currently the Villa is in a good condition and subject
to regular maintenance.
Authenticity
Over the period of its seventy-year existence, and in spite
of the various alterations that the building has undergone
since the loss of its first function, the original design of the
architect has remained intact. The changes that have
occurred over its lifetime have not affected the engineering
features (construction, materials, and form). Its present
condition results from the restorations in the 1980s and
1990s, based on detailed surveys of the building itself, the
graphic and written documentation by Mies van der Rohe
(archives in New York, Bauhaus Archiv of Berlin, Munich,
and Brno), and recorded testimonies of the original
inhabitants. The building has been furnished with replicas
of the original designs. While the building has suffered in
the past, it has retained all essential elements of its
architecture and can be considered to satisfy the test of
authenticity in all aspects.
The contribution of Mies van der Rohe to this development
was fundamental, and his design of the Tugendhat Villa
(1927–30) in Brno is among the most outstanding
expressions of residential architecture of the period. (The
contemporary German Pavilion in Barcelona was
demolished and has recently been rebuilt.) Mies van der
Rohe learnt his concepts from Behrens (also the teacher of
Gropius and Le Corbusier), Berlage, and the De Stijl group.
His architecture can be characterized as concentrating on the
essential and aiming at the purest expression in each detail as
well as in the whole. His approach contributed to the later
industrialization of building methods. Unlike many other
modern architects, Mies van der Rohe often opted for the use
of symmetry in his designs. The architecture of Gropius is
perhaps closest in its functionalistic Bauhaus spirit. By
comparison, from an initial search for rationality and
modularity Le Corbusier developed his expression in a more
sculptural and even "brutalistic" spirit, particularly in his
later production, while Aalto searched for humane contacts
with society and nature, relating his works with the character
of the place.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS evaluation mission visited the site in February
2001. The committee of DoCoMoMo was also consulted.
Qualities
Mies van der Rohe worked both as an architect and as a
furniture designer. In both fields his work is included
amongst the principal references in 20th century design. The
particular quality of Mies van der Rohe is in his drive for
perfectionism in the design overall as well as in the smallest
details. This could be seen specially in the fusion of neoclassical forms of simplicity, universality, and austerity
with cleanliness, perfect proportions, elegance, and
severity of detail. His aim was to find the essence in all
construction elements and to develop his design solutions
until he found the purest expression. It meant a further
development of the spatial quality of the building, relating
and articulating the various functions in the interior and
linking with the exterior. The Tugendhat Villa (together with
the Barcelona Pavilion) is the best known early example of
his work in this line. The Villa is characterized by having its
furniture designed by the architect, of which some pieces
have become classics and are still in production today. In his
later career Mies van der Rohe further developed his
fundamental ideas, particularly in the construction of large
office buildings, and his approach became extremely
influential in the second part of the 20th century in America.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
Considering the care given by Mies van der Rohe to the
relationship of architecture with their settings, ICOMOS
recommends particular attention should be given to the
garden layout of the Villa. Furthermore, while recognizing
the current legal protection for the area of which the
Tugendhat Villa is part, ICOMOS recommends careful
control of land-use in the neighbourhood of the villa.
Brief description
The Tugendhat Villa in Brno (Czech Republic) was designed
by the architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and built on a
commission from Grete and Frits Tugendhat in 1927–30. It
is an outstanding example of a small residential building
representing the international style of the Modern Movement
in the early 20th century architecture.
Recommendation and statement of significance
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on
the basis of criteria i, ii, and iv:
Comparative analysis
The Modern Movement in 20th century architecture
responded to the rapidly evolving socio-economic situation,
the new type of industrial production, and the emerging new
needs, having its first expressions in 1910–20 (eg works by
F. Lloyd Wright in USA and European architects such as
H.P. Berlage in the Netherlands, O. Wagner and A. Loos in
Austria, P. Behrens and W. Gropius in Germany, and A.
Perret in France). Between 1920 and 1930 these beginnings
developed into an International Style, acquiring universal
significance as the fundamental basis for all subsequent
development, and including examples such as the RietveldSchröder House of 1924 (inscribed on the World Heritage
List in 2000: criteria i, ii) in Utrecht, the Bauhaus of 1926
The Tugendhat Villa in Brno, designed by the architect
Mies van der Rohe, is an outstanding example of the
international style in the Modern Movement in
Architecture as it developed in Europe in the 1920s. Its
particular value lies in the search for ways to implement
innovative spatial and aesthetic concepts satisfying the
emerging new needs in living standards as well as
implementing the opportunities offered by modern
industrial production. The Tugendhat Villa established a
prototype for 20th century residential housing and
became extremely influential in later designs.
ICOMOS, April 2001
83
seasonal needs, resulting in the construction of the Edinburg
(Dzintari), Jaundubulti, Bulduri, and others.
Jurmala (Latvia)
The Dzintari resort area in Jurmala developed in the 1870s,
starting with land division in plots in 1871 and the
construction of the Edinburg district and Dzintari Avenue,
and in 1877 Kara Street (now Edinburgas Avenue). A
Lutheran church was authorized by the Russian Emperor in
1887 and an Orthodox parish church in 1896. A well-house
was opened in Edinburg in 1897, developing into a casino in
1910; the sanatorium of Dr Maximovich was established in
1905 and the Edinburg Bathing Union was founded in 1907.
In 1884 there were 73 land plots in Dzintari, mostly
belonging to wealthy German and Russian owners. The
resort population of Jurmala grew especially in the early 20th
century, being 70,000 in 1914 while local residents
numbered only about 6000. The communication of Jurmala
with Riga (20km distant) was facilitated by transport on the
Lielupe river, beginning in 1844, and by the building of a
railway in 1877.
No 1036
Identification
Nomination
Jurmala Wooden Construction (Dzintari
District of Summer Cottages) (Latvia)
Location
City of Jurmala, Dzintari District
State Party
Latvia
Date
28 June 2000
The Dzintari district was governed by the state
administration of the Baltic Region until World War I, but
from 1920 it became part of the city of Riga’s Jurmala. In
1922 Edinburg was renamed Dzintari (amber), and the
regulations excluded commercial, industrial, or crafts
activities. During the Soviet period the district was
nationalized and the Edinburg Orthodox church was
demolished. Currently, the area is in the process of being
privatized and it is a popular holiday place for Rigans and
visitors from the former USSR.
Justification by State Party
Jurmala construction shows one of the characteristic features
of European cultural history in the 19th and 20th centuries,
ie the formation and development of health resorts. Jurmala
is the most remarkable health resort in Latvia and one of the
most famous and significant in the Baltic Sea coast. Jurmala
wooden architecture, especially that of the Dzintari district, is
comparatively well preserved and its architectural styles are
characteristic of the epoch. Building traditions, especially
related to decoration, demonstrate the quality of the
handicrafts developed in Latvia over a long period of time.
The pine forest and beach environment of Jurmala is of high
value, favouring recreation, and the harmonious relationship
between nature and culture is here well preserved. Dzintari is
an urban area, which combines in a limited compound the
stylistic trends and the main types of public and residential
buildings of the time. Preservation of such values is seriously
endangered, and the inclusion of the site on the World
Heritage List would help to diminish such dangers.
Criterion ii
Description
The Jurmala resort area extends over some 30km along the
Gulf of Riga in the Baltic Sea. The area along the seafront
consists of low sandy dunes and beaches with pine woods
and it is separated from the mainland by a river. The Dzintari
district is located in the eastern part of the resort area, which
consists of several districts, listed from the west: Dubultu,
Majoru, Dzintaru, Bulduru, and Lielupes. The 1887 railway
runs along the southern border of the area. Two main streets
run parallel to the seafront, Dzintaru Avenue along the sea
and Edinburgas Avenue along the railway line. The area is
divided into regular building plots with secondary streets
across and other roads also through the central park area.
The natural environment of the region is characterized by
pine forests and birch woods and their typical biodiversities.
While generally dry and sandy, the region also contains some
marsh land and it is rich in bird species. There are four
nature protection areas, including the Kemeru national park.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.
The construction of the Dzintari area started in the 1870s; it
was known as Edinburg until 1922, and it has continued
until the present time. The architectural character of the area
is very diversified, including buildings that represent a
number of different styles and types, such as neo-Classical in
the early phase, later mixed with Historicist approach. Art
Nouveau became fashionable at the beginning of the 20th
century, followed by National Romantic, Functionalistic and
vernacular-type constructions. The older buildings of the
district are generally built in wood using characteristically
Nordic building techniques, but the more recent structures
(since 1945) are in reinforced concrete. The historic
buildings of the area include the Lutheran church (1889–96),
the Maksimovitch sanatorium (1906), and the dwelling
house of K. Morbergs (1883). Some of the dwelling houses
History and Description
History
Jurmala was first used by wealthy people from Riga and even
as far away as Moscow and Petersburg, who came to stay
with fishermen and farmers during their summer vacations.
As a result, these started adjusting their buildings to meet the
needs of summer residents. In the mid 19th century, vacant
plots were assigned and cottages were built specifically for
84
occupation. There is concern that a transition from summer
resorts to year-round residential use would change the
historic character of the town. The smaller villas could be
more easily rehabilitated, but the larger houses are more
difficult to use. In the case of new uses, existing room
patterns would need to be changed substantially.
have retained their original interiors, containing decorated
ceramic stoves and mural paintings.
Management and Protection
Legal status
Authenticity and integrity
The area proposed for nomination contains about 200
structures, of which 94% are privately owned, 5% state
property, and 1% municipal property. Most of the Dzintari
district is legally protected as a conservation area. Such
protection does not include the central park nor some of the
more recent buildings, even though these have been included
in the nominated area. In the whole of Jurmala there are 568
listed monuments. In Dzintari, there are 43 listed monuments
(ie 7% of the whole), comprising 12 monuments of art and
31 architectural monuments. Territorial protection is ensured
under the Law on Environmental Protection (06.08.91) and
the Law on Environmental Impact Assessment (31.08.98), as
well as the Jurmala City Building Regulations.
The statistics given in the nomination document indicate that
28% of the buildings have specific value, the "volumes" of
20% should be kept, 32% have historical background but no
architectural value, and 20% have been built after 1945. It is
thus apparent that less than half of the buildings in this area
can be considered as having specific value. While several
listed villas can be seen to have maintained their authenticity,
many of the older buildings have also been demolished.
Furthermore, while the area of Jurmala as a whole continues
to have a garden-city character of great importance,
particularly owing to the presence of the remarkable pine
forest, the original layout of the site, as it was planned in the
late 19th century, has evolved and changed in various details.
Management
The authorities responsible for the control of protection and
management of cultural heritage in general and this site in
particular, include at the highest level the Minister’s Cabinet
and the State Inspection for Heritage Protection. Jurmala
City Council is responsible for the development plan and
construction control, implemented by the Cultural Historical
Heritage Department of the Jurmala Town Council Building
Board. Furthermore, there are several public institutions
which play their role in the process. The Jurmala
Development Plan was adopted in 1997; the relevant
building regulations for the area date from 1998.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the property in February
2001.
Qualities
The Jurmala Wooden Construction has been qualified as a
representative example of a planned holiday resort area.
Jurmala has a rich variety of late 19th to 20th century
resort villas, bearing witness to different levels of class
status. Some of the summer residents belonged to the
upper middle classes, and even the high society, of St
Petersburg and Moscow. At the other end of the spectrum
was the resident population, living mainly in the western
and southern parts and serving the summer guests. The
varying sizes and standards of architecture still reflect this
spectrum of social levels.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The resort town of Jurmala has been under continuous
development since the 19th century, when it was first
established. There have been basically three development
periods, one in the first part of the 20th century, the second
during the Soviet occupation, and the third since
independence.
The area undoubtedly continues to have a large number of
interesting historic buildings from the late 19th or early 20th
century, which certainly justify protection and conservation
at the national level. Jurmala represents a relatively late
example in the history of European holiday resorts and could
be compared with many similar sites elsewhere. The
particular value of Jurmala is in the size of the area and in the
garden-city character of the villa areas in the pine forest.
Unfortunately, the later modifications and new constructions
detract from the original planning concept.
The original garden city layout with small villas has partly
changed its character. In fact, the master plan of 1897 for the
Edinburg area has since been substantially enlarged and
altered through later development. At the same time older
buildings have been demolished. New constructions have
taken their place, many of these dating from the period after
1945 and consisting of multi-storey constructions that rise
well above the treetops, thus detracting from the earlier resort
character of the place. These include the Baltija sanatorium
and other tall buildings (varying from three to eleven
storeys), some of which have remained unfinished since
the 1980s. There are also some large hotels directly on the
dunes.
Comparative analysis
The construction of health resorts in Europe relates to social
and economic developments from the end of the 18th and
particularly throughout the 19th century. Marienbad, BadenBaden, Carlsbad, etc are well known examples. In the Baltic
countries, such resorts include Arensburg in Saaremaa and
Haapsalu in Estonia, as well as Palanga in Lithuania. Many
of the holiday resorts have developed into relatively large
compounds, having hundreds of buildings and including
public services. The list is not complete though, and a more
in-depth study could provide a clearer picture.
The condition of the buildings is variable; some have been
restored or renovated recently, others are in poor
condition. There is a general lack of maintenance, in many
cases due to lack of funds. In several cases the ownership
is unclear, many properties belonging to more than one
owner. Many owners live abroad. Many of the houses were
built as summer villas, not intended for year-round
85
The following wooden ensembles are on the WH List: Røros
(inscribed on the World Heritage List 1980: criteria iii, iv, v)
and Bryggen (1979: iii) in Norway, Old Rauma (1991: iv, v)
in Finland, and the Church Village of Gammelstad, Luleå
(1996: ii, iv, v) in Sweden.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
ICOMOS recognizes that the area of Jurmala certainly has
many qualities, as has been favourably noted by
professionals who have visited the area. These qualities
become evident perhaps more in the ensemble of the site,
which is of impressive size, rather than in a limited area such
as Dzintari. It is understood that the motivation for selecting
this particular area relates to the fact that this was the first
planned part of the resort, and that it has retained its original
building stock reasonably well. Nevertheless, Dzintari is not
necessarily an obvious choice, as most of the resort
contains similarly valuable environments, and at least the
proposed area should be extended westwards into the
Majori district for inclusion of another kind of
environment represented in Jurmala, with more densely set
villas. The rest of the resort area could be seen as a buffer
zone.
The Jurmala area has many shortcomings that range from the
uncertainty of ownership, the variable condition of buildings,
and lack of maintenance to the difficulty of guaranteeing a
sustainable use for the historic buildings, originally built for
holiday purposes only. The quality of the single properties
varies greatly, though a large number of buildings have been
listed in the entire area of Jurmala. In fact, only a few listed
buildings are included in the nominated area. Though the
theme of a resort area may be of interest, there is a need for
comparative study taking into account that this was a major
fashion in Europe much earlier than the period represented
by Jurmala.
Brief description
The Dzintari holiday resort district of the Jurmala Wooden
Construction is part of a late 19th century holiday resort
town on the Baltic Sea. The holiday resort of Jurmala is an
exceptionally large area built mainly in timber and has
preserved interesting examples of villa architecture reflecting
a variety of styles of the period.
Recommendation
That this property should not be inscribed on the World
Heritage List.
ICOMOS, March 2001
86
The fact that close links between culture, the villages, and
the landscapes on Sulawesi Island has been maintained as
far back as 500 years (as some residents claim) is
exceptional. Traced to the great migration of populations,
the indigenous people of Toraja belong to the ProtoMalays, like the Batak Tribe in North Sumatra and the
Dayaks in Kalimantan. The Torajan area was first surveyed
by Dutch Jesuits at the end of the 19th century, and it is
then that the name "Torajan," meaning the "Great or
Respected People" or the "Mountain Tribe," was first
applied to the population.
Tana Toraja (Indonesia)
No 1038
Identification
Nomination
Tana Toraja Traditional Settlement
Location
Tana Toraja Regency, South Sulawesi
Province
State Party
The Republic of Indonesia
Date
29 June 2000
About one-third of the indigenous people of Toraja still
maintain their traditional religion, Aluk Todolo, which is a
form of animism, while the rest of the population practise
Christianity or Islam. In the beliefs of Aluk Todolo, a
major emphasis is placed on respect for ancestors and on
complying with ancient traditional customs. One’s duty is
to fulfil the obligations and responsibilities toward the
community in order to live happily until the time of dying
and moving into the other world. Death itself is an
important event, associated with elaborate rituals that
involve the family and the village community. Since
continuation after death is conditioned by behaviour in this
world, life becomes preparation for the afterlife.
Cosmological symbolism is also reflected in the Toraja
house. The front of the house is always oriented to the
north, the direction which religious belief associates with
the creator deity, Puang Matua. It is also the direction of
Dongson in Indochina from where their ancestors are
believed to have set sail for Sulawesi. The sweep of the
roof recalls the ancient boats. Decorative motifs carved and
painted on the exterior walls of the houses represent wealth
and the multiplying effect of nature. Just below the
roofline a cock stands above the figure of the moon,
emblems of family greatness and high rank.
Justification by State Party
Tana Toraja, located on Sulawesi Island, is an important part
of Indonesian culture. The Toraja Tribe is the general
nomenclature applied to the people living along the Sa’dan
River, which runs from north to south through the prefecture.
The tribe cultivates rice for subsistence and in recent years
coffee has become their crop. Although the island is
experiencing an emergency because of the rapidly growing
tourist industry promoted by the country, the Toraja Tribe
manage to maintain their settlement and traditional
ceremonies and lifestyles, living in traditional high-floored
wooden houses.
Criteria ii, v, and vi
The houses exemplify themes central to the social
organization of the Torajan culture. Only the nobility had
the right to build a tongkonan. It establishes the family
position's in the community and is a source of pride.
Descendants are therefore bound by tradition to maintain
the family house in the manner that their ancestors kept it.
Genealogy, prized in the local traditions, is the basis for
residents to date the age of their houses. With oral history
as a guide, some descendants trace their genealogy back to
the ancestors who first built the structure. Some oral
accounts go back twenty generations (approximately 500
years assuming 25 years per generation) of the same family
occupying a tongkonan, thus dating some houses as 500
years old. No scientific testing has been carried out to
validate this claim.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site.
History and Description
History
The Tana Toraja settlement represents traditional
architecture in Indonesia, having its common origin with
the other South-East Asian countries in Austronesian
architecture, a fact that accounts for similarities in the
houses of the region. The term "Austronesian" refers to a
group of related languages spoken throughout the islands
of South-East Asia and some parts of the Asian mainland,
including Taiwan, the Pacific, and Madagascar. It is
believed that this language group originated in southern
Taiwan about 6000 years ago and has since spread
throughout the region. The traditional architecture of the
region shares the same cultural and stylistic roots,
continuing to reflect the common heritage up to the present
day.
Description
The nomination comprises four areas: Kete Kesu, Pala
Toke, Buntu Kana, and Buntu Pune. The first three are
owned by the Kete Kesu Foundation, a legal entity whose
membership is composed of all the villagers, and the whole
comprises a territory of 295ha. Kete Kesu is a traditional
village, including a mountain burial site. Pala Toke is a
cliff burial site within a communally owned forest. Buntu
Kana is a communal forest surrounded by communally
owned rice paddies. The area owned by the foundation also
contains other villages with new architecture, including
residences, schools, grazing land, forests, as well as two
categories of rice paddies – communal paddies growing
87
rice for ceremonial purposes, and individually owned land
producing rice for private consumption. The recently
completed master plan has articulated the area into the
sanctuary zone, the agricultural zone, and the development
zone. Buntu Pune is a village similar to Kete Kesu, set on a
low hill and surrounded by private forests and rice paddies.
The principal difference between the two villages is that
Kete Kesu is still an inhabited community whilst the
inhabitants of Buntu Pune have left their village to migrate
to urban centres and have entrusted its maintenance to a
resident caretaker.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The sites are protected by the following national legislation
of Indonesia: Law of Environmental Protection (No 4/1982);
Law concerning items of cultural property (Government
Regulation No 10/1993 and Ministerial Decree No
063/U/1994).
Since March 2001 the Directorate General for Culture has no
longer been under the Ministry of Education, and has joined
the Ministry of Tourism. The merger is expected to mean
some changes in policies, as well as the provision of a
Culture and Tourism Plan for 2001–2006.
The layout of Kete Kesu and Buntu Pune is typical of
Torajan villages. A row of tongkonan stand parallel to one
another facing north. In front of the houses is a wide,
boulevard-like open space, bounded on one side by the
row of tongkonan and on the other by a parallel row of rice
granaries (lumbung). The granaries are smaller structures
of the same architectural design. Rice is stored on the
upper level. The storage room below is an open platform
where the owner of the granary entertains guests. Next to
the compact village is an open field with upright columnshaped natural stones (menhirs) rising out of the ground.
These stones seem to date as far back as the oldest house in
the village. During funeral ceremonies water buffaloes are
tethered to stones in preparation for their sacrificial
slaughter.
Each villager of Kete Kesu and Buntu Pune is a full
member of their respective Village Foundation; these are
legally chartered. Their primary purpose is to manage all
communal properties of the village and to assure the
continued maintenance of the historic sites (tongkonan,
communal ceremonial fields, burial grounds) and the
communal agricultural and forest areas.
Management
The site boundaries of the cluster consisting of Kete Kesu,
Pala Toke, and Buntu Kana are delineated by the property
boundaries belonging to the Kete Kesu Foundation. The
site has a Master Plan, according to which the entire 295ha
owned by the Foundation is protected and forms a buffer
zone for the three sanctuary areas. The Master Plan also
specifies development zones, such as building tourist
lodging facilities and restaurants. The new buildings are
built in a modern version of the traditional tongkonan. The
development cluster is out of sight of the main road and
Kete Kesu village and is separated from Buntu Kana (a
communal forest and a sanctuary zone) by large rice
paddies. The zoning keeps the tourist cluster clearly
separate from the forest and Foundation statutes prevent
the new construction from encroaching on the forest.
In the early development of the Toraja style, houses were
built close to the ground with designs incised on the
unpainted exterior walls. Originally there was only a slight
curve to the roof. Later examples take the style to
extremes. The house was built higher off the ground. Its
walls became more intricately carved and painted in tones
of red, black, and yellow. The most significant
development was the roof curve, giving a pronounced
overhang over the north and south elevations to illustrate
the power and prestige of the owner. The exaggerated roof
jutted so far from the house that a freestanding wooden
post is needed to keep up its tip from falling over. A
collection of the horns of water buffaloes sacrificed during
the funerals is displayed on the post and the exterior walls
as a symbol of prestige. Villages are surrounded by rice
paddies for food and ceremonial purposes as well as by
forests of bamboo and wood used for the repair of
tongonan houses.
The Buntu Pune Foundation is organized along similar
lines as the Kete Kesu Foundation. Its charter legally
defines its site boundaries. Buntu Pune village stands on a
hill surrounded by rice paddies which belong to the
Foundation: these form an adequate buffer zone. The
difference between this site and Kete Kesu is that Kete
Kesu is a living site still inhabited by the community
whereas the Buntu Pune is empty except for a lone resident
caretaker. There is no Foundation member residing in the
village to carry out the protection mandate in their charter.
The burial grounds are located a short walk behind the
village. Usually stone cliffs are chosen as burial sites: these
are cur into by hand high up to receive coffins. In other
cases, wooden posts are cantilevered out high up on the
cliffs to support the "hanging" wooden coffins. Shallow
incisions are made into the stone cliffs to accommodate a
gallery of wooden sculptures (tau-tau), effigies of the dead
buried in the site, wearing clothing belonging to the dead
person. In more recent years, family mausolea have been
built on the ground close to the cliff for those who have
turned Christian or Muslim but who still wish to follow the
animist Torajan burial practices. In other burial grounds,
the bodies of small babies are placed inside incisions made
in large trees.
On a national level the Department of Archaeology of the
Directorate General for Culture is responsible for the
management of the site. At the provincial level the
Sulawesi Province Unit of the Department of Archaeology
located in the city of Makassar directly supervises the site.
Kete Kesu is the model for site management in Tana
Toraja. All site management plans and conservation
interventions are strictly controlled by the Provincial Unit
of the Department of Archaeology. The leading resident of
Kete Kesu Village, a local craftsman, is on the staff of the
Provincial Unit of the Department of Archaeology, and he
ensures that conservation is carried out as specified as well
as constantly surveying the site. The charter of the Kete
Kesu Foundation stresses the preservation of the natural
and cultural heritage, ensuring the active participation of
its Board with the Provincial Unit in preservation matters.
88
Buntu Pune residents have abandoned the village to live in
the city, leaving the maintenance of the village their houses
to a resident caretaker. However, the village has a
registered Buntu Pune Foundation for the administration
and management of communal properties, and especially
the tongkonan. The Provincial Unit has undertaken some
conservation projects in the village, involving the caretaker
as a craftsman in the project to make him aware of proper
preservation procedures. The Department of Archaeology,
therefore, maintains good links with the village caretaker
and is able to entrust him with monitoring conservation
and safeguarding the site.
repairs. Maintenance of the tongkonan is undertaken with
full cooperation between the local community and the
Department of Archaeology, thus assuring both traditional
craftsmanship and scientific measures for conservation.
Torajan craftsmen have also been invited to Japan for
training.
Conservation and Authenticity
The site thus meets the test of authenticity in design,
workmanship, and setting; the materials used in the
construction have mostly retained their traditional
character with some minor exceptions (eg some zinc roofs
in Buntu Pune). The site also contains various elements of
ancient origin, such as the menhir stones in burial grounds.
The site has maintained the integrity of its setting
exceptionally well and its components imprint a distinctive
character on the landscape.
New houses have been built in the rear of the tongkonan
where family members perform daytime functions, though
all return to the tongkonan to sleep. This arrangement is
necessary because the spaces inside a tongkonan are quite
small. The Kete Kesu Development Plan specifies the
removal of such new houses and their relocation away
from the sanctuary zone.
Conservation history
The traditional villages, burial grounds, rice paddies, and
forests that form the area of the Tana Toraja traditional
settlement have been managed and maintained respecting
ancient traditions. The Department of Archaeology has
programmed limited conservation funds for 2001 to
replace the zinc roofs of some tongkonan with the
traditional bamboo. As a whole, the nominated area is well
maintained and in satisfactory condition. It is, however,
noted that new houses have been built in the rear of the
tongkonan for the families to carry out their daily functions,
while they all return to the tongkonan at night to sleep.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
The site was visited by an ICOMOS evaluation mission in
February 2001.
The future of the Tana Toraja settlement depends on the
environment, the rice paddies, private forests, and burial
sites, whose continuation can be severely threatened with a
change in environmental policy. Any degradation in the
environment will affect the cultural life and traditions of
the community. Deforestation and mining of limestone for
cement production would endanger the traditional burial
grounds located in mountain cliffs. Particular attention is
required on these issues.
Qualities
The Tana Toraja Traditional Settlement is an outstanding
example of Indonesian vernacular architecture and part of the
Austronesian building tradition. The outstanding feature of
the nomination is in the bold architectural character of its
constructions. The tongkanan in particular exemplify themes
central to the social organization of the Torajan culture, and
are also closely associated with cosmological symbolism.
Even more importantly, the site represents an ongoing
tradition, based on the beliefs of the Aluk Todolo animist
religion, expressed in the combination of the components
of the settlement, its residential areas, burial grounds, rice
paddies, and forests. All these form a cultural landscape
resulting from a long interaction between the local
community and nature. It is also noted that, in addition to
the nominated sites, there are other villages with similar
characteristics. The villages are placed in prominent
positions overlooking communal rice fields and forests,
and forming a landscape of remarkable beauty.
The area is a major tourist destination, the second most
important in Indonesia after Bali, despite its remote location.
So far, tourism planning has focused on increasing the
number of visitors. It is hoped that the merging of the
Directorate General for Culture with the Ministry of Tourism
will endorse the involvement of conservation specialists in
the preparation of the second five-year tourism plan. It is also
noted that a new tourist lodging facility is planned across the
provincial road from Kete Kesu Village in such a way that it
would block the view of the rice fields. Its relocation is
desirable.
Authenticity and integrity
The nominated property is considered to have the potential
of being recognized for its outstanding universal value on
the basis of criteria iii, iv, and v.
Owing to the nature of wooden structures subjected to
severe moisture in the damp tropics, members must be
routinely replaced. The craftsmanship in the replacement
of structural members has been carried out in the
traditional manner and to a high quality, following the
original design, ensuring that the integrity of the structure
is maintained fully respecting the design.
Comparative analysis
The uniqueness of the Toraja house (tongkonan) is well
known in Indonesian vernacular architecture and its
significant characteristics (exaggerated roof line and richly
carved exterior walls) set it apart from other examples of
South-East Asian vernacular architecture. Like other
South-East Asian dwellings, the tongkonan have highpitched rooflines and their living quarters are also raised
above the ground by means of a system of wooden posts.
The extended roof ridge and wooden pile structure attest to
The continuation of traditional beliefs on the value of the
tongkonan in the Torajan community and its relation with
the natural sites that surround it (agricultural and forest
fields, burial sites) assures the traditional integrity of the
site. Maintenance of the communally owned forests
guarantees a supply of bamboo and wood needed for house
89
burial grounds, rice paddy fields, and forests, all integral
parts of the traditional functions and land uses. The rows of
tongkanan buildings with their bold overhanging roofs and
the cosmological symbolism reflected in their decoration
represent a unique architectural achievement.
an ancestry shared with other vernacular Austronesian
dwellings that still continue to be built in rural areas in
most South-East Asian countries today. However, the bold
upward sweep of their roofs and the painted etched relief
texture of the carved exterior wooden walls resting upon a
system of exposed wooden stilts show an ingenuity that
pushes the structure to its extreme limit, therefore
representing a unique architectural achievement in SouthEast Asian vernacular architecture.
Recommendation
While recognizing the great interest of the proposed
nomination as a significant cultural landscape, ICOMOS
recommends that further consideration of this nomination be
deferred subject to a clear definition of the nominated area
and relevant buffer zone, the preparation of a coherent
management plan for the whole, and provision of providing
information on tourism development and assurances on the
policies regarding new constructions in critical areas. The
possibility of the State Party making a request for
preparatory assistance should also be considered.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
Recognizing the serious interest by the local population and
by the state authorities in retaining the character and the
values of the sites, ICOMOS observes that the integrity of
the site and the authenticity of its components fundamentally
depend on the continuity of the cultural traditions and beliefs
of the community in the future. Considering the qualities of
the nomination overall as well as the fragility of the sites,
the identification and protection of the area as a cultural
landscape would bring the various components and the
traditional land use into a more coherent context, thus
enforcing the possibilities for the local community and the
state authorities to manage the site. The ICOMOS mission
noted issues that give reason for some concern, although
these may not be an immediate threat. Such issues include
the increasing tourism and its consequences on the
environment and the traditional culture itself. Moreover,
considering the area overall, any deforestation or mining
would undermine its fragile integrity. At the same time,
ICOMOS wishes to commend in particular the beneficial
cooperation between the Village Foundations, the local
authorities, and the Department of Archaeology, which it
considers to be a fundamental condition for successful
protection and conservation management of the area.
ICOMOS, March 2001
Recognizing the initiatives already taken by the State
Party, and based on the observations of the site mission,
ICOMOS recommends that the State Party take the
following actions:
Prepare and submit a clear delineation and map of the
boundaries of the nominated area and of the relevant
buffer zone. The nominated area should be preferably
clustered so as to facilitate conservation management.
Consideration should also be given to the possibility
of nominating the site as a cultural landscape,
including other village areas if feasible.
Prepare and submit a Management Plan for the entire
nominated area and buffer zone, as well as a
development plan for the area owned by the Buntu
Pune Foundation.
Provide the information relevant to the Tana Toraja
area in the new Five-Year Tourism Development Plan
of the region, in preparation by the Ministry of
Tourism and the Directorate General for Culture.
Transfer the proposed tourist accommodation planned
close to Kete Kesu Village to a location where it
would not hinder the panorama from the village.
Brief description
The Tana Toraja Traditional Settlement is an outstanding
example of the vernacular traditions of South-East Asia. The
area is characterized by the combination of residential areas,
90
repeated, of concentration of groups of heavy industries, it
was built as an investment provided with all the visionary
ambitions of industrial rationalism. Thus it embodies one of
the most fundamental ideas of industrial activity in a
globally unique manner.
Criterion iii
Zollverein (Germany)
No 975
With a daily output of 12,000 tonnes of usable coal,
Zollverein XII was the most efficient mine in the world.
Under the difficult geological conditions of the region, the
achievement of this level of output was an outstanding
technological feat.
Criterion vi
Category of property
Identification
Nomination
The Cultural Industrial Landscape of the
Zollverein Mine
Location
Land Nord-Rhein-Westfalen
State Party
Federal Republic of Germany
Date
4 November 1999 (revised text)
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site. It is also a cultural landscape, as defined in paragraph
39 of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of
the World Heritage Convention.
History and Description
History
Consolidation of the mining claim area was completed in
December 1847: the area concerned covered 13.2km2. At
that time it was the northernmost mine in the region. It
belongs to the Gelsenkirchen anticline, in which the coal
seams, averaging 1.17m thick, are deeply stratified. Mining
began in the mid 19th century at a depth of c 120m and
finished at the fourteenth level (1200m). By the end of
mining the underground roadways extended over 120km;
they were accessed by twelve shafts, opened up
progressively between 1847 and 1932. When Zollverein XII
was opened, the earlier shafts were used solely for the
movement of men and supplies; all the extracted coal was
handled by the new shaft until the mine closed in 1986. The
methods of mining evolved as technology developed from
hand picks to mechanized coal cutting.
Justification by State Party
When the Zollverein Mine XII was completed in 1932, it
was considered to be the most modern and beautiful coal
mine in the world, the daily output of which, 12,000 tonnes
of hard coal, was four times higher than the normal figure.
The same year saw the end of the Bauhaus, the most noble
objective of which had been to work towards the “new
building of the future” by fusing craft and art. In the opinion
of the founder of the Bauhaus, Walter Gropius, the goal of
architecture was to create objects and spaces for the purpose
of which a new development of form had to proceed, in
particular, from the works of engineering and industry. At
the Zollverein mine the Bauhaus maxim that form must be
oriented towards function is perfectly translated into reality.
The coals being extracted at Zollverein were especially
suitable for coking. Consequently, the first stack-type cokeovens were built there in 1857. The coking plant expanded
considerably over the decades that followed. However, when
the Zollverein mine was taken over by the steel company,
Vereinigte Stahlwerke AG, in 1926, a new coking plant (the
Nordstern plant) was built to process all the coal from its pits
in the region. Coke production returned to Zollverein in the
late 1950s, when the then holding company for the mines in
the region, Gelsenkirchen Bergwerks AG, decided to build a
new coking plant to supplement the Nordstern plant. It began
production in 1961 from eight batteries, each of 24 ovens,
producing 8600t per day; there were also facilities for
processing by-products such as tar, sulphuric acid, benzene,
ammonium compounds, and gas. This plant closed down in
1993 because of the fall in the demand for coke.
Zollverein XII was created at the end of a phase of political
and economic upheaval and change in Germany, which was
represented aesthetically in the transition from
Expressionism to Cubism and Functionalism. At the same
time, Zollverein XII embodies this short economic boom
between the two World Wars, which has gone down in
history as the “Roaring Twenties.” However, Zollverein is
also, and by no means least, a monument of industrial
history reflecting an area in which, for the first time,
globalization and the worldwide interdependence of
economic factors played a vital part.
The architects Fritz Schupp and Martin Kemmer developed
Zollverein XII in the graphic language of the Bauhaus as a
group of buildings which combined form and function in a
masterly way.
Criterion i
The construction of the stretch of the Cologne-Minden
railway between Oberhausen and Hamm in 1847 was
decisive for the location of the early Zollverein shafts, which
were sunk 500m from the new line so as to facilitate
transport of the coal and coke produced. The first passenger
station did not open until forty years later. There were also
links with the Emscher Valley line, also opened in 1847,
which cut the north-western corner of the Zollverein
concession. There followed a series of internal link lines
during the next eighty years. It was connected with that of
The cultural landscape of the Zollverein Mine bears unique
witness to the complex interrelationships of living and
working, dominated by large-scale industry, in the midst of
one of the largest cultural landscapes in the world.
Criterion ii
Zollverein XII is an individual monument of outstanding
significance in the landscape. During the phase, never to be
91
the neighbouring Bonifacius mine after Zollverein was taken
over by Vereinigte Stahlwerke in 1926.
1953. However, Zollverein closed its welfare facilities in the
early 1960s, in line with the current trend in the Ruhr.
Coal mining produces enormous quantities of waste
material, which is deposited in the characteristic pit heaps.
The earliest of these, to the east of shaft 1/2, was planted
with trees in 1895 and used as a recreational area for the
mine officials. A second grew to the west of shaft 1/2 from
that time, and in 1932 was used for pond management, to
dry out the boiler-ash and coal slurries from Zollverein XII.
A heap begun in 1880 was partially cleared in 1958 to
provide land for miners’ housing. Other heaps were used for
filling areas where coal had been removed from a steeply
dipping seam and on an abandoned airfield.
Description
-
The pits
Only the foundations of the Malakow towers of the original
pit survive; they are built over by the present headgear (Pit
1,1956-58; Pit 2, constructed at the Friedlicher Nachbar
mine 1950, transferred to Zollverein 1965), both designed by
Fritz Schupp. The brick winding-engine building dates from
1903, with an extension by Schupp of 1958. The 1922 main
store has a reinforced concrete frame. The pithead baths are
in the form of a brick hall, capable of providing facilities for
3000 miners. The ensemble is completed by the imposing
administrative building (1906), the director’s villa (1898),
and the mine officials’ residence (1878). Less survives of the
buildings of Pits 3/7/10, 4/11, and 6/9, apart from the 33m
high headgear of Pit 10 (1913).
Intensive mining resulted in a number of subsidences, in
some places as deep as 25m. This necessitated clearance of
irretrievably damaged housing and other facilities.
Subsidence exacerbated the water problems in the so-called
Emscher Zone, where mining adversely affected the
gravitational flow and created large areas of swamp. Local
industries and municipalities created the Emscher
Association, which carried out a number of projects using
pumping stations and creating polders.
At Pit XII the central hoisting unit (Schupp, 1932) is
preserved almost in its entirety. The building axis, which
runs parallel to the tracks of the mine railway station, is
defined by the central energy-supply plants. These comprise
the compressed-air plant (boiler house and upstream
compressor houses) in the north and the control station in the
south. The stack on the axis of symmetry behind the boiler
house, the main feature of the ensemble, was demolished in
1979 for safety reasons.
The workforce steadily increased to c 5000 by the end of the
19th century. During the 20th century it fluctuated between
5000 and 8000. Because there were no alternative property
developers when work began in 1847, Zollverein began to
construct housing for its workers. Building projects were
integrated with the mine operating programmes.
At right-angles to this group are the buildings of the tub
turntable, raised so as to permit passage for wagons. The
buildings of the screening plant, the electrostatic precipitator,
and the refuse hopper are annexed to this group. The beltconveyor bridge establishes a functional connection between
the refuse hopper, the picking-belt hall, and the coal-washing
plant.
Large building sites were purchased and by 1860 146 flats
were ready for occupancy; at that time the mine employed
710 workers. This “Hegemannshof Colony” expanded
steadily (by the turn of the century it covered around 90ha),
and subsequently two more colonies, “Ottekampshof” and
“Beisen,” were added. By World War I the property owned
by the mine had grown to over 720ha. However, this was by
means adequate for a workforce that numbered some 5000 at
that time. Between the two World Wars new workers’
housing developed, notably the housing estate built by the
Trust Agency for Miners’ Housing. In the late 1920s the
mine could provide each of its salaried employees and
officials with an apartment, but only some 3000 were
available for the 8000 workers. After World War II new
estates consisting of apartment blocks were built by the
housing association established by Vereinigte Stahlwerke
AG, such as the Kaldekirche, Westerbruch, and Kapitlacker
estates from the 1950s. The Glückauf estate was built by the
miners themselves working in collaboration. The houses
were owned by private individuals. Two Pestalozzi villages
were also built for apprentices. In 1958 there were 7061
dwellings available for a workforce of 8000.
With the change from tub to skip extraction at the pit large
parts of the tub turntable became redundant, but it was
necessary to build an additional conveyor-belt bridge and a
connecting building. The facade on the right of the pithead
building was closed because of appearance of the “court of
honour” was impaired by the new structures.
This entire ensemble was the work of Fritz Schupp, apart
from the roof superstructure, which had to be raised in 1982
to accommodate large new dust-extraction plant.
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The coking plants
The coking plants at the individual Zollverein pits have all
been demolished, but the central plant has been conserved
since it closed down in 1993. The ovens extend over a
distance of nearly 1km, parallel to the former CologneMinden railway line. Their equipment – pushers, quenching
station, screening plant, and loading stations – are all intact,
as are the gas-treatment and by-products installations, and
ancillary buildings. The result is a unique example of a
large-scale industrial complex, which is open to the public
and had more than 200,000 visitors in 1999.
From the start the mine provided consumer services for its
employees, selling food and manufactured goods at low
prices. They began on a “cooperative” basis, profits being
returned to consumers in the form of an annual dividend.
This scheme, with its six outlets, was taken over as a
company enterprise by Vereinigte Stahlwerke. The system
gradually declined after World War II because of
competition from commercial stores, and the remaining
outlets were bought out in the 1970s.
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The railway lines
The original main railway lines (Cologne-Minden and the
Bergische-Märkische line) are still in use, as part of the Bahn
AG network. The railway connection between the CologneMinden line via the mine to the Rhein-Herne Canal is also
preserved. The route from Zollverein to Bonifacius no
longer has its tracks; it is now used as a bicycle path.
From the mid 1920s the mine provided welfare services for
its employees. The first welfare centre was set up in 1928 (it
was rehoused in 1938) and the second in 1934. A large
modern welfare centre designed by Fritz Schupp was built in
92
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The pit heaps
administrative district of the Province of North-Rhine
Westphalia (Land Nordrhein-Westfalen). The north-eastern
corner is in the town of Gelsenkirchen.
Most of the mine-refuse heaps are still visible, several
having been planted with trees and are used as local
recreational areas. Subsidences have created small valleys
which would be waterlogged had corrective measures not
been taken. The pumping stations built in the 1960s and
1970s to relieve problems associated with gravitational
water flow are standard functional structures.
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The area nominated for inscription on the World Heritage
List is protected under the Law Governing the Protection
and Conservation in the Federal State of North-Rhine
Westphalia of 11 March 1980.
Management
Miners’ housing
Different parts of the nominated area are owned by both
public and private bodies: Landsentwicklungsgesellschaft
Nordrhein-Westfalen, Ruhrkohle AG, Kommunalverband
Ruhrgebiet KVR, and VEBA Immobilien.
In the former Hegemannshof and Ottekampshof colonies a
considerable number of houses survive almost in their
original state, but in a bad state of repair. These are for the
most part four-dwelling buildings on a cross-shaped ground
plan. They are built in brick, with large gardens attached.
Large sections of both estates were, however, demolished in
the 1960s as part of large-scale redevelopment projects and
replaced by multi-storey apartment blocks.
Application of the legislation is supervised by the provincial
Ministry of Employment, Social and Urban Development,
Culture and Sport, working with the municipal authorities of
Düsseldorf and Essen. Direct management is the
responsibility of two non-profit-making foundations,
Stiftung Industriedenkmalpflege und Geschichtskultur and
Stiftung Zollverein.
The early private development in the centre of Katernberg
and around the Roman Catholic church is virtually
untouched. The facades of the upper floors retain their
elaborate decorative details. The buildings around the market
place such as the post office and the former town hall, built
on land donated to the community by the mine, have
preserved their original appearance to a considerable degree.
A “Craftsmen’s Guild,” analogous to those at the great
cathedrals, has been set up by the town of Essen and the
Regional Development Company to carry out regular
maintenance and provide training in conservation practices
and techniques.
The Glückauf houses still survive, as do the Pestalozzi
villages, with their characteristic single-storey houses with
pitched gabled roofs in quiet winding streets. The multistorey apartments blocks built by the housing associations
are undistinguished in style; they are set apart from the
earlier housing by the fact that they do not have individual
gardens but are sited with extensive green areas around
them. The Kapitalecker estate has survived essentially in its
original form, though it is greatly in need of repair. Of
greater interest are the Westernbruch and Kaldekirche
estates with their decorative clinker brick facades.
A National Park of Industrial Culture is being established,
which will operate in accordance with a management plan
covering the entire area of industrial sites making up the
Zollverein. New uses have been devised for most of the
main industrial features – a theatrical rehearsal stage, the
municipal meeting centre, the North-Rhine Westphalia
design office, a private art gallery, workshops for retraining
the long-term unemployed, etc.
Conservation and Authenticity
The successive groups of houses constitute a remarkable
sequence of approaches to workers’ housing over a period of
140 years, during which profound social and economic
changes took place.
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Conservation history
A large-scale rehabilitation programme to preserve the
external appearance of the mine complex was carried out in
1990-98. The steel frames of the buildings have been
secured and conserved.
Consumer and welfare facilities
Two of the consumer facilities survive, although one had to
be undergo extensive rebuilding after wartime damage. One
is a three-storey brick-built structure and the other is twostorey with a decorated plaster facade. Both are now in use
as retail shops.
The interrelationship of the different industrial components
has been secured by retaining at least one major item of
plant in each building. In the case of the main boiler house,
the vast items of equipment are still in situ, but the interior
has been adapted for use as an exhibition centre in
accordance with plans drawn up by the UK architectural
office of Sir Norman Foster and Partners.
The former welfare centre 1 in Viktoriastrasse still fills a
similar function, as offices for medical and law practices.
Modifications to the brick building designed by Fritz Schupp
in 1938 to adapt it for its present use respected the original
design and detailing. His 1953 centre, now in use as
accommodation for asylum seekers, has been conserved but
is not in a good state of repair.
Maintenance is assured with the willing help of former
workers of the Zollverein mine. There are also training
programmes connected with maintenance and presentation
of the complex.
Future projects include a major restoration project for the
coke-oven plant and further conservation work on the pit
heaps.
Management and Protection
Legal status
There is, however, no overall management plan for the
historic industrial plant, with a clear management philosophy
and objectives. Especially serious is the lack of any
conservation programme for the many large items of
equipment, the coking plant, or the "white side" of the coke
ovens, the chemical processing plant. This is essential, and
When coal extraction ceased at Zollverein, the boundaries
of the legally defined mining concession covering 13km2
were no longer of relevance. The larger part, situated
within the town of Essen, is within the Düsseldorf
93
should begin with a complete inventory of every item of
plant on the site.
frequently intersecting streets or districts, and does not
include all the historic settlements, of which there are at least
nine on the map provided with the nomination. ICOMOS
believes that it would be more appropriate if the nominated
area were to be confined to the Zollverein XII and Zollverein
I and II mines, with the adjoining coking plant. This would
provide a clear site boundary, bordered by suitable roads and
for the most part enclosed by a high wall.
Authenticity
As an industrial landscape, the Zollverein mine has a high
level of authenticity. It comprises all the components of
intensive 19th and 20th century industrial exploitation – the
complete complex of buildings and equipment necessary for
the extraction and treatment of coal and the production of
coke, the requisite transportation network (in this case of
railways), and the dwellings and communal buildings of the
large community of workers, as well as the vast heaps of pit
waste.
It is accepted that the surrounding area is a cultural
landscape with many important workers’ housing
complexes, villas, public buildings, churches, etc, but these
might be better treated as the buffer zone to the main
industrial complex. The zone should be extended to include
the suburbs of Katernberg, Schonnebeck, and Stoppenberg.
Consideration should also be given to the inclusion of other
important mining sites in the area as part of the nominated
area.
The individual industrial components have of necessity lost
their functional authenticity. However, a policy of sensitive
and imaginative adaptive reuse has ensured that their forms
survive intact, with significant items of industrial plant
preserved, and that their interrelationships remain clearly
and logically visible. In particular, the authenticity of the
important group of industrial buildings designed for
Zollverein XII by Fritz Schupp has been carefully conserved
ICOMOS is very impressed by the meticulous and sensitive
conservation and adaptive reuse of the 1930s buildings. It is,
however, concerned about the interventions in the coking
plant, now managed by an arts organization. A large section
of one of the coke ovens has been removed, which is
praiseworthy, in that it reveals the structure of this type of
plant. The insertion of a Ferris wheel towering some 50m
above the ovens, however, compromises this imposing
industrial monument and has no connection with the original
function of the ovens.
Social and economic changes have meant that the
authenticity of the surviving workers’ houses is somewhat
variable. However, efforts have been made to ensure that
part at least of their group value and authenticity has been
retained, so that the corpus illustrates the development of
attitudes to workers’ housing over an economically and
socially significant period of 150 years.
The ICOMOS expert mission was informed that there are
plans to build a five-storey glass block on top of the washing
plant, to house a postgraduate institute of art and design.
This would jeopardize the whole appearance of the site,
since it would be higher than the main feature of the
industrial complex, the headgear of the Zollverein XII mine.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS-TICCIH expert mission visited the property in
February 2000.
At its 24th session in Paris in June 2000 the Bureau of the
World Heritage Committee deferred further consideration of
this nomination, requesting the State Party to reconsider the
boundaries of the nominated area and the buffer zone, to
remove the Ferris wheel in the coking plant, to abandon the
plans to build a new structure on top of the washing plant,
and to prepare a comprehensive management plan for the
industrial site, with a conservation plan based on the
preparation of a detailed inventory.
Qualities
Coal was essential to the rapid development of industry
worldwide in the 19th and 20th centuries. The Zollverein
mine constitutes outstanding material evidence of the
evolution and decline of this key industry over the past 150
years. The picture that it presents is a comprehensive one,
covering the industrial, economic, and social aspects in a
remarkably comprehensive manner. The buildings of Pit XII
are exceptional examples of the successful application and
adaptation of the principles of the Modern Movement to the
requirements of heavy industry.
The State Party subsequently provided a new plan which
took into account the revised boundaries proposed by
ICOMOS and gave assurances about the future
management of the coking plant and washing plant. In
November 2000 a document was submitted to ICOMOS
entitled Regulatory regime for the conservation of "The
Cultural Industrial Landscape of the Zollverein Mine. This
document has been studied by ICOMOS and TICCIH, who
are of the opinion that it does not fully comply with the
requirements of the Committee.
Comparative analysis
The number of coal-mining complexes that operated from
the 19th century through to the latter part of the 20th century
has never been large, since mines closed down once their
coal deposits were exhausted and mining moved elsewhere.
The use of alternative sources of energy has seen the role of
coal diminish greatly in the past half-century, and in
consequence mines have closed down at an accelerating rate.
In most cases, this has been accompanied by the demolition
of the coal and coke treatment and handling installations.
The Zollverein is a rare survival and no comparable site can
be identified.
Brief description
The Zollverein industrial landscape consists of the complete
installations of an historical coal-mining site, with some 20th
century buildings of outstanding architectural merit.
ICOMOS comments
The nomination is of an area based on the previous extent of
underground coal-mining concessions at the Zollverein
mine. This bears no relationship to surface features,
94
Recommendation and statement of significance
That this nomination be referred back to the State Party,
requesting that a more detailed management plan be
prepared, in consultation with ICOMOS and TICCIH.
In the event that this is prepared by the end of October
2001, ICOMOS recommends that this property be
inscribed on the World Heritage List on the basis of
criteria ii and iii:
The Zollverein landscape is an important example of a
European industrial region of great economic
significance in the 19th and 20th centuries. The
installations of the Zollverein XII coal-mine, which
forms the nucleus of the site, is especially noteworthy
for the high architectural quality of its buildings.
ICOMOS, March 2001
95
A charter of 1347 led to the creation of a distinctive
manmade landscape. Miners were granted the right to
establish new settlements in the forests without paying any
compensation to the landowners. At the same time they were
exempted from land or forest taxes and their properties could
pass to their children.
Falun (Sweden)
No 1027
The 15th century was a period of unrest and armed conflict.
The "free miners" of the Great Copper Mountain played their
full part in this, protesting against trade restrictions and
taxation. This culminated in a major rising in 1531–34, as a
result of which several distinguished citizens of Falun were
executed on the orders of Gustavus Vasa.
Identification
Nomination
The historic cultural landscape of the
Great Copper Mountain in Falun
Location
Dalarna
State Party
Sweden
Date
26 June 2000
During the 16th and 17th centuries the Great Copper
Mountain was the mainstay of Sweden's economy, enabling
it to become one of the leading European powers. By the mid
17th century Falun was producing 70% of the world's output
of copper. It was exported all over the world – for the roofs
of the Palace of Versailles or for Spanish coinage, for
example. The revenue from copper financed the disastrous
involvement of Sweden in the Thirty Years' War (1618-48).
The Great Copper Mountain was organized as a corporate
operation, with free miners (bergsmän) owning shares
(fjärdeparter) proportional to their interests in copper
smelters. The 1347 charter covered, inter alia, ore extraction,
settlement, and trade within the region. It may justifiably be
considered to be the precursor of the later joint stock
companies, and it is often referred to as "the oldest company
in the world."
Justification by State Party
The Great Copper Mountain in Falun and its cultural
landscape are an outstanding example of a technological
ensemble with an historical industrial landscape and unique
type of buildings and settlements.
A cultural region known as Kopparbergslagen developed
around Falun which is unique to Sweden. There were no
fewer than 140 copper smelting furnaces in the region at this
time, and the free miners had their estates and manor-houses
close to the furnaces. The agrarian landscape was dominated
by grazing land wooded pastures. A crop-rotation system
with a five-year cycle, known as lindbruk or the Falun
method, was developed here in the 17th and 18th centuries.
The Falun Copper Mine, otherwise known as the Great
Copper Mountain (Stora Kopparberget) is the oldest and
most important mine working in Sweden and the world, and
of great international significance. It is one of the world's
most remarkable industrial monuments. The manmade
landscape surrounding the mine is very remarkable and
unique by Swedish and international standards. The Falun
mine has developed and influenced international mining
technology and played a very important part in the world
economy.
Criterion iv
Category of property
Despite the high level of technology developed and applied
in and around the Great Copper Mountain, there were
inevitably accidents, and especially in the 17th century, when
production was at its most intensive. The most dramatic was
that in 1687, when a massive landslip led to the creation of
the Great Pit (Stora Stöten) there.
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site. Its is also a cultural landscape as defined in paragraph
39 of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of
the World Heritage Convention.
The town of Falun was founded in the 17th century: its
population of some six thousand people made it the second
largest city in Sweden at that time. The formal 1646 layout
survives in the three districts of Gamla Herrgården,
Östanfors, and Elsborg.
The copper furnaces were water-powered from as early as the
13th century, and the earliest water-powered hoisting gear
was built in 1555 at Blankstöten, one of the open-cast mines.
Ponds, dikes, and canals were constructed to supply the
furnaces ands the mines; the oldest surviving dam dates from
the 14th century.
History and Description
History
The oldest surviving document relating to the Great Copper
Mountain was issued in 1288, but scientific studies suggest
that its origins date back to the 8th or 9th century. This was a
period when there was considerable trade between Germany
and Sweden and German settlement in Sweden, and it is
likely that the Swedish industry was upgraded at this time
under German influence. There is considerable evidence of
this in the form of the technology being applied, such as firesetting and mine drainage, the origins of which can be traced
to continental sources such as the Harz Mountains.
Many foreign scientists and businessmen visited Falun in the
17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, and all were very impressed
by the enormous size of the mine, the smoke from the
furnaces, and the remarkable structures related to the copper
industry. The Great Copper Mountain became Sweden's first
tourist attraction: the first recorded use of the word "tourist"
is from 1824.
96
(Bergmästaregården) to the 20th century. Several have been
adapted for alternative use: thus the former administrative
building (Stora Gruvstugan), built in the 1770s, has been the
Mining Museum since 1922. The 20th century Paint Factory
is still in use, producing "Swedish red" paint. The most
recent building is the Berget Auditorium, designed by Bo
Wederfors and awarded the prize for timber architecture of
the National Association of Swedish Architects in 1988.
This was a leading centre of technological progress from the
16th century onwards. Among those who worked there and
developed their research were the mechanical engineer
Christopher Polhem and the chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius.
As the demand for copper receded in the 18th and 19th
centuries, production was extended to other mineral
resources of the Great Copper Mountain, including sulphur,
lead, zinc, silver, and gold. In 1888 the old company was
reconstituted as a modern limited company, Stora
Kopparbergs Bergslags AB. The old copper furnaces were
abandoned and large new factories built. Outside Falun itself
the company had been acquiring iron mines and setting up
iron and steelworks, and it became one of the major Swedish
enterprises in this field. Another area was that of forestry,
producing paper and sawn timber.
-
This consists of three large slag heaps lying to the north of
the core area: Ingarvshyttan, Syrfabriksägen, and Hyttberget.
Between them are to be found the remains of historic
industrial installations such as furnaces, roasting houses and
early tracks. Archaeological excavations have been carried
out on several of these sites.
The company celebrated its seventh centenary in 1988.
However, by 1992 all the viable ore deposits had been
extracted and so mining ceased: the last round of shots was
fired on 8 December 1998. The only industrial activity
remaining is the production of the traditional and very
distinctive Falun (Swedish) red paint, used for the protection
of the wooden buildings of Sweden and other parts of
Scandinavia.
-
The town of Falun
The oldest surviving building in this planned town, laid out
in 1646, is Stora Kopparberg Church, part of which dates
from the 14th century. The main square (Stora Torget) is the
site of the Kristine Church (1642–60), the Town Courthouse
(1647–53), and the head office of the Stora Kopparberg
Bergslag Company (1766). Following a major fire in 1761
there was considerable rebuilding, and there is some
particularly fine late 17th century buildings along Åsgatan.
Description
The property proposed for inscription consists of the Great
Copper Mountain and several areas around it which make up
Kopparbergslagen. The core area is the historic mine at
Falun with associated facilities above and below ground. The
other areas contain many furnace sites, waterways, ponds,
canals, and ancient mining settlements. There is a specific
landscape of slagheaps and furnace remains to the north of
the mine. To this should be added the town of Falun with its
1646 gridiron street plan and the three districts of wooden
houses (Gamla Herrgården, Östanfors, and Elsborg). Four of
the areas are free miner landscapes: the area north of Lake
Varpan between Österå and Bergsgården, the area
surrounding Lake Hosjö, the Sundsbornsån valley, and the
Knivaån valley from Staberg to Marieberg. Also included is
Linnévägen, the well preserved ancient bridle path and cart
track leading to the mining town of Röros in Norway and
named after the famous Swedish naturalist Carl von Linné
(Linnaeus), who travelled along it in 1734.
-
The furnace landscape
Falun also has a number of well preserved old workers'
houses at Elsborg, Gamla Herrgården, and Östanfors. The
Villastaden district, as its name implies, has some fine early
20th century villa architecture.
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The free miner landscapes
Bergsmanslandskapet, the first of these landscapes lies to the
west of the core area. It consists of spoilheaps, furnace sites,
and well preserved early settlements. There is a network of
waterways, canals, dikes, ponds, and dam buildings
stretching from Igeltjärn in the north-west to the Crown
Dikes and the mine in the south-east.
The Österå-Bergsgården landscape to the north-west of the
mine, on the western and northern sides of Lake Varpan,
contains these two free miner settlements, each of which had
some ten copper-smelting furnaces and more than 25 oreroasting furnaces in the 17th century. This heyday is
represented today by enormous slagheaps, furnace chambers,
workers' houses, and manor houses. There are some
particularly well preserved free miners' homesteads in this
area.
The Great Copper Mountain
This consists of the underground mine itself, where
operations ceased in 1992, and the enormous pit (Stora
Stöten), measuring 300m x 350m by c 90m deep, resulting
from a colossal cave-in in 1687. There is visitor access to
some of the older parts of the mine, notably the impressive
Creutz's Shaft, which is 208m deep and partitioned by what
is often called "the highest timber structure in the world." A
vast open chamber known as Allmänna Freden (Universal
Peace) houses a display of historic working equipment.
Copper furnaces were first recorded (in 1357) in the third
area, that of Hosjö. There are many well preserved miners'
homesteads, and Linnaeus was married in 1739 at one of
these (Sveden), the home of the famous bishop and author
Jesper Swedberg and his world-renowned son, the
philosopher Emmanuel Swedenborg.
The Sundbornsån valley, running along the waterways
joining Lakes Runn and Toftan to the north of the Hosjö
area, is a manmade landscape containing many
archaeological remains from the Neolithic period and the
Iron Age. There were many copper furnaces here from
medieval times until the early 19th century. Once again,
there are many fine miners' homesteads of the 18th and 19th
centuries.
Above ground the historic mining landscape comprises mine
spoilheaps and heaps of "Swedish red," together with historic
buildings from the 17th–19th centuries. As mining
operations expanded a number of these wooden buildings
were moved around.
They include mining installations such as headframes,
wheelhouses, powder magazines, tally chambers,
administrative offices, workshops, stores, mills, and living
quarters. They date from the late 17th century
97
as a heritage site in 1995 under a resolution of the County
Administrative Board. There are currently thirteen
archaeological sites and monuments and historic buildings in
the nominated area which are also protected as heritage sites
under this Act and four more are being considered for this
level of protection. In addition, substantial areas are also
protected under the Planning and Building Act. All the areas
in the nomination are covered by local authority
development plans and area regulations.
The fourth area is the Knivaån Valley, on the eastern side of
Lake Runn. There is abundant evidence of its mining past.
Staberg is particularly noteworthy for its slagheaps and
smelting remains. Of particular importance is Gamla Staberg,
a free miner's homestead from around 1700 with a fine
Baroque garden that is currently being restored.
Management and Protection
Relevant authorities are Dalarna County Administration
(Länsstyrelsen Dalarna), Falun Municipality, and the
Church of Sweden, through the Falun Ecclesiastical
Congregation (Falu Kyrkliga Samfällighet). Overall
supervision of all cultural property is exercised by the
National Heritage Board (Riksantikvarieämbetet).
Legal status
The monuments, sites, and landscapes that make up this
nominated area are all protected under the comprehensive
and interlocking Swedish legislation for cultural and
environmental protection. The relevant measures are the
following:
Management
- The Cultural Monuments (etc) Act (1988: 950) with
Amendments up to and including SFS (1996:529)
Ownership of properties included in the nomination and their
management is distributed between Stora Kopparbergs
Bergslags AB (the Falun mine, managed by the Dalarnas
Museum located in Falun), the Falun Municipality, and
individuals (homesteads, town buildings).
All archaeological sites and monuments are given full legal
protection. Listed historic buildings are given similar
protection, as are ecclesiastical buildings of the established
Church of Sweden. Any interventions must receive
authorization from the National Heritage Board
(Riksantikvarieämbetet) in the case of archaeological
monuments or the relevant County Administration in the
case of built heritage.
Under the terms of the Environmental Code and the Planning
and Building Ordinance, a comprehensive plan for the centre
of Falun was adopted in 1998, and this is supported by
detailed development plans in the other areas, with specific
provisions for the protection of buildings and settlements of
historical interest. Detailed development plans are also in
force for substantial areas outside the nominated area. These
are covered by a cultural environment plan for the entire
municipality, also dating from 1998. Since 1998 work has
been in progress to develop the Falun Mine and
Kopparbergslagen as an ecomuseum. This is a joint
enterprise of the Municipality of Falun, the Dalarnas
Museum, and Stora Kopparbergs Bergslags AB (hereafter
referred to as Stora), working with voluntary bodies.
- The Environmental Code (1997)
The Code lays down general rules relating to the protection
and conservation of the environment. There are two
provisions relating to cultural values. First, it specifies
fundamental requirements for the use of land and water
areas, designed to maintain their cultural values. These are
applicable to public authorities as well as private
individuals or enterprises. Secondly, it introduces the
concept of the cultural reserve. There are considerable
restrictions over use and construction in these areas. The
Code is regulated by County Administrations. It interacts
with the Building and Planning Act 1987 and the
associated Ordinance.
Although mining ceased at Falun in 1992, Stora has
respected its obligations vis-à-vis the industrial heritage by
maintaining the buildings and the mining environment
adjoining the Great Pit, as well as the giant timber wall in
Creutz's Shaft. The company has a long-term management
plan for all its heritage sites in Sweden, of which Falun is
unquestionably the most important.
- The Planning and Building Act (1987: 10)
This Act (supported by the Planning and Building
Ordinance, last updated in February 1997) gives local
authorities considerable autonomy in regulating planning
and developments within their respective districts.
However, the State is given powers to intervene in matters
considered to be of national importance where it is
adjudged that the Environmental Code has not been
properly implemented. So far as cultural heritage is
concerned, general requirements are laid down for
buildings, sites, and public open spaces. Alterations to
existing buildings must take account of structural,
historical, environmental, and architectural values. The
special characteristics of buildings of historical and
architectural importance must be preserved. Local
authorities are required to produce and implement
comprehensive plans, which are made binding through
detailed development plans and/or area regulations.
Although the development plans and those of Stora cover
virtually every aspect of the future maintenance and
development requirements of the entire area covered in the
nomination, there is no overall management plan stricto
sensu.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
Swedish industrial companies have long been conscious of
the importance of their industrial heritage, and the country
probably possesses the largest number of industrial
monuments and museums anywhere in the world, covering
mining, metallurgy, paper and board production, and
engineering. Since 1973 there has been a series of surveys
and inventories of cultural properties of all kinds in the area
covered by the nomination. The most comprehensive of
these was probably the total inventory and documentation of
the mine itself and the associated buildings carried out by the
company before mining operations ceased. Other important
The entire area covered by the nomination was classified as a
series of areas of national interest in 1987 under the
provisions of Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code. The
Great Pit was protected under the Cultural Monuments Act
98
education: the industrial remains do not compare with those
of Falun. The cultural landscape of Blaenavon developed
around coal and iron-ore mining and iron production, but it
is significantly different in many respects from Falun. Röros
is a very well preserved wooden town that developed around
its copper mining activities in the 17th century. Whilst it is
comparable with Falun, it lacks the extensive industrial
heritage of Falun. The Rammelsberg silver mining area and
the fine associated medieval and Baroque town of Goslar is
comparable in time-scale with Falun, but its visible industrial
heritage is considerably less prominent than that of Falun.
survey and inventory projects have been carried out by the
National Heritage Board and the Dalarnas Museum.
In exercising their statutory functions the relevant national
and local authorities have ensured that the heritage sites and
monuments have maintained a high level of conservation.
Stora has ensured that all the properties in its ownership have
conformed with statutory requirements in this respect.
Authenticity and integrity
The authenticity of individual buildings and monuments
within the nominated area is high. This is the result of the
stringent conditions laid down in the relevant legislation
regarding maintenance and the selection of materials for
restoration and implemented by the national, County, and
municipal agencies involved.
Of the three Latin American sites, only Guanajuato possesses
significant industrial monuments, but this are different in
scale, nature, and period of exploitation from those of Falun.
It is justifiable to assert, therefore, that the Great Copper
Mountain and its associated cultural landscape around Falun
is exceptional as being one of the most enduring and
complete monuments of the world's industrial heritage.
The integrity of both the Great Pit and its associated
buildings and the urban fabric of the old part of Falun has
been sedulously maintained by the application of statutory
regulations, reinforced by a strong resolution on the part of
the residents to ensure the survival of the evidence of Falun's
great industrial heritage.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
The properties covered by the nomination are protected by a
number of statutory instruments and regulations. They are
also included in land-use plans at several levels. There is also
a general plan for the improvement and management of all
the Stora industrial heritage sites. There is, however, no
overall coordinating management mechanism. ICOMOS and
TICCIH consider that it is essential for these diverse
measures to be coordinated by means of a comprehensive
management plan (to include a special plan relating to
tourism).
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS-TICCIH expert mission visited Falun in
January 2001. ICOMOS consulted TICCIH experts on the
cultural significance of this property.
Qualities
Brief description
The Great Copper Mountain and its cultural landscape at
Falun is one of the most outstanding industrial monuments in
the world. Copper was mined there from at least the 13th
century, and probably much earlier, until the end of the 20th
century. It claims, with some justification, to be the oldest
joint-stock company in the world. Many important
developments in the extraction of copper ores and their
refining took place at this site, and the cultural landscape
bears abundant witness to its long and distinguished
technological history. The dominance of Sweden as the
major producer of copper in the 17th century had a profound
impact on that country's economic and political
development, and hence of that of the whole of Europe.
The enormous mining excavation know as the Great Pit at
Falun is the most striking feature of a landscape that
illustrates the survival of copper production in this region
since at least the 13th century. The 17th century planned
town of Falun with its many fine historic buildings and the
industrial and domestic remains at a number of settlements
spread over a wide area of Dalarna provide a vivid picture of
what was for centuries one of the world's most important
mining areas.
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
That this nomination be referred back to the State Party,
requesting the provision of a coordinating management plan.
The landscape is noteworthy not for its technological
heritage but also to the abundant evidence of the social
structure of the mining community over time. It contains
many small mining settlements and miners' dwellings, as
well as a planned town of the 17th century, which
graphically illustrate the special socio-economic framework
of much of European mining up to the late 19th century.
In the event of this request being complied with and found to
be satisfactory, ICOMOS recommends that this property be
inscribed on the World Heritage List on the basis of criteria
ii, iii, and v:
The Great Copper Mountain and its cultural landscape at
Falun graphically illustrate one of the most significant
areas of mining and metals production. Mining ceased at
the end of the 20th century, but over many centuries it
had exerted a strong influence on the technological,
economic, social, and political development of Sweden
and Europe. The history of the mining industry can be
seen in the abundant industrial and domestic remains
characteristic of this industry that still survive in the
natural landscape around Falun which has been moulded
and transformed by human ingenuity and
resourcefulness.
Comparative analysis
There are several World Heritage sites associated with
mining:
Kutná
Hora
(Czech
Republic),
the
Rammelsberg/Goslar site (Germany), Röros (Norway),
Banská Štiavnica (Slovakia), and Blaenavon (United
Kingdom) in Europe, and Guanajuato (Mexico), Potosí
(Bolivia), and Zacatecas (Mexico).
Of the European sites, the nomination of Kutná Hora extends
only to the historic centre, omitting the early mines. The
significance of Banská Štiavnica also lies in its historic town
centre, together with its significance in mining research and
ICOMOS, March 2001
99
A large proportion of the textile mills of the Derwent valley,
including some of the earliest examples known to have been
built in the world, are still standing. Apart from the buildings
themselves, important elements of the supporting
infrastructure have survived, including the engineering
structures which carried the water-power systems from the
river Derwent and its tributaries, and the transport
infrastructure, including toll roads, tramways, and canals.
Furthermore, the factory settlements that were constructed at
Cromford, Belper, Milford, and Darley are almost
completely preserved, including in Cromford and Milford
the factory masters' own residences and, notably in Belper
and Cromford, farms and estate buildings.
Derwent Valley (United Kingdom)
No 1030
Identification
Nomination
Derwent Valley Mills
Location
Derbyshire, England
State Party
United Kingdom
Date
26 June 2000
The overall result is an ensemble of buildings, structures, and
settlements, all grouped within a distinctive landscape.
Dominated by the river that attracted the initial investment in
the area. The integrity of the scene remains evocative of the
period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when, in this
hitherto obscure Derbyshire valley, the factory system was
born.
Criterion iv
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site. It is a cultural landscape as defined in paragraph 39 of
the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the
World Heritage Convention.
Justification by State Party
The nominated site relates to developments in technology in
the 18th century that introduced the mechanically powered
factory system within the textile industry. It began with the
construction of the Silk Mill in Derby in 1727 for the
brothers John and Thomas Lombe, which housed machinery
for throwing silk, based on an Italian design. The scale,
output, and numbers of workers employed were without
precedent. However, it was not until Richard Arkwright
constructed a water-powered spinning mill at Cromford in
1771, and a second, larger mill in 1776–77 using power from
a tributary of the river Derwent to operate his machinery, that
the "Arkwright System" was truly established. Arkwright's
mills were so efficient and profitable that they were
replicated hundreds of times before the end of the century
and the textile mill became the archetypal factory of the
Industrial Revolution. Factory production came to dominate
the manufacturing economy not only of Britain but also of
much of the world for most of the next two centuries.
Criterion ii
History and Description
History
The construction in 1721 at Derby in the English East
Midlands of a water-driven mill to manufacture silk thread
was a very significant event in the Industrial Revolution. The
large mill building was five storeys high and housed
machines driven from a common power source, thus laying
the foundations of the modern factory.
This was the work of Richard Arkwright (1732–92), who in
the 1760s successfully developed a machine for spinning
cotton. His search for backers to finance a patent and further
develop his machine brought him to the Derby area, where
he formed a partnership with silk manufacturer Jedediah
Strutt (1726–97) and his partner Samuel Need.
The advent of the factory system, which developed in the
textile mills of the Derwent valley, but which spread rapidly
to other locations and to other industries, created a new
cultural tradition. It was one in which people, often unskilled
or semi-skilled, worked on a regular shift system in large
buildings and lived in nearby dependent communities. These
mill villages, many of which evolved into factory towns,
grew rapidly in number during the 19th century. From
Britain these developments moved across continental Europe
and North America and spread to much of the rest of the
world.
They selected Cromford, a village upstream of the river
Derwent from Derby, for their first mill, work on which
began in 1772. Between 1772 and 1775 much of Arkwright's
time (and hence the work of the mill) was devoted to
experimentation, as a result of which he was able in 1775 to
file his second patent, which was devoted primarily to
mechanization of the pre-spinning processes.
This was put into operation in the second Cromford Mill,
built in 1776–77 and financed by local lead merchant Peter
Nightingale, who purchased the Cromford Estate on which
the mill and a residence for Arkwright were built. Arkwright
also make provision for his workforce, mostly children. In
order to attract them and their parents, he developed the
village of Cromford. Weavers were invited to live in the
houses that he built, their children working in the spinning
mills and the parents weaving calico from Arkwright's cotton
The factory, as it grew in the hands of the Derwent valley
mill owners at Cromford, Belper, Milford, and Darley
Abbey, brought with it a degree of social enlightenment
which included a concern for the quality of life of their
workforce and their workers' families and led to the
provision of decent housing and other amenities.
Criterion iii
100
In what follows only the more exceptional buildings and
features will be described. These are treated in groups,
sequentially from north to south.
on the topmost floors. This ingenious method of recruiting
labour was adopted by the Derwent valley factory owners.
Once the second Cromford Mill was in operation a period of
intensive activity began. Mills were built by Arkwright and
his family and by Strutt in other parts of Derbyshire between
1777 and 1783. Royalty agreements licensing the use of the
Arkwright machinery and process led to similar mills
springing up in other parts of the country and overseas.
Meanwhile, the Cromford operation expanded, and it was
joined by another large installation, the Masson Mill at
Matlock Bath, which was in operation by the mid 1780s.
-
Cromford and Matlock Bath
Masson Mill was originally a 21-bay five-storey building
43m long and 8.4m wide built of brick on a gritstone base.
The staircase and ancillary services are housed in a three-bay
central projection, leaving the main floors uncluttered: its
facade has a decorative architectural treatment. The original
single waterwheel had another added in 1801, and both were
replaced by turbines in 1928. It should be noted that there
was no workers' housing provided by Arkwright at Matlock
Bath.
Jedediah Strutt and his brothers established their mills
further down the Derwent Valley. His first mill was built
around 1776/7 in Belper. The destruction of this and a
second one on the same site by fire led to the building of the
fireproof North Mill in 1804. From 1781 onwards work went
ahead on a second group of Strutt mills, this time at Milford,
further down the river. Like Arkwright in Cromford, the
Strutts created housing and other facilities for their workers
in Belper and Milford. The Strutt business prospered during
the first quarter of the 19th century, when it was the largest
cotton factory enterprise in England, but thereafter it
declined as the centre of the cotton industry moved to
Lancashire.
The earliest industrial building of the Cromford Mill
Complex was the Upper Mill (1771). It was originally a
building of eleven bays 28.5m long by 7.9m wide and five
storeys high. It was built of coursed gritstone lined with a
skin of brick. The construction was entirely traditional, with
timber beams and roof members and sash windows. It was a
simple functional building with no concessions to
architectural design apart from the original main entrance.
The upper two storeys were removed by a fire in 1929 and it
was reroofed in asbestos sheet. Power came from a single
overshot wheel.
The Evans brothers (Thomas, Edward, and William) began
building a cotton mill at Darley Abbey, just north of Derby,
in 1782, in the beginning possibly in partnership with
Richard Arkwright. It was completed around 1786, but
burned down two years later. Its replacement was
constructed immediately and was considerably enlarged
between 1796 and 1805 and again between 1818 and 1821.
The company diversified its production, eventually giving up
spinning, under the Evans family until 1903, then under two
successive owners until 1969, when the mill was sold for
other uses. It is now the home for a number of small
businesses.
The Lower Mill of 1776 (sixteen bays, six storeys high, 36m
x 8m) was built to house Arkwright's complete cotton
spinning mechanism. It has now disappeared completely, but
archaeological excavation has revealed its ground plan and
internal details. The four-storey annexe still survives. Of
particular interest is the complete hot-air system built within
the separate service tower.
A large five-storey mill/warehouse of 1785–90, which
survives in excellent condition, has an unusual apsidal end
containing the staircase and services, freeing the entire
interior for production. An internal lavatory column at the
other end contains a heating system similar to that in the
annex described above.
Like Arkwright and the Strutt brothers, the Evans family
provided a community for their workers. Sir Richard
Arkwright died in 1792 and the business passed to his son,
Richard Arkwright junior, who sold all its holdings apart
from the Cromford and Masson Mills. The late 1820s saw
the beginning of a progressive decline in the fortunes of both
mills. Cotton manufacture came to an end on the Cromford
site in the 1870s: parts of it continued in use for other
industrial purposes, but even these came to an end in 1979,
by which time it had suffered two fires and much alteration.
It is now home to a range of small businesses, as well as a
popular heritage attraction. The Masson Mill, by contrast,
was modernized in the late 1880s and was in continuous
operation until 1992.
There is a number of other industrial buildings within the
complex with various original functions – warehouses,
workshops, a loom shop, mill managers' houses, etc.
Construction of the industrial settlement took place over a
period of twenty years from 1776 onwards. In addition to the
individual workers' houses (notably the fine 1776 terraces of
North Street), there are some important social facilities, such
as the market place, created in 1790 and dominated by the
fine pedimented three-storey Greyhound Hotel. The school
and schoolhouse in North Street date from 1832, when new
legislation required employers to provide half-day schooling
for child workers. There are many good buildings on the
outskirts of the village, some antedating the establishment of
the mill complex.
Description
The nominated property consists of a continuous strip 24km
in length, from the edge of Matlock Bath in the north nearly
to the centre of Derby in the south. It includes four industrial
settlements (Cromford, Belper, Milford, and Darley Abbey),
which are articulated by the river Derwent, the waters of
which provided the power to drive the cotton mills. Much of
the landscape setting of the mills and the industrial
communities, which was much admired in the 18th and early
19th centuries, has survived.
The Cromford Canal, built in the 1790s, ran 23.5km from
Cromford to join the Erewash Canal, as part of a through
route to Manchester, A section 10.5km long lies within the
nominated area. The surviving buildings on the Cromford
Wharf include two warehouses, an office or counting house,
and two cottages. A number of structure survive along this
stretch of the canal, including bridges, aqueducts, a tunnel,
and several cottages, most of them from the end of the 18th
century.
101
-
fire resistance (possibly the first known use of this
technique). The attic floor is supported by a matrix of
wooden beams, a feature not found on any of the other
floors, and all are clad in sheet metal. The lower floors have
structures of transverse beams with a central row of cast-iron
columns.
Belper
Belper is located halfway between Cromford and Derby. The
Strutts' mill complex lies to the north of the town centre, a
medieval foundation, with the houses stretching up the
slopes of the hills to the north and east.
Belper North Mill (1804) was built to replace that burned
down in 1803 and incorporates the pioneer fire-resistant
structure developed by Charles Bage in 1796 at the
Ditherington flax mill in Shrewsbury. It is constructed in
brick on a stone plinth, and the exterior retains the
appearance of an "Arkwright" mill, with seventeen bays and
a wing of six bays, on a T-shaped plan, with the wheel
chamber in the wing. However, in the interior there are many
features designed to resist or restrict combustion. The floors
are of brick and tile supported by arches that spring from
cast-iron beams. The beams in their turn are supported on
cast-iron columns, linked together by wrought-iron ties. The
floor arches in the bays above the waterwheel are filled with
clay pots, thereby lessening the load in this area.
The mill was extended in 1818 and again in 1821: these
became what are known as the East Mill and the West Mill.
The latter is an L-shaped extension projecting from the
middle five bays of the Long Mill. It is brick-built with a
masonry ground floor, but one floor lower than the Long
Mill. The entire mill is fireproofed.
The housing built by the Evans family has survived almost
intact. Only the family's own mansions, their farm, and the
paper mill have been demolished. There is no discernible
pattern in the distribution of these houses, built over more
than four decades from c 1790 onwards: this can in no sense
be considered to be a planned or model community.
However, in the range and diversity of house types it
compares favourably with Cromford and Belper.
The North Mill is overshadowed by the East Mill (1912), a
fortress-like seven-storey building with four corner turrets
and an Italianate tower.
Management and Protection
The houses built by the Strutts are built in gritstone or locally
made brick and roofed with Welsh slate. They are laid out in
rows, largely on an east–west alignment and in various forms
as the company experimented with different designs. The
Chapel and Chapel Cottage (1788) was one of the first
buildings commissioned by Jedediah Strutt. It is an
outstanding example of nonconformist architecture built in
ashlar with a hipped slate roof. It was extended on either side
in the 19th century.
-
Legal status
There are thirteen Conservation Areas falling wholly or
partly within the nominated area. These are designated under
69 of the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation
Areas) Act (1990). Local planning authorities are responsible
for their designation and periodic monitoring.
Under the provisions of the same Act, 838 buildings within
the nominated area are included on the List of Buildings of
Special Architectural or Historical Interest. Eighteen are
Grade I (mostly at Cromford), 42 are Grade II*, and the
remainder Grade II. Authorization for demolition or
alteration must be sought from the relevant local planning
authority.
Milford
The Strutts purchased land in Milford in 1781 and
immediately began building what was to become a complex
of cotton mills and bleach works. Little remains of the
industrial buildings following a radical clearance operation
around 1960, but much of the industrial housing survives
intact. The houses, many of them in rows because of the
topography of the area, are in a range of styles. Some are
earlier farm houses that were purchased by the company and
converted into multiple dwellings. The public buildings
established by the Strutts include schools, churches, and
public houses.
-
The nominated area contained nine Scheduled Ancient
Monuments, designated under the provisions of the Ancient
Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979. Any works
affecting these monuments must be submitted to the
Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport for approval.
The nominated area also contains two Sites of Special
Scientific Interest, designated under the Wildlife and
Countryside Act (1981); one Special Area of Conservation,
designated under European Union Directive 92/43/EEC on
the Conservation of Natural Habitats etc; two parks on the
Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in
England; and 14 sites on the Derbyshire Wildlife Trust's
Register of Wildlife Sites.
Darley Abbey
This settlement lies 2km north of Derby City Centre. It was
an industrial hamlet, with fulling mills, corn mills, and a
forge, by the middle of the 17th century, and these had
grown by the early 1770s to five water-powered mills – a
paper mill, a corn mill, two flint mills (for porcelain
production), and a leather mill. The cotton mill development
of the Evans family began in 1782 and was followed by their
factory village.
Management
The industrial structures that survive are among the most
complete of any of the early cotton factory sites, and are
comparable with those at Cromford.
Ownership of properties within the nominated area is varied.
Most of the residential property is privately owned, as are
some of the industrial sites and monuments. However, many
of the important industrial buildings are in public ownership
or owned by charitable trusts.
The Long Mill (1789) was built to replace the 1782 factory,
which was destroyed by fire. It consists of five storeys plus
attic and is 38.4m long and 10.1m wide. The ground floor is
in masonry and those above in brick. Many of the exposed
wooden members inside are sheathed in metal for increased
A comprehensive system of statutory control operates under
the provisions of the Town and Country Planning Act (1990)
and the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas)
Act (1990). Certain responsibilities are delegated by the two
responsible government departments (Environment,
102
Transport and the Regions; Culture, Media and Sport) to
local planning authorities. In the case of the Derwent valley,
strategic planning is the responsibility of the Derbyshire
County Council and Derby City Council, who jointly
produce the Derby and Derbyshire Structure Plan, which has
to be reviewed and revised regularly.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
Recognition of the historical importance of the Derwent
valley mills and the need to conserve its industrial heritage
began in 1971 when the Arkwright Festival took place,
bringing together experts from a range of disciplines. It led to
the creation of the Arkwright Society and in 1979 of a
detailed study of the valley. Since that time there has been an
ongoing programme of research, inventory, conservation,
and rehabilitation on all the major industrial sites.
Direct control of development and local planning is handled
by the relevant district councils: Derbyshire Dales District
Council,, Amber Valley Borough Council, and Erewash
Borough Council. In Derby the City Council combines the
functions of strategic and local planning authority. Each has
produced a local plan which is implemented through its
development control powers and which includes policies
relating to the conservation of its heritage.
The sale of the workers' housing as the industrial companies
that owned them closed down or were dispersed resulted in
some inappropriate additions and alterations and loss of
architectural detail, especially of the original joinery. This
problems was recognized in the 1970s and 1980s and a
strategy for protection and enhancement was set up by the
local authorities and English Heritage involving grant-aid
and technical advice for property owners.
There is an Economic Development Strategy for the East
Midlands for 2000–2010, and the three district councils and
Derby City Council have produced, or are preparing, similar
strategic documents.
It will be seen that management responsibility is shared by a
number of local authorities and government agencies. A
coordination mechanism was created in 1997 in the form of
the Derwent Valley Mills Steering Panel, which is served by
a technical working party. It has established a close working
relationship between the local authorities involved in the
nominated area.
Authenticity and integrity
As a cultural landscape this stretch of the Derwent valley
possesses a high degree of integrity. The relationship of the
industrial installations and their dependent housing
settlements to the river and its tributaries and to the
topography of the surrounding rural landscape has been
preserved, especially in the upper reaches of the valley,
virtually intact. Similarly, the interdependence of the mills
and other industrial elements, such as the canals and railway,
and the workers' housing, is still plainly visible.
This Panel has been responsible for the preparation of a draft
management plan for the nominated property, which is in the
consultation stage. The plan:
-
Established a forum for those with ownership of, and
management duties and rights over, land and buildings
within the nominated site, including the occupiers of
residential and commercial properties. The intention is to
achieve a consensus for a strategy which is realistic and
achievable, and which will be implemented in a sensitive
and sustainable manner..
-
Includes summaries of the description and significance
of the area detailed in the nomination, as a basis for
developing a management strategy to protect and
enhance the nominated site, with a commitment to
continued monitoring and review.
-
Identifies the incidence and degree of vulnerability of the
cultural heritage of the area.
-
Develops proposals for the protection and enhancement
of the special qualities and significance of the cultural
landscape and identifies strategies for implementation.
-
Identifies and reviews the effectiveness of current
measures within the site that are designed to protect and
enhance the area's special status and significance.
-
Proposes ways of developing access to, and within, the
nominated site sustainably, with regard both to the needs
of individual sites and the local community.
-
The industrial buildings have for the most part retained a
large measure of authenticity. It has to be borne in mind that
some have undergone substantial alterations and additions in
order to accommodate new technological and social
practices, but their original forms, building materials, and
structural techniques are still intact and easy to discern. In
those cases where buildings have been lost through fire or
demolition, no attempt has been made to reconstruct.
Restoration work on buildings that have been in a poor state
of repair has been carried out following detailed research on
available documentation and contemporary built
architectural examples, and every effort has been made to
ensure that compatible materials are used.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS-TICCIH expert mission visited the property in
January 2001. ICOMOS consulted TICCIH experts on the
cultural significance of this property.
Qualities
This stretch of the Derwent valley is an exceptionally well
preserved historic industrial landscape. It contains a number
of important industrial buildings from the late 18th and 19th
centuries, together with their associated workers' housing. It
is especially important because it may justifiably be asserted
that the modern factory owes its origins to Richard
Arkwright's innovatory mills at Cromford.
Proposes a mechanism for the management of the
nominated site based upon a partnership of local
authorities, agencies, and other bodies coordinated by
Derbyshire County Council.
103
Comparative analysis
In terms of industrial buildings the Derwent valley mills may
be considered to be sui generis in the sense that they were
the first of what was to become the model for factories
throughout the world in subsequent centuries.
The provision of houses and other services for the workforce
of the mills is an interesting, though by no means unique
element. This practice was adopted at New Lanark by David
Dale, but it was the moral philosophy of Robert Owen that
introduced a new dimension into what had been no more
than a pragmatic approach to securing a workforce in a rural
area. Owen's example was later followed and rationalized by
Titus Salt in the mid 19th century at Saltaire, which in turn
provided the model for the later Italian textile settlement of
Crespi d'Adda, inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1995.
Brief description
The Derwent valley in central England contains a series of
18th and 19th century cotton mills and an industrial
landscape of high historical and technological significance.
The modern factory owes its origins to the mills at Cromford,
where Richard Arkwright's inventions were first put into
industrial-scale production. The workers' housing associated
with this and the other mills is intact and illustrates the socioeconomic development of the area.
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on
the basis of criteria ii and iv:
The cultural landscape of the Derwent valley is of
outstanding significance because it was here that the
modern factory system was established, to accommodate
the new technology for spinning cotton developed by
Richard Arkwright. The insertion of industrial
establishments into a rural landscape necessitated the
construction of housing for the workers in the mills, and
the resulting settlements created an exceptional industrial
landscape that has retained its qualities over two
centuries.
ICOMOS, March 2001
104
landscape and visible on the walls of our national galleries.
The Falls of Clyde have achieved iconic status as the
archetype of the picturesque or sublime landscape in Britain.
They have been visited written about, drawn, painted, and
photographed for some 300 years. Today's visitors stand on
the same ground to admire the Falls as did artistic and
literary figures such as William Wordsworth, William
Turner, and Sir Walter Scott.
New Lanark (United Kingdom)
No 429rev
Without them our appreciation of sublime scenery would not
be what it is today. Owen commissioned artists' views of
New Lanark that firmly place it in this awesome, yet
designed, cultural landscape.
Identification
Nomination
New Lanark
Location
South Lanarkshire
State Party
United Kingdom
Date
28 June 2000
New Lanark can be seen as the model for industrial
communities, and at least two cities, world-wide. Technical
developments by the first manager, William Kelly, in
heating, ventilation, and the self-acting mule resulted in
correspondence with other leaders in the field. He was
succeeded by Robert Owen, whose constant pronouncements
about his management of society at New Lanark led to the
intense scrutiny of the place by engineers, philanthropists,
architects, and town planners the world over. The conceptual
blueprint has become part of the philosophical equipment of
the world's architects and planners.
Criterion ii
Justification by State Party
New Lanark is preserved almost whole and has the most
complete integration of architectural design of all the early
cotton mill settlements, a type illustrating the most
revolutionary element of the Industrial Revolution. The
buildings and water-power system express the extension to
the outermost limits of the application of building materials
and techniques to the new industrial age. Owen's additions
are distinctive but integrate harmoniously with the general
framework devised for David Dale. New Lanark was at its
time a major economic and technical development: one of
the largest cotton mills in the world. It was in such sites that
modern systems of manufacturing organization, management
structure, and class relations began to develop, and New
Lanark is outstanding in this regard.
Criterion iv
New Lanark is a unique reminder that the creation of wealth
does not automatically imply the degradation of its
producers. The village offers a cultural response to the
challenges presented by industrial society and was the testbed for ideas that sought to reform humanity. Today the
village provides physical evidence of Robert Owen's model
for a New Moral World.
New Lanark is a great landscape modified, through the
medium of architecture, to meet the needs and vision of a
pioneer working community.
The simple grandeur of the Scottish urban tenement tradition
comes through both in the tall New Buildings and in the
architectural treatment of the then new demands of mill
construction. Contrast and variety are given by individual
buildings, but the theme remains good proportion, good
masonry, and simplicity of detail. The artisan's understanding
of Scottish classical vernacular, built up through the 18th
century, reaches something of an apogee at New Lanark.
This common building language produces a monumental
unity of character remarkably suited to convey to us today
the idealistic paternalism of David Dale's and Robert Owen's
great enterprise.
Owenism, Utopianism, cooperation, communitarianism,
industrial capitalism, concepts of the sublime landscape, and
models for modern conservation partnerships were all shaped
at New Lanark.
Through its founder, David Dale, New Lanark is directly and
tangibly associated with the development of industrial
capitalism. As a major figure in the Scottish commercial and
banking world of the mid to late 18th century, Dale offers the
pre-eminent example of individual enterprise and prudent
financial planning that led to an unprecedented expansion of
employment and productivity. Dale's success was tempered
by his philanthropy. New Lanark is the place with which he
was most deeply and longest associated and is best
preserved.
The community spirit generated by Dale, fostered by Owen,
and nurtured by subsequent owners has survived the end of
manufacturing and rapid slide into decay, and also the
stresses of again becoming a showpiece. New Lanark
attracted attention in the days of Dale and Owen as a model
village and one of the greatest sights of its kind. Today,
warmed by the ideas of two of the greatest and most humane
industrialists of the Industrial Revolution, it has become
again one of the greatest sights of its kind.
New Lanark is famous, directly and tangibly associated with
the Utopian ideas of Robert Owen, partner in the firm from
1800 to 1825. His publications, including A New View of
Society, drew on his experience at New Lanark and inspired
progressive education, factory reform, humane working
practices, international cooperation, and garden cities.
New Lanark combines this unique cultural heritage with an
outstanding natural setting. The gorge in which it is located
contains, by volume, the greatest waterfalls in Britain. These
became an essential stop for every late 18th and early 19th
century picturesque tourist, a resource for outstanding poets
and artists, the response to which is still readable in the
The physical evidence of New Lanark's role as test-bed for
his Rational Social System is shown by the presence today of
his New Institution for the Formation of Character, School,
Store, and Counting House. The greater extent of the
buildings that preceded Owen offer evidence that it was
105
objectives, and so in 1809 he began the construction of his
"New Institution for the Formation of Character." He failed
to get the support of his partners for this project, but after
several changes in the partnership the building was finally
opened in 1816; a school was added in the following year.
Dale's village that moulded many of Owen's ideas, rather
than vice versa, and this serves to heighten the significance
of the village. The rational classicism of the fabric of the
village gave credibility to Owen's ideas.
The landscape of the Falls of Clyde, of which New Lanark
forms part, was highly influential to the career of Scottish
landscape painter Jacob More, and was also painted by
Turner, alluded to by Sir Walter Scott, and versified by
Wordsworth. The Falls had an important role in shaping
Scottish culture.
Criterion vi
Because of its location, on the route from Lanark to the
famous Falls of Clyde, the mills became one of the features
of a tour of Scotland. Contact with distinguished visitor and
a high level of public consciousness widened Owen's ideas.
His vision of a society without crime, poverty, and misery
had a wide appeal in the years following the Napoleonic
Wars, and he was encouraged by this to write and to travel
widely to promote his views. In 1824 a bitter quarrel with his
partners over his educational methods led him to leave New
Lanark to develop a community at New Harmony, Indiana
(USA), on the cooperative lines that he had described in his
influential Report to the County of Lanark (1820). This
community failed because it lacked the central focus
provided by a disciplined factory and Owen left it in 1828,
though he continued to develop and promote his ideas until
his death in 1858.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site.
History and Description
History
The mill was sold by the surviving partners to the Walker
brothers in 1828 and they continued to spin cotton until they
sold it in 1881 to a partnership which introduced net-making
and canvas weaving. From them it passed to the Gourock
Ropework Company, the world's largest rope and net
producers, who made cotton canvas and nets there until
1968.
New Lanark was founded in 1785 to take advantage of the
cotton-spinning patents secured by Richard Arkwright,
which allowed yarn to be spun in water-powered mills on an
unprecedented scale. Arkwright came to Scotland in 1783
and met David Dale, a leading West of Scotland linen yarn
merchant and Glasgow agent of the Royal Bank of Scotland.
The splendid latent water power at New Lanark led to Dale
to undertake development on his own, and with the quashing
of Arkwright's patents in 1785 his involvement ceased.
Description
The area proposed for inscription consists of the village of
New Lanark and an area around, which includes areas of
woodland and a number of minor monuments. The total area
nominated is 146ha. It is surrounded by a buffer zone
covering 667ha.
The first mill at New Lanark went into production in 1786
and was soon followed by another. Dale continued to build,
the third and fourth mills being designed for Samuel
Crompton's mule, which was capable of spinning finer yarn
than Arkwright's frame. The fourth mill was not used for
spinning in Dale's time, housing instead child apprentices
and a mechanics' shop.
Details follow of the major monuments within the nominated
area.
-
Housing had to be provided for the workers. Owing to the
restricted site in the gorge of the river Clyde, this was built in
the form of blocks three or four storeys in height rather than
the two-storey buildings favoured at other Scottish cotton
mills. The houses were superior in quality to those general
occupied by working people at that time. Rapid technical
changes led to increases in the workforce and so new houses
were added, the last in 1798 (known as "New Buildings").
Residential buildings
1–10 Braxfield Row: Built 1785–95, four- and five-storey
tenements, one room deep.
1–8 Caithness Row and the Counting House: Built c 1792,
three storeys high, one room deep. The bowed Counting
House was added at the north end by Owen c 1810–16.
9–16 Caithness Row: A detached continuation of the
previous row. An abattoir, later used as a wash-house and
water-closets, was added on the opposite side of the street
later (now a double garage).
Dale was a humane employer, who treated his workers well.
He established a school in New Lanark which by 1796 had
eighteen teachers for 510 pupils. As the most successful
cotton spinner in Scotland his was an important example.
1–8 Double Row (Wee Row) and 9–24 Double Row: Built
before 1799, three storeys high, double room depth.
In 1799 a partnership was formed by Robert Owen, a Welsh
cotton spinner, who had married Dale's daughter. Owen
tightened up the management of the mill, introducing new
standards of book-keeping and factory discipline. He began
to remodel the village around 1809. The fourth mill was
brought into production, a house being built for the
apprentices as well as a foundry and machine shops.
1–14 Long Row: Built c 1792, two storey and basement, one
room deep. Cellarage and wash-houses were located in the
basements.
1–3 Mantilla Row: Built c 1790, two storey with basement,
one room deep.
New Buildings: Single-storey cottages built in 1798 were
replaced twelve years later by large tenements of double
room depth. The block was extended by Owen soon after his
arrival to provide rooms for Sunday schools, and a pediment,
an oculus, and advanced end bays were added. Some time in
Owen became convinced that by treating his workers as
being responsible for their actions and by encouraging them
to realize their mutual dependence productivity would rise
and a community spirit would develop. He also realized that
an educated workforce was more likely to achieve his
106
in 1888. Its north gable survives as the south gable of No 3
Mill. In 1990 a waterwheel was brought in from elsewhere in
Scotland and installed here.
the 19th century the bellcote was removed from Mill 1 and
re-erected here.
1–11 Nursery Buildings and Store: Built in 1809 for pauper
apprentices, but adapted for family dwellings soon after. It is
three- and four-storey high, with a single-storey bakery (later
a post office) added c 1850. The village store was set up by
Owen c 1810 and run by the company until 1933, when it
was purchased by the local cooperative society.
The Mechanics' Workshop and Foundry: Built in the early
years of the 19th century, it was used for making equipment
for New Lanark, and also for other Scottish mills. It is one of
the oldest engineering workshops in Scotland. The NeoClassical style, used at the Institute and School, is repeated
here, with pediments to the east and north gable elevations.
Robert Owen's House, Rosedale Street: One of the two
detached houses built for David Dale and William Kelly.
Owen lived here from 1799 to 1808, when a growing
household compelled him to move to Braxfield House. It is
plain in form, in the Georgian style, with two storeys and an
attic.
The Dyeworks: This long low building was originally the
brass and iron foundry of the mill, built c 1806.
Waterhouses: Originally each of the mills has one of the twostorey structures, which straddle the tailraces of the water
wheels to prevent back-watering (reverse flow). Only parts of
those fronting Mills Nos 1 and 2 survive.
David Dale's House, Rosedale Street: This is the largest
detached house in the village. It is similar in style to Owen's
house, but with tripartite wings.
-
The landscape of the extensive buffer zone contains a
number of elements that are complementary to that of the
main New Lanark nominated area. These include farms,
estates, woodland, bridges, etc of historical interest. Worthy
of mention is Bonnington Power Station, the first large-scale
hydro-electric scheme for public power supply in Britain,
which still includes two original turbines.
Braxfield House: This house has a 17th century core,
extended to form a U-plan in the 18th century. Since 1931 it
has been a roofless ruin.
-
Public buildings
The Institute for the Formation of Character: Begun in 1809
but not completed until 1815. This austere building has two
floors and an attic, a central Doric portico its only concession
to contemporary public building styles in the village. The
first floor was originally divided into large galleries for study
and teaching. The lower storey was divided into three halls
for infants; it has hollow iron pillars for heating which vent
into the floor above.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The whole of the nominated area is within the New Lanark
Conservation Area, one of the first to be designated in 1973
under the provisions of the Planning (Listed Buildings and
Conservation Areas) (Scotland) Act. Within a designated
Conservation Area no buildings which are not protected by
other statutory instruments (Ancient Monuments, Listed
Buildings) may not be demolished without authorization.
The School: Built 1817, it is a two-storey building with a
symmetrical layout of equal-sized classrooms. The basement
houses water cisterns and the furnace for the heated air
system, which is similar to that in the Institute.
New Lanark Church: This is a simple Neo-Gothic church
dating from 1898, now no longer in ecclesiastical use.
-
The buffer zone
Within the nominated area there are 27 Listed Buildings
protected under this Act. It is noteworthy that no fewer than
21 of these are protected as category A buildings, the highest
level, reflecting the high national and interest of New
Lanark. There is a number of Listed Buildings in the buffer
zone.
Industrial buildings
Mill No 1: Building started on a site facing the river Clyde in
1785 and it was spinning cotton by March 1786. After being
burned down in October 1788 it was rebuilt the following
year. It measures 47m x 8.20m by 18.3m high. Three
waterwheels placed transversely drove 4500 spindles in 1793
and 6556 in 1802. It has a projecting Venetian-windowed
stair tower.
The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act
1979 makes it a criminal offence to alter, damage, or
destroyed any Scheduled Ancient Monument without the
written consent of the Secretary of State for Scotland. There
is one Ancient Monument (the Museum Stair at Double
Row) in the nominated area and two in the buffer zone.
Mill No 2: This mill was added in 1788 and is similar in form
and proportions to No 1.
In addition to these statutes, some measure of protection,
especially of gardens and designed landscapes, is also
conferred by the Town and Country Planning (General
Development Procedures) Scotland Order (1992), under
which developers must consult the Secretary of State for
Scotland when any development is proposed which may
have an adverse impact on Listed Buildings, Ancient
Monuments, or historic landscapes and gardens on the
official Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes.
Mill No 3: This mill was built c 1790–92, at which time it
measured 40m x 9m by 18.3m high. After it burned down in
1819 it was completely rebuilt in the late 1820s as a 37.75m
three-bay iron-framed mill. Brick arches spring between castiron beams on cast-iron columns, and the roof trusses have
iron queen-posts. It was originally the Jenny House, for selfacting spinning jennies to William Kelly's patent. It was
linked by a three-bay extension to No 4 Mill of an unusual
construction: iron plate floors laid on a grid of short cast-iron
joists and a roof of iron purlins.
Management
Mill No 4: This mill was built in 1791–93, when it measured
47.5m x 10m by 21.3m high. It was not fitted up as a mulespinning mill until 1813. The original structure burned down
Ownership of New Lanark Village is shared between the
New Lanark Conservation Trust, the New Lanark
107
Authenticity and integrity
Association, South Lanarkshire Council, and twenty private
householders (for which restrictive covenants apply).
The authenticity of the historic industrial and other buildings
at New Lanark is relatively high. As the economic and
industrial basis of the community fluctuated and eventually
died between 1785 and 1968, new buildings were
constructed, others were demolished or destroyed by fire,
and many underwent radical changes in use. From the 1970s
onwards careful research has preceded the restoration and
rehabilitation of these buildings.
Management at the local level is the responsibility of the
New Lanark Conservation Trust. This is a non-profit-making
charitable trust through which the development of New
Lanark Village has been managed and through which the
majority of funding for capital projects is channelled.
South Lanarkshire Council is the local government body
responsible for structure and local planning and for
development control in South Lanarkshire. It also has
powers and duties under the Planning (Listed Buildings and
Conservation Areas) (Scotland) Act (1997) and powers
under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act
(1979).
The appearance of the village is now very close to that of its
heyday, the first half of the 19th century, as confirmed by the
voluminous graphic and written archive available for
research. It might be argued, however, that the integrity of
the village has been destroyed. This has been a conscious act,
involving the demolition of many more recent buildings: in a
sense New Lanark has been arrested at a certain time of its
history.
Historic Scotland is the executive agency within the Scottish
Executive responsible for discharging the Government's
functions in relation to the protection and presentation of
Scotland's built and archaeological heritage. So far as the
natural heritage is concerned, the responsible Government
agency is Scottish Natural Heritage.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
There is a long history of management planning and control
in New Lanark, beginning with A Future for New Lanark: a
Report top the New Lanark Working Party by the Feasibility
Study Team published by the County Council of Lanark in
1973. This led to the creation of the New Lanark
Conservation Trust and established the policy and principles
that have governed the management of New Lanark ever
since. No fewer than 47 discussion papers have been
produced since 1975. The Trust has an outline Business
Plan, prepared by consultants KPMG, and to this will shortly
be added a Conservation Plan, as required by the Heritage
Lottery Fund.
An ICOMOS-TICCIH expert mission visited New Lanark in
January 2001. ICOMOS consulted TICCIH experts on the
cultural significance of this property.
Qualities
New Lanark is an exceptional example of an early 19th
century purpose-built cotton milling town, in which the
majority of the original buildings survive intact and well
conserved. It is of special interest because it was there that
Robert Owen first applied his form of benevolent
paternalism in industry, building on the altruistic actions of
his partner, David Dale. It was there, too, that he formulated
his Utopian philosophy of vision of a society without crime,
poverty, and misery.
It is perhaps relevant to mention in this context that in 1996 a
team from the Trust prepared a business plan and
development report for the World Heritage site of the
historic salt mine at Wielicka (Poland).
Comparative analysis
These plans are set within the framework of the land-use
planning system established in the United kingdom by the
Town and Country Planning Act (1947). The regional
strategic Strathclyde Structure Plan (1995) includes a policy
specifying New Lanark as being of special heritage
significance. At local level the Lanark Local Plan (1983) lays
down policies for the conservation and management of New
Lanark, stressing the need for a development policy. The
consultative document for the Lower Clydesdale Local Plan
(1999) concentrates on traffic and the need to establish links
between New Lanark and Lanark, reflecting the progress
made since 1983.
The model industrial settlement is a phenomenon of the
Enlightenment. The San Leucio silk factory was set up in
1789 as part of the never realized utopian town of
Ferdinandopolis in the park of the Royal Palace at Caserta
(Italy): it forms part of the World Heritage site inscribed in
1997. Many more were created in the 19th century: the
textile mill settlement at Crespi d'Adda in northern Italy
became a World Heritage site in 1995. Other notable
settlements of this kind are Le Grand Hornu (Belgium) from
the 1830s, Noisiel, near Paris (started in the 1870s), and Port
Sunlight, United Kingdom (from 1888).
When Crespi d'Adda was nominated, TICCIH prepared a
comparative study of "Workers' villages as elements of the
industrial heritage," at the request of ICOMOS. This defined
a workers' village as "any group of residential buildings
created on the initiative of an employer in a symbiotic
relationship with the workplaces," and laid down certain
criteria for the evaluation of monuments of this kind when
proposed for the World Heritage List. Two main criteria
were identified, relating to the expression on the part of
employers of their wish to provide their workers with quality
housing:
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The conservation and rehabilitation of New Lanark has now
been in progress for more than a quarter of a century. It has
been guided throughout that period by the commitment and
the expertise of the New Lanark Conservation Trust and its
collaborators. This effort continues through to the present
day and a number of projects are in progress.
1. the size, number, and degree of comfort of the dwellings
and their disposition in relation to the settlement pattern
or the surrounding landscape – ie the provision of a way
108
of life for their workers that would ensure their
remaining, but for more than simple financial reasons;
2. the quality of the materials used and their architectural
style linked with a local or regional identity.
In this study New Lanark was cited as admirably fulfilling
both criteria. Stress was laid upon the moral and social
philosophy that underlay Robert Owen's creation, which was
recognized as the paradigm of this form of heritage.
When this nomination was first considered in 1987 some
concern was expressed about its relationship with Owen's
later foundation, New Harmony (USA). ICOMOS is of the
opinion that the two are not comparable. New Lanark was an
existing textile village under benevolent management where
Owen was given the opportunity to develop and put his
moral and social ideas into practice in a flourishing industrial
context. New Harmony (which is on the US tentative list) by
contrast was set up by Owen as a Utopian settlement without
any industrial or economic foundations where he hoped to be
able to create a new kind of morally impeccable. Lacking this
material backing it did not succeed and he left it after a short
time. The differences between the two settlements become
clear when the buildings and institutions that survive are
compared: the monumentality of New Lanark is completely
lacking in New Harmony.
Consideration should also be given to the influence of Owen
on later industrialists and planners in the United Kingdom.
The nature and layout of New Lanark inspired other
benevolent industrialists to follow his example, and this
movement laid the foundations for the work of Ebenezer
Howard in creating the concept of the Garden City.
Brief description
New Lanark is a small village in a beautiful Scottish
landscape where in the early years of the 19th century a
model industrial society was created by the philanthropist
and Utopian idealist Robert Owen. The imposing mill
buildings, the spacious and well designed workers' housing,
and the dignified educational institute and school still
survive to testify to Owen's humanism.
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on
the basis of criteria ii, iv, and vi:
The creation of the model industrial settlement at New
Lanark, in which good-quality planning and architecture
were integrated with a humane concern on the part of the
employers for the well-being and lifestyle of the workers,
is a milestone in social and industrial history. The moral
and social beliefs that underlay Robert Owen's work
there provided the basis for seminal material and
intangible developments that have had lasting influences
on human society over the past two hundred years.
ICOMOS, March 2001
109
age. This is seen in Salt's Mill, which was built to resemble
an Italian Renaissance palace whilst operating at the cutting
edge of industrial technology. It is also evident in the ordered
hierarchy and unified architectural style of employees'
housing and the institutional buildings. The survival of the
ensemble at Saltaire, almost intact, provides its own
authenticity for it meeting this criterion.
Criterion iii
Saltaire (United Kingdom)
No 1028
The town of Saltaire, as it was built in the mid 19th century,
constitutes an architectural and technological ensemble that
reflects the culmination of the first wave of the Industrial
Revolution. It shows this in two ways. First, Salt's Mill is a
most remarkable industrial complex, which demonstrates
both the most advanced technology of the age and a
sophisticated use of integrated transport networks to
optimize the area's locational advantages. Salt's Mill is
described as "one of the largest mill complexes to be
designed in a unity," and is indisputably one of the largest,
best designed, and most architecturally accomplished textile
mills of the 1850s. Secondly, the construction of a settlement
for the workforce, which included not only good-quality
housing but also a range of handsome and "improving"
facilities, demonstrates Victorian philanthropic paternalism
at its best. The fact that William Fairbairn was the best mill
engineer of the time and that the prominent architects
Lockwood and Mawson designed the settlement as a
harmonious whole undoubtedly contributed greatly to the
success of Salt's enterprise.
Criterion iv
Identification
Nomination
Saltaire
Location
West Yorkshire
State Party
United Kingdom
Date
26 June 2000
Justification by State Party
[This is a slightly shortened version of the Statement of Significance
in the nomination dossier.]
The settlement of Saltaire is of outstanding universal
significance in three ways. First, it encapsulates the maturing
of industrial society and the industrial system. Secondly, it
represents an important stage in the development of a formal
land-use planning system. Thirdly, in its unified architectural
style, its construction quality, and its building hierarchy it
exhibits mid-Victorian society's pre-eminence in European
imperialist and technological domination, and the
paternalistic, moral, and practical philanthropy that was
characteristic of that society. All this exists in a remarkably
complete physical entity, which continues to operate as a
living and working community.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.
History and Description
History
The worsted trade began in Bradford in the mid 18 century
as the centre of a semi-rural production system, but it did not
develop rapidly until the advent of steam power. The result
was an urban population explosion: between 1780 and 1850
it rose from 8500 to nearly 104,000. The living conditions of
the workforce was abysmal, and the life expectancy for both
men and women was little over twenty years, in a town
recognized as one of the most polluted in England.
Saltaire provided a model for resolving the problem of how
to deal with rapid urbanization in an industrial society. This
problem did not really exist before 1800, but it erupted in
Britain in the 19th century and spread rapidly, first to
mainland Europe and North America and subsequently to the
rest of the world. The creation of Saltaire was one of the first
successful solutions to the problems of the unprecedented
urban growth of industrialization. The planned model
settlement, which was a complex and self-contained socioeconomic unit, represents an important stage in the
development of modern town planning. Not only does it
represent the integration of industrial, residential, and civic
buildings and open spaces within a framework of unified
design, but it also showed how this could be created on a
greenfield site away from the parent city by means of
"planned dispersal."
Criterion ii
Titus Salt joined his father as a partner in his wool business
in 1824. His success in spinning Donskoi wool from Russia
and then spinning and weaving Peruvian alpaca wool made
him very wealthy and influential. He became Mayor of
Bradford in 1848 and committed himself to reducing
Bradford's pollution problems. When the town council
refused to take any action, he resolved to remove his
operations away from Bradford.
Land was acquired a few miles away which met Salt's
requirements. It had access to a plentiful supply of soft water
for washing the wool. The transportation links were
excellent: the river Aire and the Leeds and Manchester Canal
by water and the Midland Railway line by land. The site lay
almost equidistant form the two major ports of Liverpool in
the west and Hull in the east. Almost the entire operation
could be brought under a single roof using the most up-todate technology and the vertical integration of the process.
By the middle of the 19th century Great Britain was the first
industrialized nation in the world. Its international trade,
colonization, and political linkages led it to become the first
truly global "superpower," albeit for only a few decades.
While its supremacy lasted, much of the urban development
which took place showed the self-confidence and
technological flair and sense of civic pride and social
philanthropy that mirrored the spirit of the mid-Victorian
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Description
Technological developments made it possible for the
building to be fireproofed.. For this workers there would be a
healthier environment and access to the open countryside.
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The village
The village is laid out on a gridiron pattern, so as to make the
maximum possible use of the land. In the first phase the
streets were organized on a north–south orientation, those in
the second phase running east–west. Almost all the public
and community buildings were constructed along Victoria
Road, leading to the Mill.
Having selected the site for his new town to the north-west of
Bradford city centre, Salt commissioned the leading
Bradford architects Henry Lockwood and Richard Mawson
to design and supervise the realization of his visionary plan.
To ensure that the new mill would meet the highest standards
of cleanliness and safety, Salt enlisted the services of the
celebrated engineer William Fairbairn. The Mill, work on
which began in 1851 and which was opened in 1853,
incorporated every recent structural and mechanical
innovation in its equipment and design.
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Housing
The houses, built between 1854 and 1868, are fine examples
of 19th century hierarchical workers' homes. All are
constructed of hammer-dressed stone with slate roofs. Each
was equipped with its own water and gas supply and an
outside lavatory. They vary in size from "Two-up two-down"
terraces to much larger houses with gardens, for the use of
the managers. They are all "through" terraces, allowing light
and air to penetrate and refuse to be evacuated without
passing through the houses. The monotonous rhythm of the
unbroken frontages of the terraced rows was interrupted by
the insertion of three-storey buildings, designed as lodgings
for single people.
Titus Salt was business man enough to ensure that the mill
itself was given top priority in construction, but work began
as soon as it was completed on the first workers' cottages.
Until they were ready, workers were brought in by train from
Bradford, and even after they were completed workers
continued to travel in from surrounding districts.
Salt's new village eventually had over 800 dwellings in wide
streets with a large dining hall and kitchens, baths, and washhouses, an almshouse for retired workers, a hospital and
dispensary, an educational institute and a church. There was
ample recreational land and allotments, in order to improve
the diet of the workers.
The design and disposition of the houses developed as
successive groups were built, ending with the final phase in
1869 when Albert Road was lined with 22 large well
appointed properties with more elaborate detailing and larger
gardens. They were used by senior executives of the
company and worthies such as the Minister of the
Congregational Church, the Registrar of Births, Deaths and
Marriages, and schoolteachers. No 1 Albert Road is only
detached house in the village, occupied in 1871 by the chief
cashier of the company.
He gave his new village his own name, coupled with that of
the nearby river, and the streets were named after members
of his own family (as well as the Queen and her Consort and
the architects). However, this pardonable self-promotion in
no way detracts from his achievement. He had a genuine
philanthropic concern for his workers and succeeded in
providing them with a healthy and secure environment (not
unconscious, of course, of the economic benefits that this
bestowed).
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Salts Mill
The Mill is an imposing building in a grand Italianate
style. It fronts on the former Midland Railway line and the
Leeds and Liverpool Canal runs behind it, roughly parallel
with the river Aire.
Salt and his model village were given national and
international recognition. Many tributes paid to him on his
death in 1876, shortly after the last house in the village was
completed, from the highest to the lowest, and some 100,000
people lined the route of his funeral cortege.
The entire structure was built of stone, with a brick and
cast-iron internal framework to minimize the fire risk. The
main material is a local sandstone, hammer-dressed with
ashlar and rock-faced dressings, red brick lining, a hipped
Welsh slate roof, and a deeply bracketed cornice. The
entrance and office block on Victoria Road has two storeys
with a basement level to the left imposed by the sloping
ground. The facade is made up of a symmetrical
arrangement of twenty bays with two symmetrically placed
projecting bays. The frontispiece of three bays had a giant
portal with a round-headed arch extending into the first
storey and it is surmounted by a tall turret with a segmental
pediment and flanking scrolls. The ground-floor windows
are round-arched with rusticated voussoirs and those on
the first floor have cambered heads.
After his death, the firm was taken over by three of his sons,
but its profits declined, to the extent that it was wound up in
1892. Four Bradford businessmen bought the Mill and the
village in 1893, one of them (James Roberts) becoming sole
owner in 1899. Roberts sold his assets in 1918 for £2 million
to another syndicate which reformed in 1923 as Salts
(Saltaire) Ltd. The village was sold in 1933 to the Bradford
Property Trust, enabling their occupants for the first time to
purchase them.
Following booming business in the inter-war years and full
operations during World War II, the Mill progressively
declined, finally closing down in 1986. Many of the major
buildings became semi-redundant and fell into disrepair, and
this had an adverse effect on the entire village. With the
formation of the Saltaire Village Society in 1984 serious
efforts began to regenerate the entire area. The Mill itself was
purchased in 1987 by Jonathan Silver, whose enthusiasm and
imagination turned it into a major cultural centre.
The main mill building is four-storey with a basement in a
T-shaped plan; there are lower sheds in the angles
extending to the east. The south facade is 166m long by
22m high, consisting of sixty bays arranged symmetrically,
with a pair of symmetrically placed projecting bays with
round-headed openings on the ground floor. Two square
attached towers, also symmetrically placed on either side
of the projecting bays, project above the eaves and are
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semi-circular portico, with a round tower at the east end
supported on giant Corinthian columns: above this eight
engaged columns support the dome. The interior has dark
blue scagliola pilasters, a richly decorated coffered ceiling,
and oak pews for 600 people.
pierced by pairs of round-arches openings; they are capped
by hipped roofs.
The three upper floors of the facade are punctuated by
camber-headed windows linked by string courses at sill
level, whilst the ground-floor windows are round-arched
with rusticated rock-faced voussoirs, also linked by a
similar string course. A deep-bracketed eaves cornice caps
the whole composition and a parapet links the central bays
and towers.
The Italianate Almshouses (1868) form a U-shaped group
around Alexandra Square, one of the few open spaces in the
village. There were originally 45 individual houses, each
with oven, boiler, and pantry and a single bedroom; four
have been absorbed by the expansion of the Hospital and
Dispensary. They are alternately single- and two-storeyed.
The roof structure is of an advanced design, composed of
cast-iron struts and wrought-iron rods which, unlike the
floors below, did not require decorative cast-iron columns
for support. The result was a huge undivided space,
considered to be the largest in the world at the time it was
built.
The Hospital (1868) was originally two storeys high and had
nine beds, but was progressively extended in the first half of
the 20th century and now has 47 beds. It has an asymmetrical
facade of eleven bays in an ordered Italianate style. The left
facade, on Saltaire Road, has an elaborate central bay, its
tympanum enriched with foliage and the Salt coat of arms.
The mill chimney standing 68m high dominates the main
facade, offset to the eastern end. It is constructed of
hammer-dressed stone and tapers upwards from a square
base with rusticated quoins and a cornice on large square
brackets.
The School (1869) is a single-storey structure consisting of
three pedimented pavilions linked by a tower and three-bay
open colonnade. The central part has a central section
breaking forward with an elaborate bell turret above, with the
carved figures of a boy, a girl, and a globe. It was designed to
take 750 children, boys and girls being segregated.
Power was supplied from two beam engines designed by
William Fairbairn, with ten subterranean boilers,
underground shafting, and upright shafting and belting.
The drive shafts and other machinery were housed
underground so as to minimize the risk of injury. The vast
underground reservoir to supply the engines and boilers
was supplied partly by rainwater.
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The Institute (1867–71) is a symmetrical T-plan building of
two storeys and a basement. The front facade has a central
bay that breaks forward with an elaborate square towers and
pyramidal roof. In front of the building are two large
sculpted lions, representing War and Peace. It originally
contained a lecture theatre for 800 people, a smaller hall for
200, a library, reading room, games room, billiard room, drill
room, gymnasium, armoury, kitchen, and meeting rooms.
New Mill
New Mill, the work of Lockwood and Mawson, stands on
the site of the former Dixon Mill. Further additions were
made in 1871. It is built in similar materials to Salts Mill and
consist of two four-storey blocks with lower sheds attached
to the north and east. The larger block, running parallel to the
canal, faces south and has 28 bays by four bays of industrial
casement windows. The other block is on the west side of the
group and has fourteen bays of industrial casement windows,
with segmental heads to its western facade. Between the two
blocks is the ornate chimney, based on the campanile of the
church of Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari in Venice. It is a
square tower with paired round-arched sunken panels, above
which there are three-light rounded arched louvred openings
with hood moulds. An octagonal lantern with round-arched
openings surmounts a deep-bracketed cornice.
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Roberts Park (1871) is a landscaped open space of 6ha with
a cricket ground, promenade, bandstand, refreshment rooms,
and facilities for swimming and boating.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The entire nominated area was designated a Conservation
Area under the provisions of the Civic Amenities Act (1967).
Nearly every building and structure within the area is listed
under the provisions of the Planning (Listed Buildings and
Conservation Areas) Act (1900): the Church is Grade I, the
Institute, the School, and Salt's Mill are Grade II*, and the
others (c 800) are Grade II. Roberts Park is designated Grade
II in the Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic
Interest.
The Dining Room
Built in 1854, this was the first building to be completed
after the main Mill. Its role was to provide cheap meals for
those workers who had to travel to work – 600 breakfasts
and 700 dinners daily. It also served as a schoolroom, public
meeting hall, and place for religious services until custombuilt properties had been erected within the village. It stands
opposite the mill complex, with which it was once linked by
means of a tunnel under the road. It is a single-storey
structure of hammer-dressed stone, with ashlar facings and a
hipped Welsh slate roof. The elevation to Victoria Road has
seven bays, with the central one forming the doorways and
surmounted by the Salt coat of arms.
-
All these complementary forms of statutory protection
require authorization by the local planning authority for any
form of development. There is an appeal procedure against
refusal of consent operating at central government level.
Management
Ownership of the properties that make up the nominated area
is varied. Owners include the local authority, the local health
authority, private utilities (waterways, railways), church
authorities, and private owners (all the residential
accommodation, shops, and four almshouses).
Other buildings
The Congregational (now United Reform) Church (1856–
59), sited opposite the main mill complex, is an elaborate
structure in the Italianate style. It has an aisle-less nave and a
The local planning authority is the City of Bradford
Metropolitan District Council, which has produced a Unitary
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In 1989 the Saltaire Town Scheme was established by the
City of Bradford Metropolitan District Council and English
Heritage. It provided 40% grants for the restoration of
original features and repairs to the properties. This scheme
ran successfully for seven years; it has recently been
superseded by a Conservation Area Partnership Scheme.
Development Plan (UDP), as required under the land-use
planning legislation. These plans are subject to regular
review and extensive public consultation. The current
Bradford UDP was adopted in 1998 and is due for review in
2001. It contains specific policies relating to conservation,
including Conservation Areas and Listed Buildings. The
Saltaire-Shipley Corridor is one of two areas identified as a
regeneration area, in which conservation of the built heritage
and encouragement of tourism management is one of the
main issues identified.
The success of these efforts may be judged by the fact that in
1997 the village was awarded the Europa Nostra Award for
Conservation-Led
Regeneration,
Europe's
highest
conservation award.
Although World Heritage List inscription does not carry with
it additional statutory controls under UK legislation, central
government does recognize the need for extra protection
being afforded to them. Local planning authorities are
required to formulate specific planning policies for them.
The central government Planning Policy Guidance Note
(PPG) 15 Planning and the historic environment requires
management plans to be prepared for World Heritage sites.
Authenticity and integrity
The authenticity of the buildings in Saltaire has been
maintained to a very high degree. Little modification took
place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, beyond that
required for the application of improved industrial processes.
Since industrial activities ceased in the mid 1980s there has
been an intensive programme of sensitive rehabilitation and
conservation of the entire complex.
A draft management plan has been prepared for Saltaire,
based on the Management Guidelines for World Heritage
Sites (Feilden and Jokilehto) and on management plans
prepared for other UK World Heritage sites. The plan aims
to:
-
establish a forum for those with ownership of and
management rights over sites within Saltaire;
-
identify the incidences and levels of vulnerability of the
cultural heritage of the area;
-
be a working document that is comprehensive and
flexible, written in a clear and factual style, and capable
of continuous development;
-
produce a strategy to protect the significance of the site
that is realistic and achievable and which will be
implemented in a sensitive and sustainable manner;
-
identify and review the status and effectiveness of
current measures within the site that are designed to
protect and enhance the area's special status and
significance;
-
develop new strategies for the protection
enhancement of the significance of Saltaire.
The integrity of Saltaire as a model industrial village is total:
there have been no changes to its layout and appearance
since work began in the 1850s.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS-TICCIH expert mission visited New Lanark in
January 2001. ICOMOS consulted TICCIH experts on the
cultural significance of this property.
Qualities
Saltaire is an exceptionally complete and well preserved
example of a mid 19th century industrial village. It is an
outstanding illustration of the philanthropic approach to
industrial management typical of this period, and one that
acquires further value because of the quality of the
architectural and engineering solutions adopted in its design.
Comparative analysis
and
The concept and realization of Saltaire derive from the
workers' housing provided by Sir Richard Arkwright and
other mill owners in the Derwent Valley and the more
idealistic development of New Lanark by Robert Owen.
Saltaire represents the culmination of the tradition of
paternalistic philanthropic development by enlightened
textile manufacturers. It provided the model for similar
developments, both in the United Kingdom and elsewhere in
the world, more particularly in the USA. In Italy the layout
of Crespi d'Adda (inscribed on the World Heritage List in
1995) was directly inspired by Saltaire, and this is
acknowledged in the adoption of a similar form of name,
combining that of the owner with that of the river passing
through the site.
The nomination dossier contains a map showing the buffer
zone around the nominated property which takes the form of
a roughly drawn circle. ICOMOS suggests that this
delineation, although adequate, should be made more
realistic and amended so as to take account of features such
as roads and district boundaries.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
In the mid 1980s the state of conservation of many of the
buildings in Saltaire, including Salts Mill and the New Mill,
had deteriorated alarmingly, and a number of the buildings in
the village were in a poor state of repair. The first move to
regenerate the area was the establishment of the Saltaire
Village Society in 1984. A major contribution was made by
the late Jonathan Silver, who purchased Salts Mill in 1987.
He established an art gallery there and succeeded in
attracting tenants who undertook sympathetic and
imaginative rehabilitation projects.
The TICCIH comparative study of "Workers' villages as
elements of the industrial heritage" (1995) laid down certain
criteria for the evaluation of monuments of this kind when
proposed for the World Heritage List. Two main criteria
were identified:
1. the size, number, and degree of comfort of the dwellings
and their disposition in relation to the settlement pattern
or the surrounding landscape – ie the provision of a way
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of life for the workers that would ensure their
remaining, but for more than simple financial reasons;
2. the quality of the materials used and their architectural
style linked with a local or regional identity.
There can be no dispute that Saltaire fully satisfies these two
criteria.
By comparison with other complexes of this type from the
second half of the 19th century Saltaire is outstanding
because of its completeness and its integrity. It also had a
significant influence on town-planning developments in the
United Kingdom, which can be seen in the late 19th century
garden city movement, which was in turn to have a profound
effect internationally.
Brief description
Saltaire is a complete and well preserved industrial village of
the second half of the 19th century. Its textile mills, public
buildings, and workers' housing are built in a harmonious
style of high architectural quality and the plan survives
intact, giving a vivid impression of the philanthropic
paternalism of the Victorian age.
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on
the basis of criteria ii and iv:
The industrial village of Saltaire is an outstanding
example of mid 19th century philanthropic paternalism
which had a profound influence on developments in
industrial and urban planning in the United Kingdom
and beyond. It survives in a complete and well preserved
form as testimony to the pride and power of basic
industries such as textiles for the economy of Great
Britain and the world in the 19th and earlier 20th
centuries.
The State Party should be requested to supply a map
showing a revised buffer zone as suggested by ICOMOS.
ICOMOS, March 2001
114
particular, the caves and rock shelters provide evidence of a
relatively rare phenomenon in Botswana, the evidence of
repeated use over an extensive period of time. The
combination of natural and artefactual evidence in stratified
deposits demonstrates the interaction of people and
environment through time and space.
Criterion iii
Tsodilo (Botswana)
No 1021
Tsodilo is unique in being different from the rest of southern
Africa in terms of its Iron Age settlement pattern and the
way in which its spatial organization within settlements was
executed. It defies stereotypes, be they of aboriginal or
Bantu peoples.
Criterion v
Identification
Nomination
Tsodilo
Location
The Ngamiland District, north-west
Botswana
State Party
Botswana
Date
19 June 2000
Traditions speak of Tsodilo as being the home of all living
creatures, more particularly home to the spirits of each
animal, bird, insect, and plant that has been created. Though
exact interpretation and dating of the rock art is uncertain,
the art itself clearly testifies to the long tradition of the site as
spiritual, a tradition continued today in practices of the
!Kung and in visits by, in effect, pilgrims in Western
parlance, often from some distance.
Criterion vi
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site. It also qualifies as a cultural landscape as defined in
paragraph 39 of the Operational Guidelines for the
Implementation of the World Heritage Convention.
Justification by State Party
Tsodilo, a major geological landmark in the Kalahari Desert,
has been called the "Louvre of the Desert" for the quality
and quantity of the rock art contained in an area of only
10km2. The archaeological record is particularly good. The
place offers a singular opportunity to comprehend the
traditions, cultures, and technologies of the people of the
Kalahari region from time immemorial to the present.
History and Description
History
Geologically, Tsodilo provides a rare opportunity to observe
one of the ancient rock formations that make up the Earth’s
crust, for its very old rock, uplifted by tectonic forces, has
resisted many millions of years of weathering and erosion.
The place combines several aspects of Earth’s history with
the cultural history of humankind. It shows an interplay
between geological processes spanning more than a billion
years and human activities, particularly those involving
minerals, over tens of thousands of years.
Present evidence indicates the earliest occupants at Tsodilo
probably in the Middle Stone Age, perhaps around 100,000
years ago or earlier. A Late Stone Age cultural presence is
dated around 70,000 years ago. In general, repeated use over
an extensive period of time appears to reflect small mobile
groups of people camping briefly, perhaps on seasonal visits,
for example when the fruit of the mongongo tree,
Ricinodendron rautanenii, ripens. Local quartz as well as
exotic stone were used for tool-making in both the Middle
and Late Stone Ages. The use of non-local raw material
suggests that contact and some form of exchange have
existed at Tsodilo for tens of thousands of years. The Middle
Stone Age is marked by the appearance of large stone
blades. Tsodilo is unique in demonstrating an extensive
record of freshwater fish exploitation in a now arid
landscape where rivers formerly flowed. Barbed bone points
were probably used to tip fish-spears; bone toolmaking at
Tsodilo may well go back 40,000 years.
The archaeology of the area preserves a chronological
account of human activities and environmental changes over
at least 100,000 years. Outstanding in this record is the rock
art. It consists of over 4500 paintings and numerous carvings
which provide a vivid insight into early perceptions of this
environment while giving artistic expression to
contemporary ways of life. Tsodilo has one of the highest
concentrations of rock art in the world and so is of major
international significance; it also possesses the largest
concentration of such work in Botswana. The emphasis on
large herbivores echoes the metaphorical idiom of the San
people, indicating that, although the symbolism behind the
art remains obscure, it is of a religious nature. Whatever the
original intentions of the artists, the art has inspired modern
interpretations and been put to current use in stamp designs,
etc.
Criterion i
Fishbone and stone artefacts decrease in the Late Stone Age
(c 30,000 BP). The appearance of ostrich eggs in
archaeological deposits then indicates the development of a
new strategy for acquiring a new resource for food and
artefact-making. In particular, a tradition of making beads of
ostrich egg-shell began then and continues today. Until as
recently as c AD 600, the people of Tsodilo lived entirely by
hunting, fishing, and foraging for wild food.
The archaeology also demonstrates technology, exchange,
and significant detail of settlement pattern and form. It
ranges in time from Middle Stone Age to traditional
societies, demonstrating not just antiquity but also great
diversity. The sites consist of caves, rock shelters, seasonal
camps, and settlements; their stratification contains the
palaeo-environmental record and cultural sequence. In
By the 7th century AD, however, the pace of change in
technology, subsistence, and settlement organization
increased as iron and copper metallurgy were introduced.
This phase is also marked by the introduction of cattle.
Interaction between Late Stone Age foragers and Early Iron
Age agro-pastoralists occurred. Settlement took the form of
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apparently unique social structures. Divuyu itself is the
richest site yet discovered in southern Africa for this period.
Copper and iron beads, bracelets, and other ornaments
became common. All the metal was imported – the copper
probably from southern Zaire or north-eastern South Africa,
the iron perhaps from only 40km distant – and worked
locally. Nqoma at the end of the 1st millennium has the
richest variety of metal jewelry of any known contemporary
site in southern Africa.
lies 2.1km to the north-west. Their height, shape, and spatial
relationships have given rise to a distinctive name for each:
Male, Female, Child, and Grandchild. Male, at 400m above
sea level, is the highest peak in Botswana. The rock
ensemble is visible from the Okavango River, c 40km to the
north-east.
Caves and shelters are one of the main resources of the rock
outcrop from the human point of view. Where excavated,
they characteristically show a long, though not necessarily
continuous, sequence of occupation beginning in some cases
as early as c 100,000 years ago (Middle Stone Age). They
indicate repeated use thereafter, the artefact densities
appearing to reflect visits, perhaps seasonal, by small mobile
groups of people. At White Painting Shelter, Tsodilo, for
example, excavation has exposed a 7m deep stratigraphy
demonstrating such use over at least 100,000 years.
The same two sites in particular, Divuyu and Nqoma, have
indicated domestic herding and a settled lifestyle as early as
the 7th–8th centuries AD from evidence of middens and
house foundations. Cultivated crops such as sorghum and
millet were added to the diet. Sheep and goats augmented
the few domestic cattle kept by earlier foraging
communities. Pottery was produced for a range of domestic
purposes and personal adornment became common and
often elaborate. Mining for specularite was extensive in
800–1000, and continued into the 19th century. The output
was enormous, doubtless contributing to the amount of
jewellery and cattle owned by the Nqoma people. The rich
elements of Tsodilo Iron Age culture continued well into the
13th century when Nquoma declined, possibly because of
drought or war. No further durable exotic objects seem to
have entered the Tsodilo region until the effects of the
European Atlantic trade began to be felt in the 18th century.
Tsodilo became part of the Portuguese Congo-Angola trade
axis.
Divuyu and Nqoma are two excavated settlements of
particular significance in the 1st millennium AD. Divuyu
lies in a saddle at the top of Female; Nqoma is on a plateau
below. A general pattern of public housing and living spaces
in the centre of the saddle at the former, flanked by
communal middens and perhaps burial areas, seemed to be
the settlement plan. Much the same was suggested by
Nquoma. If so, then these sites at Tsodilo do not share the
spatial structure of other settlements in southern Africa, and
suggest similarities with the spatial patterning of villages in
the "matrilineal belt" of central Africa.
The rock art paintings are often large and imposing, and can
be seen from a distance. Most of it has been executed in red
ochre derived from hematite occurring in the local rock.
Much of the red art is naturalistic in subject and schematic in
style, described in the dossier as "sketches capturing the
essential character of the creatures depicted." The rock art
occurs throughout the rock outcrop. Many of the graphics
have been executed in fairly small, isolated panels in
contrast to the large friezes elsewhere in the region. In
comparison with the naturalistic styles in Namibia,
Zimbabwe, and South Africa, the Tsolido paintings are more
schematic, characterized by a variety of geometric symbols,
distinctive treatment of the human figure, and exaggerated
body proportions of many animals. Overall, in terms of style
and content the art has more in common with paintings of
similar antiquity in Zambia and Angola to north and northeast than neighbouring Namibia, Zimbabwe, and South
Africa.
Historically, the Tsodilo area was occupied by the N/hae,
who left in the mid-19th century. Its first appearance on a
map was in 1857, as a result of information collected by
Livingstone during his explorations in 1849–56. In the 1850s
the earliest known horsemen, Griqua ivory hunters, passed
through the region. The !Kung arrived in the area and made
at least a few of the paintings, possibly some of those
showing horsemen. The rock art was first sketched and
brought to Western attention in 1907 by Siegfried Passarge,
a German geologist.
The two, present-day local communities, Hambukushu and
!Kung, arrived as recently as c 1860. Nevertheless, they both
have creation myths associated with Tsodilo, and they both
have strong traditional beliefs that involve respect for
Tsodilo as a place of worship and ancestral spirits. The
spirituality of the place has become best known to non-local
people through the writings of Laurens van der Post, notably
The Lost World of the Kalahari (1958). Today, local
churches and traditional doctors travel to Tsodilo for prayers,
meditation, and medication. Most visitors arrive for religious
reasons.
The wild animals depicted are characteristically "big game"
such as giraffe and rhinoceros until the relatively late
appearance of domestic cattle. Some depictions are in
outline only, others are in silhouette, differences in style
which seem to relate to particular animals (eg zebra in
outline and elephant in silhouette). Human figures, or
abstracts of them emphasizing, for example, sexual features,
are frequent. There is nevertheless a high proportion of
geometric designs, frequently lines and grids enclosed in
circles or ovals and in rectangles. Such apparently symbolic
graphics are rare in southern African Stone Age art.
Description
Tsodilo is situated in the north-western corner of Botswana
near the Namibian border. Its massive quartzite rock
formations rise from ancient sand dunes to the east and a dry
fossil lake bed to the west. They are therefore called
inselbergs, meaning a prominent isolated residual small
mountain of circumdenudation rising from and surrounded
by an extensive lowland erosion surface in a hot dry region.
The surrounding dunes are covered with trees and open
savannah vegetation. The setting and the multicoloured rock
formations combined with the large number of rock
paintings immediately bestow an iconographic quality to the
place, and comparisons with Uluru in central Australia
inevitably spring to mind. Three of the inselbergs form a
cluster over a 3km x 10km rectangle; a fourth, and smallest,
A distinctive series of white paintings occurs at only twelve
sites, in some instances superimposed on the reds but never
the other way round. Animals in white are rarer and include
more domestic species than the reds. Human figures are
common, as are geometric designs.
The art in general is not well dated, though at least some of it
could be two thousand and more years old. Pictures with
116
cattle are regarded as c 600-1200, following the introduction
of cattle to Tsodilo after the 6th century AD. Geometric art
is generally regarded as about a thousand years old. The
latest paintings date to the 19th century on oral evidence.
Some white paintings appear to be riders on horses,
unknown at Tsodilo until the 1850s, which possibly provides
a date for the last paintings. Certainly domestic animals
indicate a relatively recent date for the white paintings.
One of the strongest recommendations of an Evaluation
(August 1995) of the Management Plan was that the site
should be nominated for World Heritage Listing, to which
end it recommended that Botswana sign the 1972
Convention. It identified reasons for this as "help in
marketing the site to tourists, in raising additional capital and
in negotiating international assistance." It noted that
increasing tourism was already then (1995) leading to
vandalism of some art and so it recommended "the
systematic recording of all the rock art." Between 1994 and
1996 the archaeology of Tsodilo, including the rock art sites,
was recorded by Botswana National Museum staff. The
Evaluation’s long list of recommendations was much
concerned with acquiring and training appropriate personnel.
Cup and canoe-shaped hollows in rock, a common
phenomenon throughout the continent, are particularly
numerous at Tsodilo. One group, interpreted as a trail of
animal footprints, is spread over several hundred metres and
is one of the largest rock pictures in the world. As poorly
dated as the other art, these hollows may have been made in
the Late Stone Age about two thousand years ago.
National Development Plans 1997/98 and 2002/03
emphasize the development of cultural resources to
contribute towards the expansion of the tourism sector. It
estimates that 30,000 tourists visit historical monuments
throughout Botswana annually. In 1998, 3698 people visited
Tsodilo, a low on-site number but nevertheless c 10% of the
national total of such visitors.
The extent and intensity of mining activity on the mountains
to recover ochre, specularite, and green stone, used for
decorative purposes, is impressive. The mines are clearly
pre-colonial.
The Department of Tourism will play an active role in
defining the policies relating to the presentation and
promotion of the property. The Department of Wildlife and
National Parks also has responsibilities for the management
of tourism.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The Monuments and Relics Act 1970 provides for better
preservation of ancient monuments, ancient workings, relics,
and other objects of aesthetic, archaeological, historical, or
scientific value or interest. Tsodilo was declared a National
Monument under an early version of this Act in 1927.
The Management Plan recognizes the importance of
securing the participation of the local communities (c 200
people), expressed in a Tsodilo Liaison Committee of tribal
and Museum representatives. The purpose of this Committee
is "to ensure harmonious co-operation," but a distinction is
drawn between community participation and "formal
management" by the National Museum. An elaborate
consultative process preceded the nomination of Tsodilo for
World Heritage status, a nomination which consequently
comes forward with broad-based support over a wide area.
Tsodilo is a Conservation Area (but no information is given
about the meaning of that phrase in Botswana or its legal
standing).
It is also affected by conditions in the Anthropological
Research Act 1967, National Parks Act 1967, and Tribal Act
1968.
Management
Botswana National Museum policy is to promote the
heritage at Tsodilo for Botswana and tourists. A new
museum complex is nearing completion. Campsites are
provided. A signage system is in hand within a larger system
for all National Monuments. Educational programmes will
implement a continuing Tsodilo and World Heritage
awareness programme among Botswana schools.
The site is owned by the Government, controlled by the
Tawana Land Board, and managed by the Botswana
National Museum. The area nominated for inclusion in the
World Heritage List, including both the core and buffer
zones (respectively 4800ha, to be fenced in, and 70,400ha),
will be leased to the Botswana National Museum.
Financial resources for Tsodilo include US$651,000 for the
new museum, about US$2000 a year for hiring casual
labourers, and US$16,000 a year, within the National
Museum budget. Five full-time staff have been employed
specifically on the Tsodilo project. Unspecified amounts of
funding are mentioned for a range of tasks like fencing and
"preservation of rock art."
The Tsodilo Hills Management Plan: Scheme for
Implementation (20 February 1994) was reviewed and
amended in 1999. Essentially, it is a modern management
plan based on generally accepted principles of conservation
in a broad sense, while recognizing its particular context, for
example within a national policy to develop rural areas in
such a way that local people are able to improve the quality
of their lives. One of its premises is that Tsodilo is primarily
a heritage area and only secondly a settlement; another basic
one is to protect traditional rights but encourage traditional
methods of land use. Excess population will be encouraged
to settle elsewhere, but any actual financial or other loss
incurred by the community as a result of the Management
Plan should be compensated. Further the Plan recognizes
that people have the right to learn about, appreciate, and
enjoy their heritage, provided that they do not damage it.
On-site activities are, therefore, controlled, and restricted and
monitoring is constantly leading to appropriate and timely
action.
In January 2001, a fairly long list of tasks identified in the
Schedule of Implementation awaited completion.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
Three basic long-term facts contribute to Tsodilo’s
outstanding state of preservation: its remoteness, its low
population density, and the high degree of resistance to
erosion of its quartzitic rock.
Recording of the rock art began in the early 20th century.
The site became a National Monument in 1927. A landmark
117
in its conservation, in part led by consideration of the needs
of the national economy and tourism at the site, was the
preparation of a Management Plan in the early 1990s. This
was followed by an expert evaluation which, while generally
approving, provided in its recommendations the basis for at
least a ten-year programme of improvement.
sustainable strategies. Over and above the geological interest
of the rock itself, the fact that it is granite is of considerable
significance for the site. On the one hand its impermeability
has meant that it collects water; on the other, it is resistant to
erosion and has therefore preserved the art upon it very well.
Tsodilo is also important for its intellectual contribution to
scientific studies of human adaptation and the revision of
ideas on forager/farmer interaction. The Stone Age of
Botswana is poorly understood, partly through inadequate
study, partly because the nature of the landscape offers little
incentive for repeated visits to the same locations. Tsodilo,
because of its nature as a place where people stay and to
which they return, has already contributed significantly to
African prehistory, and it has a high potential in its
stratification further to illuminate the sequence and character
of human activity and environmental change.
Authenticity and integrity
Tsodilo is a classic case where both integrity and
authenticity must be taken into account. The whole
ensemble, over and above its scientific interest, possesses an
aesthetic dimension.
The diverse fauna and flora have remained largely intact
because of the remoteness of the site. Many species attested
in archaeological deposits of the 7th century AD were
depicted in rock paintings, and most were probably still
present until the early 20th century. Mongongo nuts continue
to be a food staple; a particular beetle, Diamphidia sebae,
continues to provide poison for the !Kung’s hunting arrows;
two African rock pythons, Python sebae, have been living at
the waterhole halfway up Female for at least ten years and
are regarded as messengers of the spiritual realm. The
baobab tree, Adansonia digitata, continues to be used in
different ways (food, water collection, textile raw material,
medicine, manure, etc). The tree clearly therefore possesses
considerable socio-economic and cultural significance, as
was recognized at the First Global Strategy meeting in
Harare (October 1995). It has been called "a symbol of the
continent and the people of Africa" and was strongly
recommended for World Heritage listing.
The rock art is outstanding in quantity, quality,
distinctiveness, scientific interest, and state of preservation.
It represents in graphic form a long-lived traditional practice
giving cultural expression to different and, until right at the
end, anonymous cultures.
Comparative analysis
There are no other African sites like Tsodilo on the World
Heritage List. The Brandberg inselberg in neighbouring
Namibia is similar in some ways geologically, but the rock
art and archaeological history are different. It compares
favourably with the Uluru/Kata Tjuta cultural landscape of
central Australia in terms of both its spectacular rock
formations that, from a geological perspective, represent
exceptional examples of tectonic and geomorphic processes;
and as a basically natural feature which has become an icon
in a cultural landscape.
The archaeological record is large, generally well preserved,
and still respected, for some of its content is still living rather
than redundant. Excavations have been well conducted and
backfilled, leaving deposits and strata intact as a resource for
future investigation. Results from the site so far have been
illuminating both of the local prehistory and of key
significance at regional and continental levels. Overall, the
condition and authenticity of the rock art in terms of
materials, techniques, setting, and workmanship is
impeccable. The art remains a key element in the spirituality
of the site today.
The cultural heritage is manifest in many forms with
similarities to others in Botswana, in southern Africa, in
Africa, and in the world but whose combinations may only
be peculiar to Tsodilo, an area which itself possesses a
unique combination of features. For its size, it compares
favourably with Kakadu National Park, Australia, in terms of
the concentration of rock art: Tsodilo is of 10km2 with c
4500 paintings in more than 400 sites, Kakadu is of 19,804
km2 with 15,000 rock-art sites. At Matobo in Zimbabwe
some 30,000 paintings are estimated to exist at c 3000 sites
over c 2000km2; at the Drakensberg/uKhahlamba, South
Africa, 600 sites with 35,000 individual images are spread
over a vast area; an estimated 6000 sites occur in c
30,000km2 in Lesotho. Quantitatively, the density of rock art
at Tsodilo is among the highest in the world.
Taken as a whole, the site embraces a diverse authenticity,
dependent on an integrity nurtured over tens of thousands of
years and providing a vivid illustration of natural/cultural
interdependence.
Evaluation
The art itself exhibits idiosyncratic characteristics rather than
close parallels with other sites and areas. Certainly there is
nothing to suggest that its origins and development were
externally introduced or influenced. Its qualities are very
much of this place and its peoples. The art is usually found,
for example, on overhangs and ledges; it is not hidden as at
Matobo and Drakensberg. Nor is it closely correlated with
living sites such as Matobo. Stylistically, the paintings are
distinct, being more schematic than the naturalistic paintings
in most other parts of southern Africa. Both humans and
animals are characteristically expressed by strokes and other
minimalist devices; some, humans in particular, are not
immediately recognizable. Overall, the style, though neither
the colour nor the content, is closer to that of the Iron Age or
agro-pastoralist art found elsewhere in southern Africa than
shamanistic hunter-gatherer art. The Tsodilo artists preferred
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the site in January 2001.
ICOMOS also consulted a distinguished expert on the rock
art of southern Africa.
Qualities
The physical attraction and availability of shelter that
probably originally drew people to Tsodilo was and still is
augmented by local animals, fruit-bearing trees and shrubs,
edible plants, and tubers. The plants and the diversity of wild
life offered food, water, protection, and sanctuary to the
earliest visitors and caused them to settle or return during
annual foraging expeditions, a process which has continued
over at least 100,000 years. Although changes have occurred
through time, particularly in the availability of water,
Tsodilo’s resources have in general been exploited within
118
big game, cattle, humans, and geometric or, to us, abstract,
images. Similar large game emphases occur in the paintings
of Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. Geometric shapes
are rare in southern African Stone Age rock art, though
comparisons have been drawn between the Tsodilo
examples and similar designs in the arid interior of southern
Africa, especially in Namibia. The nearest examples are c
400km west of Tsodilo. Paintings in eastern Zambia,
1000km away, also contain schematic animals and
geometric designs. The nearest art is 250km away at Savuti;
it is in a similar style to that at Tsodilo.
Noting that the excellent 1994 Management Plan is now
nearly seven years old, ICOMOS also recommends that a
new one be drawn up including an annual schedule of works
to be implemented.
Brief description
A small area of quartz outcrop in the Kalahari Desert has
provided shelter and other resources to people over 100,000
years. It now retains a remarkable record, in its archaeology,
its rock art, and its continuing traditions, not only of this
continual use but also of the development of human culture
and of a symbiotic nature/human relationship over many
thousands of years.
Tsodilo’s flora and fauna provide the basis of much of the
cultural development there. While this is not in itself of
universal significance, the relationships within the
environment including humankind are.
ICOMOS comments and recommendations for future action
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
The site is nominated in an excellent dossier which is a
credit to those concerned and the State Party. It is well
qualified to be entered on the World Heritage List under
criteria i, iii, and vi. The rock art alone, so persistently
created over centuries, represents a masterpiece of human
creative genius. Tsodilo vividly demonstrates an
exceptional testimony to a specific place as the meeting
place of humanity and an environment over 100,000 years.
And the very place is directly and tangibly not just
associated with, but is itself, a living tradition.
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List
on the basis of criteria i, iii, and vi:
The significance of the place lies in its visual
prominence, its geological and archaeological
character as scientific resources, its use over ten of
thousands of years as an area of settlement and
nourishment, its outstanding rock art, and its long-term
sanctity. All of those elements individually bear
witness to different universal significances;
collectively they combine to create a veritable "node of
universal significance" on the surface of the earth.
Furthermore, the symbiotic relationship between nature
and culture, the very essence of Tsodilo, is, in itself,
universally significant.
A claim is also made under criterion v. As expressed,
however, it is largely academic, and the academic argument
itself is not sound. The claim is not, in any case, necessary.
A letter of 15 September 2000, from the National Museum,
Botswana, states that the site is not nominated as a cultural
landscape. ICOMOS recommends, nevertheless, that it
should be considered as such because it is well qualified in
this category of cultural site. It qualifies primarily under
category iii, "an associative cultural landscape" with
"powerful religious, artistic, and cultural associations of the
natural element." It is also an organically evolved landscape,
falling into sub-category "continuing landscape." The
Operational Guidelines’ own definition in fact closely
defines Tsodilo in asking for the retention of "an active
social role in contemporary society closely associated with
the traditional way of life and in which the evolutionary
process is still in progress." The presence of Tsodilo among
the emerging group of cultural landscapes on the World
Heritage List would both grace that group and help clarify its
nature.
ICOMOS, March 2001
There are currently less than 4000 visitors to the site per
year. The carrying capacity is estimated to be in the tens of
thousands per year (though no definition of "carrying
capacity" is offered, even though it is well known that
absolute numbers are not the only criterion for judging stress
on a site). Clearly, with a site so robust in some natural
qualities but so fragile in others, not least in its art and
human/environment relationships, the development of the
place as a tourist destination must be very clear-sighted and
sensitively managed, with a sharp, scientifically well
informed management focus on the essential qualities of the
place. In that context, despite a new museum having only
just been completed near the rocks, ICOMOS suggests that,
given the close parallel with Uluru, the possibly of moving
everything away from the rocks themselves should be borne
in mind, perhaps, as at Uluru, when a second phase of
tourism facilities is planned.
119
Etruscan and Roman periods either side of AD 1, and
then witnessed, and perhaps in part stimulated, a
flowering in the arts and architecture in two periods, the
11th–14th ("medieval") and 15th–16th ("Renaissance")
centuries. This is marked in the character of towns and
villages, in the style and form of numerous individual
buildings, both ecclesiastical and secular, and in many
paintings and sculptures. Underlying this cultural
expression was a basic agrarian economy, including
vineyards
and
olive-groves,
moulding
the
geomorphologically unusual landscape towards its
present appearance. A significant factor in this process
throughout the 2nd millennium was the local system of
land-tenure called "share-cropping," though its impact
on the landscape is not explored in the dossier. The area
is now fairly intensively exploited agriculturally and
touristically.
Val d’Orcia (Italy)
No 1026
Identification
Nomination
Val d’Orcia.
Location
Province of Siena, Tuscany
State Party
Italy
Date
23 June 2000
Description
The Val d’Orcia in southern Tuscany is part of the
Crete Senese which begin south of Sienna and
continues to the Lazio region. The Crete consist of
clayey soil formations caused by the ingress of the
Pliocene sea. Although natural (and its evaluation
therefore outside ICOMOS’s brief) it is this fact which
gives the landscape its basic characteristics and
provides the stage on which humans have interacted
with nature and cultural developments have occurred.
Justification by State Party
The Crete Senese (Sienese chalk uplands) appear in
many works of art and literature. The general character
of the nominated area has been sanctioned and affirmed
through many visual and written works. The area has
also been an inspiration to many artists.
The Val d'Orcia consists of a valley opening to the
north and with high ground on the other three sides.
Monte Amiata is on its west. The River Orcia cuts
laterally across the valley. Within Val d’Orcia are
generally low and gently rolling hills and small
undramatic valleys, with much of the central area in
pasture. The main settlements are on the high points in
this landscape, small towns and larger villages:
Radicofani, Catiglio d’Orcia, Rocca d’Orcia, Ripa
d’Orcia, Montalcino, and Monticchiello. Outside them,
the landscape is studded with many villages, often
fortified, and other types of civil and ecclesiastical site.
Villages of particular interest include Corsignano and
Vivo d’Orchia, and other built features of special
interest include the complex of Spaletto, San Piero in
Campo, Sant’Anna in Camprena, the Palazzo Massaini
and the Abbey of Saint’Antimo near Montalcino.
The area is traversed by the medieval Via Francigena, a
pilgrim route to Rome and the Holy Land.
The Val d’Orcia represents an exceptional testimony to
a traditional cultural phenomenon, that of
"sharecropping,"* which has shaped the countryside in
terms of land-use and architecture to produce a
landscape demonstrating the beauty of the still-visible
cohesion between man and nature.
Criteria iii, iv, and v
[Note This property is nominated as a cultural landscape, for
which the State Party’s prime justification is its
geomorphology, stating that "it is necessary to protect,
safeguard and conserve this very unique landscape."]
Category of property
Of the towns themselves, PIENZA, named after its
founder Pope Pius II, is a planned town of the mid-15th
century built around a monumental main piazza flanked
by the Cathedral, Palazzo Piccolomini, Palazzo
Vescovile, and Palazzo Comunale. It is already a World
Heritage Site in its own right
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this
is a site. It is also a cultural landscape in terms of the
Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the
World Heritage Convention, para. 39.
CASTIGLION D'ORCIA is an old rustic castle on a
hilltop, surrounded by four other impressive castles and
the villages of Rimbecca and Vivo d’Orcia. The Via
Francigena, a medieval pilgrimage road, passes by the
Ospedale delle Bricole with the small church of San
Pellegrino, the Ospedale de Arcimbaldo, and stopping
points at Scala, Poderina, and Rocorsi. Numerous
churches and farm buildings linked to the granary of
Spedalletto include fortified estate farms controlled by
the Ospedale di Santa Maria della Scala in Siena. Of
those, the Geta Palace, Rimbecca, Tricerchi Palace and
Vignalunga farm are listed as particularly interesting. In
all eleven building complexes and structures are listed
(under the provisions of Law No 1089/1939).
History and Description
History
No historical narrative is provided by the nomination. In
summary, however, this landscape began to develop
culturally in prehistoric times, was developed in the
*
The term "share-cropping" is not explained in the nomination
dossier but it usually describes a system of land-holding
whereby a tenant supplies a share of the crop to the proprietor
in lieu of labour services or payment of rent.
120
MONTALCINO, a small town of late medieval
architecture, is situated in a high dominant position on a
hill between the valleys of the Ombrone and Asso
rivers. Inhabited since Etrusco-Roman times, it has
played a significant part in military affairs since the
13th century, principally as a fortified frontier post of
the Sienese Republic. It finally surrendered to the
Medici in 1559. The earlier 16th century Fortezza
survives intact and, with it and the historic centre
counting as one, 30 other complexes and structures are
listed.
d’Orcia. Economic and social activities compatible with
the protection of natural resources come under a Multiyear Plan for Economic and Social Development. All
five town councils and the province contribute routine
funding, which supports fifteen staff in the Park office.
The nominated area follows the administrative
boundaries of the Artistic, Natural, and Cultural Park of
Val d'Orcia, created in 1999. The Region of Tuscany is
one of the foremost in Italy in assessing new and
comprehensive territorial planning and monitoring. It
works closely with the State authorities in heritage
development issues. The nominated area as a whole is
not under a single specific statute, so successful use of
the complex legal framework requires co-operation and
adequate resources in the relevant administrations. The
management guidelines of the recently formed Park, for
example, require all five of the municipalities within it
to prepare regulations covering the use of traditional
materials in both urban and rural area. This is a detail
within the Park’s Management Plan 1999–2004 which,
at another level, covers such strategic matters as
environmental matters, urban planning, agriculture,
rural roads and tourism.
RADICOFANI is an agricultural centre documented
as an ecclesiastical holding since AD 1000 and
crowned by the ruins of a mid-12th century, papal
fortress. Like Montalcino, after a turbulent 16th
century, it fell to the Medici in 1559. It is a distinctly
medieval village of narrow street, culs-de-sac, and
external stairs. Twelve complexes and buildings are
listed, including the town walls.
SAN QUIRICO D'ORCIA sits on a ridge between the
Rivers Orcia and Asso; the Via Francigena traverses
the entire town, with Romanesque structures of the
late 12th century at either end. It came under the
domination of Siena in the 13th century, but its major
monuments are from the 17th century – a stronghold
and the Palazzo Chigi of 1680. It, too, retains its walls
which, with 12 other complexes and buildings are
listed.
The area of the Park receives now c 4.5 million visitors
each year, after huge increases in numbers and
infrastructure during the 1990s. Management is trying
to develop and control its own brand of "agritourism,"
encouraging visitors to stay on farms and in the villages
rather than congregate at major visitor attractions, and
spreading the tourist influx throughout the year and to
lesser known sites. It is appreciated by the authorities
that the landscape is the region’s main attraction and
that it is therefore economically important both to
control modern intrusions and to maintain viable
livelihoods on the land. The mission encountered a keen
awareness among all, not least the farmers, of the
qualities and character of the area and a will to pursue
policies of sustainable and careful development. It was
stressed that both the Park and the World Heritage
nomination were local initiatives.
No comparable description of the countryside is
provided in the nomination.
There are 14,300 inhabitants in the Park area; 1,200
live in the buffer zone.
Management and Protection
Legal status
Ownership rests with local government entities (the
Province and five communes), and public,
ecclesiastical, and private entities.
Conservation and Authenticity
Law No 1089/1939 (Conservation of items of historic
or artistic interest) involves the listing for protection of
various structural complexes and individual buildings of
historic interest. In addition, ten areas in the Park are
protected under Law No 1497/1939 on landscape
conservation, including some town centres and
surrounding areas and some areas around individual
sites (eg Spedaletto). The Park was created by
Provincial Law No 161/99, and includes a Protected
Natural Area of Local Interest in 1995.
Conservation history
No history of conservation is provided in the
nomination, and it is difficult to discern any patterns
in single items of information on the point.
The nomination makes two important comments on
the state of conservation:
i. "The increase of agricultural mechanization has
allowed and continues to allow the drastic levelling
of areas of pronounced relief," a point emphasized
by some of the wonderful photographs which show
in effect degraded landscapes appearing to have lost
much of their historical interest and visual
attractiveness.
Management
The Conferenze di Area della Val d’Orcia (CdA) is the
governing body of the Park, made up of the mayors of
the five communes and the president of the Provincial
administration of Siena. Val d’Orcia srl is the
management executive. Its programme as approved by
the CdA embraces the management of tourism, cultural
activities, and agriculture. The current management
plan is for 1999–2004. It constitutes the instrument
which the administrations involved have developed to
safeguard and protect the development of the Val
ii. "The notable architectural heritage … is
continually at risk for serious deterioration and/or
complete
loss
due
to
the
particular
geomorphological composition of the soils … that
does not offer a good load-bearing condition for
structures."
121
Authenticity and integrity
geographical/topographical
basis
eg
reclaimed
wetlands, as at Schokland, and montane pasture, as at
Mont Perdu).
The nomination does not address these issues directly,
merely asserting that the area consists of an
environmental, historical, and cultural territory of rare
beauty where the works of man and nature co-exist
harmoniously, in a relationship in which they together
compose an artistically whole, well conserved
landscape of universal cultural value.
With regard to the "Justification" and criteria for
inscription (see above), ICOMOS notes the following:
i. So far no convincing evidence has been found
that share-cropping is either particular to this area or has
produced in its operation a distinctive landscape here
An outstanding example of the sort of relational
evidence which the nomination needs to bring forward
lies in the fortified farm of Spedaletto which
administered the system of share-cropping. Spedaletto
retains its visually dominant position in the landscape; it
also represents the investment of the Sienese nobility in
land through the powerful role of the Ospeda di Santa
Maria della Scala di Siena.
ii. The Renaissance is splendidly represented in the
towns and individual buildings, but no case is
developed to relate the landscape itself to the same
phenomenon or to the towns. There may nonetheless be
an interesting case to be made for the Val d'Orcia as a
Renaissance landscape.
iii. If the use of Criterion v rests on share-cropping,
the connection has to be made between tenure and the
landscape. Nowhere does the nomination make any
connection between not explain share-cropping, but
nowhere does it such a form of landholding or the
historic development of the landscape as exemplified,
for example, by field shapes, patterns of field systems,
or the location and distribution of particular types of
farm.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the area in
February 2001
Qualities
A quality of beauty has been retained in a landscape
subject to considerable agricultural intensification and
tourism pressure. This depends very much on the
"flowing" character of much of the terrain given by the
cretaceous nature of the geology and geomorphology.
The network of small towns and villages, and many
other structures and monuments, collectively represent a
significant cultural achievement among which is a
number of individually outstanding creations.
Brief description
The Val d'Orcia contains a much used and attractive
agricultural landscape and numerous historic villages
and small towns with a wealth of Renaissance and later
architecture. Much of its history up to the mid-16th
century was bound up with its frontier role in relation to
Siena. Overall, though exhibiting considerable variety,
it is typical of the Tuscan landscape initially made
famous by Renaissance writers and painters. Now,
where once pilgrims passed through, it is a favourite
tourist destination.
Comparative analysis
The nomination contains no comparative study about
the significance of the proposed cultural landscape. It
remarks that, geomorphologically, the Pliocene
claylands of Val d’Orcia area can be compared "with
any number of formations," such as the American
"badlands." The landscape of the Crete Senesi itself is
in fact well documented and has been subject to
substantial international research and publication.
Recommendation
That the nomination be deferred, with a request to
the State Party to reformulate it. The revised
nomination should focus on exactly what is in mind
as a cultural landscape in this case, with reasons for
the criteria chosen. It should be based on and
include evidence of research in landscape history,
and it should include a comparative analysis of its
significance in relation to similar landscapes,
certainly in Italy but ideally further afield, which
illustrate significant stages in human history.
The subtitle of the nomination clearly calls for a
comparative analysis in which the relationship of the
cultural landscape of Val d'Orcia should be placed in
the World Heritage context of Siena and Pienza and
related to other Italian landscapes of the Renaissance.
ICOMOS comments and recommendations for future
action
With this nomination, it has now become a matter of
urgency that, for the purpose of progressing and
evaluating "cultural landscapes," some form of
comparative assessment of "ordinary" agricultural
landscapes (as distinct from specialist ones like
vineyards) be carried out. This study should provide
some pointers as to whether development of the WH
List of such landscapes is to be along "scientific" lines
(as with the Val d’Orcia, where the landscape is on a
particular geomorphological subsoil; the very rare
lowland heath on Tertiary subsoil is another example),
on "functional" lines (as already the case with
vineyards, rice-growing, and pasture), or on a
ICOMOS, March 2001
122
39 of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of
the World Heritage Convention.
Middle Adda (Italy)
No 730bis
History and Description
History
Water management underlies the history and development of
this region - for transport, for irrigation, for drainage. This
began during the Roman period, as early as the 2nd century
AD, when the first efforts were made to make the minor
rivers crossing the often difficult terrain navigable so as to
facilitate trade between the Western and Eastern Empires.
Identification
Nomination
The Middle Adda Valley [extension to
Crespi d'Adda, inscribed 1995]
Location
Provinces of Lecco, Milan, and Bergamo,
Region of Lombardy
State Party
Italy
Date
26 June 2000
In the medieval period there was intense political and
commercial rivalry between the city states of Lombardy.
Towards the end of the 12th century Milan began the
construction of the first of numerous canals, the Naviglio
Grande, on which a busy trade in all kinds of goods
developed. An important component of this system of
waterways was the Martesana Canal, built between 1457 and
1463 to the plans of the engineer Bertoli de Novate in the
Adda valley. By the end of the 15th century 90km of canals
made trade possible from the Adriatic to Milan.
However, some physical obstacles remained to be
circumvented. Notable among these were the Paderno rapids,
between Paderno d'Adda and Trezzo d'Adda, where the
Martesana Canal began. In the early 16th century Francis I of
France financed a commission to carry out a study for a new
navigable canal, which recommended the opening-up of the
water routes between Lake Como and Milan. In 1518 the
Milanese Senate approved a project for improving navigation
in the middle Adda between Brivio and Trezzo by
constructing a canal to bypass the most difficult parts of this
stretch of the river.
Justification by State Party
This study makes it possible to confirm without any
hesitation that the sites being considered possess in every
respect the characteristics of outstanding universal value,
discernible in the attitudes adopted unanimously by all
experts. The middle Adda valley is an outstanding site,
although it might be fairer to describe it as a group of
incomparable natural, technological, artistic, and social sites.
The loss of this system would deprive the entire world of a
group of powerful symbols that are exemplary because of
their unique and meaningful character. History, art, nature,
and technology here live alongside one another in the short
space of some dozen kilometres.
Work began on the Paderno Canal immediately under the
control of the architect and painter Giuseppe Meda. It was
abandoned in 1599 on the death of Meda, and did not start
up again until 1773, when Lombardy was under Austrian
rule. The Canal was formally opened in 1777, but a technical
problem delayed its coming into full operation for a further
two years.
The adjoining areas which enrich this system – the Brivio
marshes (Isola della Torre, Isolone del Serraglio), the
Paderno ravine, the great sweep of Trezzo sull'Adda, the arch
of Cassano – do not detract from the system. Quite the
opposite: they enrich it by furnishing additional depths and
treasures.
The coming of the railways (the first was built in Lombardy
in 1840) saw a decline in the use of canals, as was the case
everywhere in Europe. There was a rally at the end of the
century, when the canals of Lombardy were used to bring
coal into Italy for electric power generation. However, the
potential for producing electricity of water was recognized
around this time. In 1898 the Italian Edison Company began
using the Paderno Canal for its Bertini hydroelectric power
station, followed between 1901 and 1920 by others (Taccani,
Esterle, and Semenza). The electric power produced in the
Adda valley played a very important role in the economic
expansion of Italy in the years leading up to the outbreak of
World War I.
It is possible to leave the isolated river system and to reach
adjoining areas to follow a specific thematic itinerary historic towns, historic industrial installations, religious
architecture, or rural farming architecture, as well as natural
areas, natural areas, or human landscapes, historic trackways,
and so on in a crescendo of legitimate, plausible, defensible
implications and derivations.
Note The State Party does not make any proposals in the nomination
dossier concerning the criteria under which it considers this property
should be inscribed on the World Heritage List.
The 20th century saw a steady decline in the use of the
canals for navigation. Maintenance became so expensive that
in 1953 the Martesana Canal had been removed from the
navigable system. They supplied water for irrigation and to
drive some industrial plants such as mills and presses. This
had been a factor in the installation of the Crespi textile mill
and workers' village in the valley in 1878.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site. It is also a cultural landscape, as defined in paragraph
123
Description
Management and Protection
The area proposed for inscription follows the course of the
river Adda from the Olginate dam (and just slightly further
north, into Lake Garlate, to include the Silk Museum there)
down to Cassano d'Adda, where the Muzza irrigation canal
joins the river. It covers 1874.2ha and is surrounded by a
buffer zone (the Northern Adda Park) of 7115ha.
Legal status
More than forty buildings and monuments along the course
of the Adda in the nominated area are protected as historic
monuments under the provisions of the basic Italian
monuments protection law, No 1089 of 1 June 1939.
Nineteen landscapes are similarly protected under the
complementary nature-protection law, No 1497 of 29 June
1939. Under both statutes any changes to the appearance or
ownership of the designated properties may only be carried
out with the permission of the relevant national authority.
From Lake Olginate (77ha) the Adda follows a winding
course through a marshy area that constitutes the Isola della
Torre (Tower Island) and the Isolone del Serraglio
(Menagerie Island). This area is uncontaminated and
supports a rich biota.
At regional level, the statutory Territorial Coordination and
Control Plan for the North Adda Park, adopted by the
Regional Council for Lombardy on 8 January 1993, imposes
strict constraints on activities that may adversely impact
settlements, buildings, and landscapes within the Park.
On the left bank lies the Sonna valley with a now abandoned
system of water mills. A plan is currently being studied for a
footpath between Volpino, on the slopes of Mount Canto,
and Crespi d'Adda.
Management
The main town on this stretch of the river is Brivio, at a point
where a major Roman road from Milan to Bergamo and
Aquileia crossed the Adda (hence its name, which derives
from the Celtic word for "bridge"). It became an important
trading centre and also a border strongpoint.
Ownership of individual properties within the nominated
area is diverse, including national agencies, regional and
local authorities, the Roman Catholic Church, private
business and industry, and private landowners.
The water management system hinges on the Paderno ravine,
between Robbiate and Cornate. This is an exceptional
natural environment of steep eroded rocks; it comes as no
surprise to learn that it was selected by Leonardo da Vinci as
the background for one of his most famous paintings, The
Virgin of the Rocks. The Canal itself is an outstanding
example of a stepped canal. It is a monument to the
hydrological genius of Leonardo combined with the
expertise of the architect Giuseppe Meda and the
mathematician Paolo Frisi. Safe navigation at the Paderno
rapids is ensured by a system of basins on the da Vinci
principle. There is also a series of hydroelectric power
stations along the canal.
Overall management is the responsibility of the regional
autonomous agency, the North Adda Park authority (Parco
Adda Nord), which was set up (as the North Adda Natural
Park) in 1983. The broad lines of its management policies
are defined in a series of land-use planning regulations with
statutory force at different administrative levels. These
include the Regional Plan for Protected Areas (30 November
1983) and the Territorial Plan of January 1983 (see above).
As part of its basic structure the Park has an overall strategy
for environmental protection and cultural promotion. The
document supplied with the nomination lists several
international projects with which the Park is collaborating,
including a joint project with national parks in Catalonia and
France on energy conservation in nature reserves and the
European "Historic canals" project. Several internal research
projects are also in progress, studying inter alia aspects of
the ecosystem of the Brivio marshes and the rehabilitation of
traditional trackways.
The river then follows a less violent course around the large
meander at Trezzo sull'Adda, where the dam for the Taccani
power station has created a dramatic landscape, dominated
by the power station and by the 14th century Visconti castle.
Below Trezzo the river is joined by the Brembo, to form the
Capriate San Gervasio peninsula, where the World Heritage
site of Crespi d'Adda is located. Further downstream is the
picturesque landscape of Vaprio d'Adda, with its villas, small
towns, and proto-industrial works.
There is a number of programmed ongoing activities within
this strategy. They include a policy of acquisition of
properties of high natural value, the rehabilitation of
degraded areas and environmental restoration, and water
quality control. The Park has a policy of working closely
with agricultural and forestry enterprises to develop a sense
of stewardship. It also has a programme aimed at the
development of a new approach and way of thinking, with
the traditional industrial base being superseded by the use of
the area's cultural and natural resources for tourism.
The Little Martesana Canal runs alongside this stretch of the
river, from the hamlet of Concesa just south of Trezzo to La
Volta (Cassano d'Adda), where it makes an abrupt rightangled turn to the west, on its way to Milan. On the opposite
(eastern) bank, between Vaprio and Cassano, is the industrial
settlement of Fara Gera d'Adda, built alongside a short
industrial canal.
Whilst the document referred to is not a management plan
sensu stricto, it is in keeping with the Italian concept of a
national park. It is not prescriptive, since the necessary
sanctions against transgression are provided under the
national and regional legislation. Instead, it concentrates on
the study and recording of the cultural values, on education,
and on economic and social rehabilitation and development.
Cassano is the last town in the nominated area, which is
notable for a complex system of irrigation canals. The oldest
of these, the Muzza Canal, was constructed in 1220; its
confluence with the Adda marks the southernmost boundary
of the nominated area.
There is a number of protected historic buildings along the
Adda and within the nominated area or the buffer zone.
These include castles, churches, abbeys, domestic buildings,
farms, and industrial sites.
124
of Richard Arkwright and the birthplace of the modern
factory. In any case, the most significant industrial site in the
valley, Crespi d'Adda, is already on the World Heritage List.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
Conservation of the area covered by the nomination has only
become a living issue since the creation of the Park in 1983.
Even at that time, the emphasis was largely on the natural
values. The protected buildings were subject to monitoring
by the relevant agencies at national and regional level, and
the planning legislation, including the plans at the lowest
administrative level (Piani Regolatori Generali) ensured
some measure of control over urban and sub-urban
development. The coordination resulting from the creation of
the Park and its strategic programme represents a more
systematic approach to the conservation of a somewhat
complex and diversified landscape.
When the overall valley is considered as a cultural landscape,
it is once again possible to point to numerous other river
valleys that show similar characteristics and have similar
historical trajectories.
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
That this extension should not be approved.
Authenticity and integrity
ICOMOS, March 2001
Because of its heterogeneous nature it is difficult to apply the
test of authenticity to this landscape, much of which has been
subject to change as technology has developed over the past
centuries. It is probably more valid to look at its integrity, as
is the case with most cultural landscapes.
The unifying feature of the landscape is, of course, the river
Adda and its waters. The landscape that is visible today
provides excellent testimony to its political and technical
significance and the way in this has changed since the 13th
century. The commercial importance of the waterborne trade
route across northern Italy is well illustrated by the
hydrological works inspired by Leonardo da Vinci. The
importance of water to industry and hence to economic
development, first providing direct mechanical power by
means of water-wheels and then indirectly by harnessing the
river to generate electricity, is equally well demonstrated. Its
role in the improvement of agricultural yields through
irrigation is also demonstrated.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS-TICCIH expert mission visited the property in
February 2001. ICOMOS also consulted TICCIH on the
cultural importance of this property.
Qualities
The central stretch of the river Adda provides an interesting
insight into human exploitation of water, first for commercial
traffic and later for the direct benefit of industry by providing
mechanical power by means of water-wheels and then
generating electricity in hydroelectric power stations.
Comparative analysis
The very diverse qualities of the middle Adda valley make it
difficult to find precise comparanda. The canal design and
construction are of value in that they utilize the designs of
Leonardo da Vinci. However, as navigations (simple canals
running alongside rivers) they are not outstanding: there are
better examples in Europe – and, indeed, elsewhere in Italy
(eg the Naviglio Grande).
Similarly, the concentration of industry along a river is
interesting, but hardly unique. The Adda complex does not
stand comparison in terms of historical significance with the
Derwent Valley in England (nominated for the World
Heritage List in 2001), which is notable for the pioneer work
125
by famous artists from the Roman Mannerist school, such
as Federico Zuccari and Girolamo Muziano), one of the
most fascinating accomplishments of Italian Renaissance
architecture.
Criterion iv
Villa d’Este (Italy)
No 1025
Based on 16th century theory on gardens by B Taegro
(1559), according to which "by combining art with nature
a third nature is produced," at the Villa d'Este the original
landscape was remodelled by means of colossal works, a
sort of Demiurge-like feat much admired at the time.
Hence a new landscape, a third nature, was produced,
featuring Tivoli's genius loci, with its mountains, woods,
and small and large waterfalls. The Villa d'Este also
commands a breathtaking view of the Roman
countryside, despite rampant post-war urbanization.
Criterion v
Identification
Nomination
Villa d’Este
Location
Region of Latium, Province of Rome,
Commune of Tivoli
State Party
Italy
Date
23 June 2000
For centuries the Villa d'Este was a must in travellers' and
artists' Grand Tours in Italy. It inspired, either directly or
indirectly, painters, composers, and literary men from all
countries. Among Italian monuments, the Villa d'Este is
one of the most often portrayed, to the point that almost
every European museum has a painting, a watercolour, an
engraving, a drawing portraying it. Today, five hundred
years since it was built, the Villa d'Este's beauty has not
waned: every year hundreds of thousand of tourists,
scholars, and artists come to it, making it one of Italy's
five most visited monuments.
Criterion vi
Justification by State Party
[Note The text below is the summary of a longer version in
the nomination dossier.]
Category of property
The Villa d'Este is the masterpiece of Pirro Ligorio,
architect, painter, and “antiquary,” whom recent studies
have established among the great Renaissance artists;
moreover, in the 17th century, Gianlorenzo Bernini
contributed many additions to it.
Criterion i
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is an
ensemble. It is also a cultural landscape, as defined in
paragraph 39 of the Operational Guidelines for the
Implementation of the World Heritage Convention.
Among its contemporaries, the Villa d'Este soon became
famous, thanks to its innovative plan, magnificence, rich
decorations, and the extraordinary variety of its jeux
d'eau. The influence of the Villa d'Este was decisive for
the development of the art of European gardens, and it
remained an unrivalled model until the French garden of
Versailles and Vaux-le-Vicomte came into fashion.
History and Description
History
On 9 September 1550, Cardinal Ippolito II d’Este (1509–
72) arrived in Tivoli, having obtained the post of
governor of the town. The Cardinal came from the
cultured background of the Court of Ferrara and had
immersed himself in humanist studies. He was therefore
an erudite and cultivated art patron who was surrounded
by famous artists, painters (Girolamo da Carpi, Girolamo
Muziano, Federico Zuccari, Livio Agresti, etc),
silversmiths and goldsmiths (Benvenuto Cellini),
musicians (Palestrina), and poets (Tasso, Ariosto).
With the revival of formal gardens in the first decades of
the 20th century, the Villa d'Este became once more a
source of inspiration for architects and landscape
designers, particularly British and Americans who had
studied in Roman academies. Back in their own countries
they put the principles they had learnt into practice.
Criterion ii
The Villa d'Este is one of the most refined and complete
examples of Italian Renaissance civilization. Besides
bearing witness to the learning and refinement of its
creator, today the Villa d'Este still represents an
exceptional synthesis of the values of an epoch,
combining elements ranging from architectural styles to
the humanities, from science to antiquarian passion, from
hydraulics to complex iconology.
Criterion iii
The official residence assigned to him in Tivoli, part of
the monastery of the church of Santa Maria Maggiore,
did not suit him. He therefore decided to build a splendid
villa with gardens, the design of which is traditionally
attributed to Pirro Ligorio (1500–83), an antiquary and
archaeologist who carried out archaeological excavations
at the Villa Adriana nearby.
The Villa d'Este owes its enduring fame to its fountains
and countless jeux d'eau, by means of which its 16th and
17th century builders experimented with all kinds of
water forms and sounds. However, the Villa d'Este is
most of all an unrivalled example of an 16th century
Italian garden, representing, with its architectural works
(palace, fountains, loggias, nymphaea, and grottoes) and
precious decorations (such as the pictorial cycles painted
The church and monastery stood at the top of a hill, with
slopes covered in gardens, vineyards, and a few houses
and churches. The cardinal, who was removed from the
circles of power in Tivoli and Rome for a while because
of simony (1555–59), needed a little over ten years to buy
the land and demolish the buildings.
126
Between 1563 and 1565 the land was remodelled to
create a steep slope descending to the old monastery and
another gentler slope facing the north-east. A terrace was
laid out in the south-west, supported by the old wall of
the town.
according to a very elaborate iconography that celebrated
the residence and Cardinal Ippolito II d’Este by
magnifying his virtues and lineage. A statue of Hercules
in the middle of the garden above the Fountain of the
Dragons identifies the Tivoli garden with the
mythological one of the Hesperides. According to 16th
century historians, Hercules was the legendary ancestor
of the Este family but he was also one of the old
protective divinities of Tivoli. Both the decorative
elements of the garden (fountains, basins, etc) as well as
the painted decoration of the palace and the antique
statues adorning the garden and palace, illustrate these
allegories and symbols, which complement each other to
form a cohesive whole.
Starting in 1560 great efforts were made to supply the
water needed for the numerous fountains that were
intended to embellish the garden. First, an aqueduct was
built to capture the waters from Monte Sant’Angelo, but
this source of water turned out to be inadequate and so an
underground canal was dug beneath the town to harness
the waters of the Anio river (1564–65).
Once the water supply had been ensured and its flow
made possible by the natural gravity created by the
different levels of the garden, work started on
constructing the fountains, ornamental basins, and
grottoes and on laying out the landscape.
The plan of the villa is irregular because the architect was
obliged to use certain parts of the previous monastic
building. The present entrance at Piazza Trento
(originally the secondary one because the main entrance
used to be at the bottom of the garden) leads to the
central courtyard, the reconverted former cloister (1566–
67) embellished with the Fountain of Venus. On the
garden side the architecture of the palace is very simple:
a long main body of three storeys, marked by bands, rows
of windows, and side pavilions that barely jut out. This
uniform facade is interrupted by an elegant loggia in the
middle, with two levels and stair ramps, built by
Raffaello da Firenze and Biasioto (1566–67). The lower
level is decorated with the Fountain of Leda.
During this period the old monastery was converted into
a villa, and the original cloister was modified to become
the central courtyard, its south-east wall being that of the
old church of Santa Maria Maggiore. The pace of the
decoration work for the palace speeded up between 1565
and 1572, the year in which Cardinal Ippolito II d’Este
died. Much of the work remained unfinished and many of
the fountains for the garden still have to be built
Cardinal Luigi d’Este (1538–86) inherited the property of
his uncle but his financial resources only allowed him to
complete the work already started and to carry out a few
repairs. After the Villa d’Este was placed at the disposal
of the Dean of the Holy College of Cardinals, it returned
to another cardinal of the house of Este in 1605,
Alessandro (1568–1624). He wasted no time in starting a
huge programme of work, which was not limited to
repairing the damages caused by a lack of maintenance
on the part of the Deanery, but also included many
innovations to the layout of the garden and the decoration
of the fountains
The main rooms of the villa are arranged in rows on two
floors and open on to the garden. The private apartment
of the Cardinal, consisting of four rooms, is on the same
level as the courtyard, and the reception rooms, linked
together at the back by a long corridor called the Manica
lunga, are on the lower level.
The precious furniture and antique statues from the
Cardinal’s collection were dispersed but the rooms still
have much of their magnificent painted decoration, the
work of several studios of painters and stucco artists,
under the supervision of Federico Zuccari, Girolamo
Muziano, Livio Agresti, and Cesare Nebbia. The
paintings, framed by wide stucco cornices, in the
Cardinal’s apartment (drawing room, antechamber,
bedroom, and chapel) were painted by Livio Agresti
around 1568 and are based on the central theme of the
victory of virtue over vice. The drawing room has four
idealized landscapes of the region of Tivoli, depicting the
ruins of the temple of Sibylla and Hercules. The
decoration of the small chapel, the work of artists close to
Federico Zuccari, consists of large figures of prophets
and sibyls in alcoves, surmounted by monochrome panels
depicting the life of the Virgin and the Coronation on the
ceiling. The painted decoration of the reception rooms on
the ground floor is unusual, with imitations of various
materials (marble, fabrics, etc), optical illusions to make
the rooms seem bigger, false windows and doors,
prospects and landscapes, and scenes from classical
mythology (the Hercules Salon and the Tibur Salon) or
the Bible (the Moses Salon and the Noah Salon).
The maintenance, restoration, and layout works (the
rotunda of the Cypresses around 1640) continued under
the Dukes of Modena, who were related to the House of
Este, until 1641. Cardinal Rinaldo I (1618–72) turned to
Bernini (the Fountain of the Bicchierone) in 1660–61
and, starting in 1670, the architect Mattia de Rossi carried
out more work, including changes to the palace.
The period when the Villa d’Este was abandoned started
with Rinaldo II (1655–1736). The situation worsened
when the complex passed into the hands of the Hapsburgs
in 1803. However, thanks to the work undertaken by
Cardinal Gustav von Hohenlohe (1823–96), the villa was
saved from what might have been an irreversible loss. In
1920 the Villa d’Este became the property of the Italian
State, which initiated a restoration campaign from 1920
to 1930, and another following damage caused by
bombing in 1944.
Description
The Villa d’Este is situated in the historical centre of
Tivoli, in the midst of hills bordered by the turbulent
waters of the river Anio. The ensemble composed of the
palace and gardens forms an uneven quadrilateral and
covers an area of about 4.5ha.
The Villa d’Este garden stretches over two steep slopes,
descending from the palace down to a flat terrace in the
manner of an amphitheatre. The loggia of the palace
marks the longitudinal and central axis of the garden.
Five main transversal axes (paths and promenades) – an
unusual feature in gardens of this period – become the
central axis from the fixed point of view created by the
Pirro Ligorio, Cardinal Ippolito II, and his secretary, the
humanist Marc-Antoine Muret, designed the Villa d’Este
127
villa, since each of these axes terminates in one of the
main garden fountains. Even though the central aisle
stops beyond the axis of the Hundred Fountains to give
way to a network of diagonal paths that make it easier to
climb back to the palace, the latter remains the main
visual axis
the flights of stairs is ornamented with vases from which
water also flows.
The Alley of the Hundred Fountains is formed of three
long rectilinear superposed basins, its streams of water
crossing the entire garden. The edge of the upper
watercourse is adorned with obelisks, small boats, and
eagles bearing the Este coat-of-arms, and the fleur-de-lys
of France spurting out water in the shape of a fan. The
low
reliefs
illustrating
scenes
from
Ovid’s
Metamorphoses had almost totally disappeared by the
end of the last century.
This arrangement of axes and modules was adopted to
disguise the irregular outline of the garden, rectify by
means of an optical illusion the relationship between the
transversal and longitudinal dimensions, and give the
palace a central position, even though it is in fact out of
line in relation to the whole
Several fountains have been arranged on each side of the
Alley of the Hundred Fountains, including the Fontana
dell’ Ovato to the east, one of the main fountains in the
garden laid out by Pirro Ligorio. It has a large oval basin
with a rim decorated in majolica. At the back it is
delimited by an exedra pierced with arcades and alcoves
holding ten statues pouring water into the basin..
However, the most striking effect is produced by the big
cascade flowing out of a crater perched in the middle of
the exedra. Jets of water were activated whenever
unsuspecting people walked under the arcades. Behind
the exedra rises an artificial mountain, with three alcoves
holding statues of the Sibylla of Tibur with her son
Melicerte (1568) and the river divinities Erculaneo and
Anio.
At the same time, the garden does not give priority, as in
the case of contemporary villas, to a longitudinal
distribution of water down the steepest slope, but offers
more complex walks along transversal axes that in fact
follow the direction of the Anio.
These waters supply some fifty fountains, ornamental
basins, nymphaea, and grottoes, only a few of which are
described below.
The first main transversal axis, bordering the flat part of
the garden, the Peschiere (Fishponds), is composed of a
row of three basins. At the extreme east of this water
chain is the Fontana dell’ Organo (Fountain of the
Organ), begun in 1547 by the French fountain-maker Luc
Leclerc. It is rectangular in shape with two orders
crowned by a double-scrolled pediment. A deep recess is
cut out in the centre, with a statue of Diana of Ephesus at
the end, containing an octagonal kiosk. The facings of the
building are decorated with bands, made of different
materials, of reliefs of busts of telamons, caryatids, and
pastoral scenes. The two lower alcoves hold statues of
Apollo and Orpheus. The water organ is the work of
Claude Venard, inspired by examples from antiquity
(Hero of Alexandria in his treatise Pneumatica and
Vitruvius in De Architectura describe this technique,
while Banu Musa and Al Jazari in the Arab world had
worked on hydraulic sound mechanisms). It gives its
name to the Fountain that stands behind the statue of
Diana of Ephesus. The interaction between water and air
produced music, probably madrigals for four or five
voices. This music was preceded by the sound of two
trumpets, followed by the release of water jets that were
so violent that they were compared to the Deluge.
To the west is its counterpart, the Fountain of Rome (the
Rometta) built in 1567–70 by the fountain-maker Curzio
Maccarone to symbolize ancient Rome bathed by the
Tiber after it merges with the waters of the Anio. The
water theatre is situated on a big terrace supported by a
vaulted structure with arcades as much as 10m high. This
cascade represents the famous waterfall of the Anio river
in Tivoli, with a statue of the river god Anio bearing the
temple of Sibylla. Under the cascade is a statue
representing the Apennines supporting the hill from
which the Anio flows. Below, the waters of the Anio join
those of the Tiber to form a small pool in the centre of
which floats a boat with a mast in the shape of an obelisk,
illustrating the Tiber Island (Isola Tiberina) in Rome.
Small-scale models of famous Roman buildings used to
decorate the large upper terrace, like a stage setting. Most
of them were lost when the supporting wall collapsed in
the 19th century.
The Fontana del Bicchierone (Fountain of the Great
Glass), built according to a design by Bernini (1660–61)
was added to the decoration of the central longitudinal
axis in the 17th century. This fountain is in the shape of a
serrated chalice, from which a high jet of water falls into
a conch shell. It was also during this period that the large
pergola at the original entrance to the villa was replaced
by the Rotunda of the Cypresses (around 1640), a circular
area adorned with four small fountains and surrounded by
ancient cypress trees.
This taste for sophisticated hydraulic mechanisms and
automata can also be also found in the Fountain of the
Owl, where the songs of some twenty bronze birds
produced by the pressure of water are stopped by the
appearance of the owl.
Beyond the Peschiere, two staircases start climbing
towards the villa. The side stairs, the Scalinata dei
Bollori (Bubbling Stairs) of 1567, are flanked by two
stepped parapets crowned by basins pouring out torrents
of water.
Beyond the transversal path of the Dragons, the central
stairway is divided into oval flights around the Fontana
dei Draghi (Fountain of the Dragons), erected in honour
of the visit by Pope Gregory XIII in 1572. This
nymphaeum and its exedra, placed on the longitudinal
axis of the garden, is the real centre of the ensemble. Four
winged dragons emerge from the middle of the big oval
basin, spurting out strong jets of water. The parapet with
Management and Protection
Legal status
The Villa d’Este has been the property of the Italian
government since 1920 and falls under the responsibility
of the Ministry of Cultural Property and Activities. As a
listed monument it has been protected by national
legislation on the Protection of Artistic and Historic
Property (No 1089 of 1 June 1939) since 1988 and by
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several decrees implemented by the Soprintendenza per i
Beni Ambientali e Architettonici del Lazio, the regional
branch of the Ministry. According to these decrees, the
external volumes, colours, and architectural lines of
cultural property cannot be changed without the prior
permission of the Ministry of Cultural Property and
Activities. The Villa d’Este also benefits from regulations
protecting landscapes prescribed in the law of the
Ministry of Education (No 1497 of 29 June 1939, decrees
of 29 September 1956 and of 11 May 1955). This
landscape protection covers the entire buffer zone around
the nominated property proposed. Protection of
landscapes is also ensured through the application of the
Territorial Plan for the Landscape of Sector 7 –
Monterotondo-Tivoli, approved by the Regional Council
(Decision No 4477 of 30 July 1999). A series of
appropriate measures combine to safeguard the Villa
d’Este and guarantee its protection.
using very rigorous methods in conformity with the
principles laid down in the Venice Charter. These will
continue on the top floor of the north-east wing
(installation of a documentation centre), the Manica
lunga, the ground-floor rooms, and the courtyard.
One of the major problems concerning the quality of
water has been solved. Water was indispensable for
feeding the fifty fountains, jets, and basins. The
restoration programme for these elements, initiated at the
end of the 1980s (restoration of the Fountain of
Proserpine and the Rotunda of the Cypresses) had come
to a halt in 1990 because of the polluted water from the
Anio that flowed into these fountains. This programme
could not started again until 1998, after the construction
of a purifying plant which ensured the flow of water into
the garden in perfect conditions. At present, there is still
work to do on half of the fountains, grottoes, and
nymphaea. In this context, part of the sound effects of the
fountains and the jeux d’eau will be restored.
Management
At national level, the management of the Villa d’Este
falls under the responsibility of the Ministry of Cultural
Property and Activities (Central Office for
Archaeological, Architectural, Artistic, and Historical
Property) and at regional level under the responsibility of
the Soprintendenza per i Beni Ambientali e Architettonici
del Lazio.
Authenticity
The degree of authenticity of both the palace and of the
garden is very high, and the different periods of the
ensemble are clearly visible and recognizable. The
remains of the Roman villa and the monastery on which
the palace was built are still visible. Moreover, a large
part of the spatial and ornamental structure of the garden
has been preserved. The restoration of the murals is
methodical and rigorous. Other notable Baroque works,
such as those by Bernini, have been well conserved and
restored.
In view of the complex problems relating to the
conservation of the property, the Central Restoration
Institute in Rome has been carrying out a specific
multidisciplinary study since 1997 with its own technical
and scientific staff, which had assisted in perfecting
methods and techniques for the restoration of fountains
The Soprintendenza has drawn up a plan to enhance the
Villa d’Este. This plan includes the restoration of the
palace and garden, the adaptation and completion of
technical amenities in the palace (electricity, heating,
drainage, etc) and garden, the modernization of services
(access, welcome, and information facilities for visitors,
sign panels, cultural activities, etc).
Evaluation
As the growing number of visitors has been identified as
one of the management aspects of the property which
would also have an effect on the local economy, the
Region of Latium, the Soprintendenza, and the town
council of Tivoli drew up a project in 1995, now in
progress, to give added value to the archaeological and
monumental heritage of the town, as well as its tourist
and cultural resources.
Qualities
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the Villa d’Este in
February 2001. ICOMOS also consulted the ICOMOSIFLA International Scientific Committee on Historic
Gardens and Cultural Landscapes
The Villa d’Este in Tivoli, and in particular its garden, is
outstanding by virtue of its refinement and the innovative
character of its design and architectural works. The
ingenious and creative way the fountains, ornamental
basins, etc make use of water – the main feature of the
garden – was unequalled in Europe during Renaissance.
Comparative analysis
The Villa d’Este formed part of a series of villas
belonging to the aristocracy and princes of the Church
which developed in particular around large Italian towns.
Even though other very important villas exist, such as
Villa Lante, Villa Farnese in Caprarola, Boboli and
Pratolino in Florence, the Palladian Villas, and
Fontainebleau in France, the Villa d’Este is undoubtedly
the most representative and the most important.
Moreover, the Villa d’Este still retains its original
structure and statuary in the most complete form possible.
The decoration of its garden, above all, with the first
“water theatre,” the scala d’acqua (water staircase), the
artificial cascade, the Hundred Fountains, and the
terraces, has been the source of inspiration for artists
from all over the world. The fountains at the Villa d’Este
play a vital role, and they are incomparable because of
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
Because of micro-climatic conditions that have caused
rapid deterioration in the decoration and finishing
materials, the Villa d’Este has gone through several
restoration campaigns, with the use of techniques and
materials that were sometimes different from the
originals.
In the last ten years the Villa d’Este has benefited from
an active policy in favour of the renovation of
monuments. The palace has been the object of some
major
restoration
works undertaken by the
Soprintendenza (5000m2 of structures and decoration),
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the abundance of water, the large number of fountains,
the grottoes, and the statues all concentrated in a single
garden.
Brief description
The Villa d’Este in Tivoli, started for Cardinal Ippolito II
d’Este in 1550, was designed by the architect and
antiquary Pirro Ligorio according to an iconographic plan
and very elaborate composition so as to form an
ensemble typical of the Renaissance. The palace still has
its original painted decoration dating back to the 16th
century, the work of studios of the Roman Mannerist
School. The Villa is outstanding, however, mainly for its
water garden, embellished with a profusion of fountains,
nymphaea, ornamental basins, and grottoes, one of the
first giardini delle meraviglie.
As a place of culture and nature, technology and the
mastery of water, land and landscape, and as an allegory
of the ancient and symbolic world, the Villa d’Este is one
of the finest examples and an outstanding landmark in the
art of gardens during the Italian Renaissance period.
The Villa d’Este played a very important role in the
design of villas and gardens all over Europe, and it was
an endless source of inspiration for many artists. It is
unquestionably one of the most important ensembles of
this period.
Recommendations by ICOMOS for future action
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
Access to the garden is a problem. It should be changed
so as to meet the required standard and to permit a better
understanding of the whole. The town of Tivoli has
already initiated a master plan and a project entitled
Tivoli ama la Città aimed at rehabilitating its historic
centre. Restoration works have already started, and these
include an alternative itinerary for leaving the garden.
Improved access to the garden should, however, be
seriously taken into consideration.
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage
List on the basis of criteria i, ii, iii, and iv:
The Villa d’Este in Tivoli, with its palace and garden,
is one of the most remarkable and comprehensive
illustrations of Renaissance culture at its most
refined. Owing to its innovative design and the
creativity and ingenuity of the architectural
components in the garden (fountains, ornamental
basins, etc), is a true water garden and a unique
example of an Italian 16th century garden. The Villa
d’Este, one of the first giardini delle meraviglie,
served as a model for and had a decisive influence on
the development of gardens in Europe.
Although there are many projects, budgets, plans, general
information notes, and schedules for the works, the State
Party ought to have included in its nomination dossier an
overall management plan in the form of a more detailed
and finalized document. This overall management plan
was provided in March 2001 and ICOMOS considers it to
be acceptable
The overall restoration project for the garden is more
complex. A series of activities are under way, including
the restoration of the fountains, a botanical inventory,
treatment against diseases, historical research, etc, but it
is crucial to establish general and specific criteria for
restoration, including archaeological research and
landscape analysis. A master plan for the appropriate
restoration of the garden should be established within the
next two years.
ICOMOS, March 2001
It is therefore recommended that the World Cultural
Heritage Committee request the State Party to provide
assurances as to the implementation of the overall
management plan and the preparation of a master plan for
the garden.
Even though this is not absolutely necessary, it would be
desirable to carry out an in-depth analysis of the
landscape surrounding the Villa d’Este. The Villa has a
very close relationship with the surrounding landscape,
since it was its abundant water resources that determined
the location of the villa and garden. It is impossible to
ignore the influence of this relationship or that of the
Roman remains in Tivoli on the symbolic decorative
programme of the palace and its garden. Such an analysis
would reinforce and give coherence to an understanding
of one of the richest and most significant landscapes of
humankind
If in the future the town council of Tivoli successfully
implements its plan to restore the historical centre near
the garden, an extension of the zone proposed for
inscription could be envisaged
130
Overall, the Champasak landscape is a very early
cultural landscape, demonstrating the beginnings of
urbanism in south-east Asia as well as the way in which
the Khmers moulded their landscape to reflect their
symbolic universe.
Vat Phou (Laos)
No 481rev
Note The State Party does not make any proposals in the
nomination dossier concerning the criteria under which it
considers this property should be inscribed on the World
Heritage List.
Identification
Nomination
Category of property
Vat Phou and Associated Ancient
Settlements within the Champasak
Cultural Landscape
Location
(mainly) Champasak District, (entirely)
Champasak Province
State Party
Lao People’s Democratic Republic
Date
29 June 2000
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this
is a site. It is a cultural landscape as defined in
paragraph 39 of the Operational Guidelines for the
Implementation of the World Heritage Convention.
History and Description
History
The nomination dossier provides no history of the site
before its abandonment in the 13th century. The origins
of the site nevertheless lie before AD 600, at least at the
city of Shrestrapura, where archaeological research has
produced evidence of pre-Angkorian times (up to c AD
900). The development of the site as a whole, however,
was intimately bound up with the origin, development,
and zenith of the Khmer Empire between the 7th and
12th centuries. A new line of kings probably centred in
the Champasak region expanded its authority from its
capital at Isanapura from the 10th century onwards until
it encompassed not only most of modern Cambodia but
also considerable parts of what is now eastern Thailand.
The floruit of the elaborate landscape at Vat Phou
probably occurred during these centuries. Its historical
significance lies in its role as an imperial centre and its
demonstration of Indian rather than Chinese influence
in the clear evidence of Hindu religious belief.
Justification by State Party
The site was planned during the second half of the 1st
millennium AD to represent on the ground the Khmer
symbolic universe, itself the Hindu view of the world. It
is focused on, to the west, the natural features of Phou
Kao Mountain and, on the east, the Mekong River, used
to represent respectively the sacred mountain dwelling
of the god Shiva and the Ganges River or the Universal
Ocean. The plain between, containing the main extent
of temples and associated works, formed Kurukshestra,
the Holy Land.
The degree of survival of the overall topography of the
Khmer landscape (c AD 600 onwards), and of many
archaeological remains above and below ground, has
resulted in the continued existence of evidence of the
planning and utilization of the landscape over some
400km2 during nearly a thousand years (c 5th–15th
centuries AD). This is the only place in south-east Asia
where such a landscape has been recognized to survive
in all its essential parts.
The last major developments to the Champasak cultural
landscape were in the 13th century, just before the
collapse of the Khmer Empire. There is no evidence of
any maintenance of the monumental buildings since
then, although various other occupations and events
have occurred on the site. Vat Phou itself, in contrast to
what it represented in the first millennium, was
converted to Theravada Buddhism and remains a local
centre of worship today. Essentially, however, the area
reverted to secondary forest, which covered most of it
when the first European arrived in the 19th century. An
annual Vat Phou Festival demonstrates the continuing
place of the site in the lives of the local community.
Some of the individual buildings are of major
architectural and historical significance. The Vat Phou
Temple Complex itself is one of the major buildings of
the pre-Angkorian and Angkorian periods, and is an
example of a relatively rare form of hilltop Khmer
temple planning. Much of its sculpture exemplifies high
artistic standards and creativity of both the formative
and classical periods of Khmer civilization.
Description
The nominated property includes Shrestrapura, one of
the earliest known urban settlements in south-east Asia,
and its 9th century successor. Early social organization
is evidenced by road systems and water management.
The city is significant as the cradle of the culture and
birthplace of the state of Chenla, which dominated
much of south-east Asia for several centuries before its
incorporation into the Khmer Empire. The
archaeological potential of the urban sites, including the
area around Hong Nang Sida which became the urban
centre in Angkorian times, is very high.
Champasak District lies 500km south-east of the
capital, Vientiane, on the west bank of the Mekong
River. It contains the Vat Phou temple complex, a major
example of both early and classic Khmer architecture of
the 7th–12th centuries AD. Recent research has shown
that this complex is the focal point of a sophisticated
cultural landscape centred on the Champasak Plain,
taking in the Phou Kao Mountain to the west and the
banks of the Mekong River to the east. Between them
are temples, shrines, water tanks, water channels,
131
quarries, historic field systems, settlement sites, and an
ancient road to Angkor. A planned pre-Angkorian
Ancient City (4 ha) on the banks of the Mekong appears
to have been replaced as the urban centre by another
planned city immediately south of Vat Phou itself in the
Angkor period. A probably contemporary road leads
southwards from it, past quarries and other industrial
works.
1998 to put the 1997 Presidential Decree into effect.
The Plan defines the boundaries of the Protection Zone
and the three Areas within it, and contains regulations
for the management of the entire nominated World
Heritage site. These cover archaeological work,
conservation, and development control.
The Plan implements the policies of the Government for
the sustainable development of the cultural tourism
while making pre-eminent the maintenance of the
character and integrity of this cultural landscape and its
component monuments. Policies for presentation of the
Champasak Cultural Landscape are set out in Chapter 8
of the Plan. Development controls as set out in the
Management Plan need to be actively enforced,
especially in the Ancient City of Shrestrapura.
Many of these features exist in a carefully planned
landscape laid out to reflect its sacred character as
perceived by the builders of Vat Phou. The terraced
Temple Complex lies at the foot of Phou Kao
Mountain, stretching from west–east to a freshwater
spring on a rock terrace where the shrine was built. An
axial line from the natural lingua (phallic-like point) on
the mountain summit through the shrine was used as the
basis for the layout of the temple complex: it is 1400m
long, with lakes as well as buildings to either side,
bisected by an axial processional way. The use of a
natural mountain-top eye-catcher (elevation 1416m)
and the relatively high degree of survival of landscape
and its structural components assist present-day
appreciation of the grand concept of the original design
of what was always intended to be what would now be
known as a cultural landscape. Much of it continues in
use now as shallow paddy-fields for rice.
Policies in the Management Plan envisage sustainable
growth of tourism with improved facilities and
housekeeping at the sites currently open, plus the
development of access to new monuments, the further
production of educational materials, and the
involvement of the local communities both as guides
and as providers of services to visitors. Currently a staff
of twelve look after the site. A Site Management and
Training Centre is being set up, handicapped by
inadequate staffing, training, and skills.
A local site management office has been funded by
central Government since 1989. Since 1995, Italian and
Japanese funding has enabled UNESCO and the
Government to develop a new, more holistic, and noninterventionist approach to the management of the
cultural landscape (as evidenced in the voluminous
professional and academic Annexes to the nomination).
Otherwise, funding comes mainly from the Provincial
Government (with site revenue going to the District). At
the time of the nomination, external funding of some
US$ 5 million was being sought for training and
conservation in 2000–2005. Meanwhile visitor numbers
have more than doubled since 1997 to 14,000 (7322 of
them foreigners); this figure does not take account of
the c 100,000 who arrive during the three-day Vat Phou
festival.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The Government, through the provincial and district
authorities, is the principal landowner of the entire
property.
The Vat Phou area is protected by the Provincial Decree
on the Regulations for the Preservation of the Historical
Site of Vat Phou and the Areas related to Vat Phou. No
38/88 (October 1988). This defined a large Protection
Zone, not just the main monuments; within it are three
Preservation Areas, essentially the three main temple
complexes. A national legal framework for heritage
preservation was adopted by a Presidential Decree of
June 1997.
Overall, management now needs to learn to work more
closely with the Plan, perhaps revising it after nearly
two years’ experience. Systematic monitoring using the
site’s good existing database is essential, while dealing
with the main factors affecting the site: development
pressures, environmental pressures (mainly flooding,
run-off, and erosion), visitor/tourism pressures
including those of the Festival each February, and the
growing population with higher lifestyle expectations
within the Protected Zone itself (no permanent
inhabitants live in Zones 2 or 4 but almost 28,000 live
in Zones 1 and 3).
Other plans have a direct bearing on the status and
management of the site: eg the National Master Plan for
Tourism for Champasak Province 1995 and the
Provincial Development Plan for Transportation, Post
and Construction 1996–2000.
Management
Management responsibility is currently distributed
through five different Ministries: Finance (land title and
tax collection), Agriculture and Forestry (land-use),
Industry and Handicrafts (industrial development and
minerals), Information and Culture (monitoring of
historic landscape), and Communication, Transportation, Post, and Construction (road and urban
development). The Government has established a
National Inter-Ministerial Co-ordinating Committee to
oversee the management of the Protection Zone and to
co-ordinate the activities of the various Government
Departments at national, provincial, and district levels.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
There has been minimal conservation work to any part
of the site. The process by which the Champasak
landscape has survived in its present state is
essentially one of benign neglect and natural damage
and decay. Water is now in some sense the most
serious problem, for the original drainage system no
longer works and in the rainy season water cascades
The Champasak Heritage Management Plan was
officially adopted by the Government in September
132
down the terraces and causes erosion both there and
elsewhere through the site. The central processional
road was restored in the 1960s when a large pavilion
was also built. Some stone robbing has occurred but,
largely because of the site’s little-known existence and
difficulty of access until recently, looting has been
minimal. Perhaps the worst damage is at Tomo
Temple where the principal brick shrines have been
almost totally demolished. The site has also been spared
the sort of archaeological work which has damaged so
many sites in the name of excavation but provided scant
information. The clearance of forest only began in the
1950s, but now there is a great need for regular
maintenance to stop regrowth and further root
damage. The lack of modern threats has continued
until the present but now the situation is changing.
The basically non-damaging nature of traditional
agriculture (shallow paddy-fields) is changing under
pressures to intensify and has recently caused
considerable damage. The main road through the
Ancient City is attracting constant new building and
improvement of existing ones.
digging, have affected these features but generally they
are in good condition.
5. Standing structures
While no ancient buildings are now intact, most survive
to the top of their walls. No large-scale restoration has
occurred. The standing structures are therefore still
entirely authentic with a high level of integrity despite
partial collapse.
Most of the present population live away from the main
archaeological complexes. Many of the inhabited
houses are traditional in form, but developmental
pressures are mounting. Nevertheless, overall, with little
vegetational or other natural changes and almost no
archaeological or restorative activity, the integrity and
authenticity of the site of this nomination are
remarkably high.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
A good site conservation assessment has been carried
out. As a result, the great and urgent need now has
been identified as at the Vat Phou Temple Complex
itself where most of the major structures are in danger
of imminent collapse. Repair of the ancient water
system is also a high priority.
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the property in
February 2001.
Qualities
The site is remarkably well preserved, although now in
great need of careful conservation and firm
management. It promises a great time-depth of
considerable research interest, from within the first half
of the 1st millennium AD, bearing on at least one of the
main issues, urban origins, concerning developments in
south-east Asia. It exhibits a remarkable spread of
monuments and other structures over an extensive area
between river and mountain, some of outstanding
architecture, many containing great works of art,
notably sculpture. Above all, the whole was created
within a geometric framework linking such man-made
works with natural phenomena, notably the distinctive
pointed summit of Phou Kao. This landscape planning
on the grand scale in the second half of the 1st
millennium AD was carried out not merely to make a
pleasure garden but to express a relationship between
the gods, nature, and humanity as believed in Hindu
religion. The sanctity of the mountain is still observed
today by the people of Champasak, who continue to
respect and preserve the natural environment of this
mountain abode of ancient gods, whilst across the
Mekong the riverside temple of Tomo continues to bear
witness to the cosmological template used to plan the
site.
Authenticity
Evaluation of authenticity involves in this case five
main elements:
1. The landscape setting of the whole
The river and the mountain, the frame of the man-made
complex, remain in place and little altered; the plain in
between is probably more wooded and less coherent in
appearance than it was a thousand years ago. Overall,
however, authenticity in this respect is high.
2. The association of the various elements and the
evidence for deliberate planning
The various elements comprising the landscape survive
well as archaeological sites or standing ruins. It is
therefore relatively easy to see how the elements were
articulated with one another and to understand their
relationships. The axial arrangement of structures in
relation to the Lingaparvata of the Phou Kao Mountain
is clearly visible.
3. Buried archaeological sites
The general depth of archaeological stratigraphy is no
more than 0.5m in the urban sites, but neither natural
nor human disturbance has so far been significant. The
archaeological integrity is therefore high.
Comparative analysis
Many Khmer-period monumental buildings survive,
primarily in Cambodia but also in other countries. In
terms of architectural magnificence, and also of its
significance in terms of its spatial composition, the
complex at Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire
from the 10th to 14th centuries AD, is without peer.
Indeed, the Khmer culture is in general better
represented in Cambodia than in Lao. Angkor was
justifiably inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1992,
and continues to be the subject of much international
attention.
4. Archaeological sites surviving as visible earthworks
Of former structures now earthworks, the most notable
are the ramparts around the two cities. Some damage
has been caused by cuts through them (eg for modern
roads), but the most serious damage has been erosion of
the second and third walls of the Ancient City by a
stream. Other upstanding earthworks include the roads,
canals, and baray (reservoir), and mounds where
buildings or other structures have collapsed and become
overgrown. Again erosion, and some robbing and
133
The Vat Phou Temple Complex, however, is on a par
with the most important Khmer sites found outside
modern Cambodia in terms of its plan, decoration, and
survival. It is also one of the major building complexes
of the pre-Angkorian and Angkorian periods.
of the Mekong to Hong Nang Sida south of Vat Phou
temple itself. Undoubtedly this adds considerably to the
interest of the property overall and the case is well made
that the archaeological potential of two successive but
adjacent rather than superimposed cities will bear
significantly on regional issues of state formation and
urban development. But "settlement shuffle" is a
common phenomenon, archaeologically well recorded
around the world and not least with cities such as Delhi,
and, among current nominations, Samarkand.
The Champasak cultural landscape is the only known
early cultural landscape in south-east Asia, preserving
both good and relatively undamaged evidence for the
beginnings of urbanism and for the ways in which the
Khmers engineered their landscape to meet both their
practical and spiritual needs. The particular topography
of the area makes it relatively easy to demonstrate to
local people, visitors, and scholars the symbolic
constructs which underlay the Khmer use of the
landscape. This is the only known landscape of its sort
to survive in all its essential parts. As a rare linear
layout of Khmer temples, it can be compared, for
example, with Preah Vihear on the Thai-Cambodian
border. It is also an example of a relatively rare form of
hilltop Khmer temple planning.
In a global perspective, the nominated property overall
also shares many features in common with some
principal sites of different but contemporary cultures
developing in those centuries perceived in Western
scholarship as Early Medieval. In western Europe itself,
for example, great religious complexes, also involving
alignments, as at Cologne (Germany), Chartres
(France), and Canterbury (England), were developing.
A close parallel in terms, not of architectural form but
of state formation, water management, and road
network within a core area containing built, religious
complexes closely allied to natural phenomena, is at the
World Heritage site of Chaco in New Mexico (USA),
part of a civilization flourishing and fading at about the
same time as that of the Khmer.
Only at this property has evidence so far been found for
cities, rural agglomerations, sites specializing in
different craft activities, and communications systems,
all associated with water-management structures and
religious buildings to provide a basis for an overall
understanding of the development of Khmer
civilization.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
That within the site’s management programme urgent
attention be given to the stabilization of ancient
standing buildings and other structures, and that a
particular effort be made to bring the hydrological
situation under control, both in preventing flash floods
and the undercutting of buildings and in restoring the
ancient system of water management as far as possible.
In terms of historical significance and monumental
importance, Vat Phou can be compared directly with
two other sites emerging in mid-millennium as
belonging essentially to the pre-Angkorian phase. The
major ruins are regarded as being at Phnom Da near
Angkor Borei in the Mekong delta and Sambor Prei
Kuk. At both there is much stone sculpture representing
a rich pantheon of Hindu deities with hardly any
evidence of Buddhism. It needs to be borne in mind that
irrigation was a well known and widespread
phenomenon in south-east Asia in the early centuries
AD, and probably began much earlier. Particularly was
this true of areas like Cambodia that are subject to
heavy seasonal rains and long dry periods, weather
which made water-storage and distribution essential for
successful rice-growing. Elaborate though the systems
at Vat Phou are, they can be appreciated within a
regional context in which they are representative rather
than exceptional. Similarly, although recent research
has undoubtedly given Shrestrapura a place in the
debate about urban origins in south-east Asia, it has not
diminished the significance, actual or, like Shrestrapura,
potential, of other early cities in the region. Oc-éo, for
example, to the south of Vat Phou lay in a lowland area
west of the delta of the Mekong and Bassac Rivers
where access to the sea and other settlements was by
canals in a system described as "the outstanding urban
feature … to an extent [not] found elsewhere in southeast Asian settlements." Canal-based irrigation was also
developing elsewhere in the world in the 1st millennium
AD. In the North American south-west, for example,
the economy of the desert-living Hohokam was almost
exclusively agricultural by AD 500 because their
irrigation system was ambitious from the outset.
ICOMOS believes that inscription would reflect
international endorsement of the stated objectives of the
Champasak Heritage Management Plan which comes as
an integral part of the nomination and already has the
force of law at national level. ICOMOS therefore
expects the practical implementation of that Plan should
inscription occur.
Brief description
The Champasak cultural landscape, including the Vat
Phou Temple Complex, contains a remarkably well
preserved planned landscape more than a thousand
years old. It was contrived to express the Hindu
version of the relationship between Nature and
humanity, using an axis from mountain top to river
bank to lay out a geometric pattern of temples, shrines
and water-works related over some 10km. The site
also contains two successive early planned cities
between the banks of the Mekong and Phou Kao
mountain, the whole representing a development over
nearly a thousand years from the 5th to 15th centuries
AD associated above all with the Khmer Empire.
The Champasak cultural landscape as a whole can be
viewed in wider perspectives. Considerable significance
is attached in the nomination to the fact that the urban
centre shifted westwards from Shrestrapura on the bank
134
Recommendation and statement of significance
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage
list on the basis of criteria iii, iv and vi:
The outstanding significance of the Champasak
cultural landscape lies in the broad scientific
perspective of the powerful Khmer culture of the
10th–14th centuries AD as a whole. In particular,
the Temple Complex of Vat Phou represents a
masterpiece of human creative genius for the high
quality of its artistic work and the integration of its
symbolic plan with the natural landscape to create
a physical manifestation of a Hindu mental
template of the perfect universe. The resulting
expression of these ideas, not only on the ground
but also in architecture and art was a unique fusion
of indigenous nature symbols, religious inspiration,
and technical prowess.
ICOMOS, March 2001
135
and a homogeneous architectural ensemble which is so
coherent that it must have been planned in advance.
The Chouf (Lebanon)
The architecture and its urban impact on the town of Deir elQamar and the palace of Beiteddine make them exceptional
sites. They provide vital evidence of a period that was in
effect the bright dawn preceding the assertion of Lebanon as
an independent nation This fundamental chapter in the
history of Lebanon is certainly the one that played the most
important role in shaping the Lebanese lifestyle and
architectural art.
No 1036
Identification
Nomination
The entire natural site of the region of
the Chouf, with its monuments and sites.
Location
Caza of Le Chouf
State Party
Lebanon
Date
15 June 2000
Deir el-Qamar was founded by Fakhreddine I Maan at the
beginning of the 16th century. Emir Fakhreddine II, on his
return from Tuscany in 1618, gave Deir el-Qamar its final
architectural, urban, and social aspect by building an
infrastructure that was unique for the Middle East at the
time: the first drains, water pipes, paved streets, etc, which
are still in use. The palaces and residences, built in a mixture
of Islamic and Tuscan styles, gave this oriental town a
unique character that soon served as an example not only in
Mount Lebanon but also throughout the region, especially in
Syria and Palestine, for the Emir had extended his power
over an area of more than 20,000km2.
Criterion iv
The palaces and residences of Deir el-Qamar have been
inhabited continuously by local people from the 15th century
up to the present, including the periods of a second emirate,
two kaimakamates, the regime of the Mutassarrifs, and the
French mandate. It should be noted that most of the families
who occupied these residences or palaces are the
descendants or heirs of the original owners.
Justification by State Party
Note : The text below is an abbreviated version of the justification
submitted in the file of the proposal for inscription.
Both Fakhreddine II Maan for Deir el-Qamar, and Bechir II
Chehab, for Beiteddine two centuries later, resorted to
Florentine and local architects to design their villa or palace.
From another angle, the social fabric woven around the
central square of the town of Deir el-Qamar, next to the
mosque and the Saïdet el-Talle church, led in 1751 to the
first mixed, democratic, and free school, 38 years before the
French Revolution and the declaration of Human Rights
(1789).
Criterion v
This combination of Islamic and Tuscan creativity inevitably
generated an original and unique architectural lexicon.
Another exceptional and unique feature for Lebanon and the
Middle East, resulting directly from functional needs, was
the corner door. This was hollowed out from the orthogonal
meeting of two walls, through a thickness that could reach up
to two or three metres, to lead to corner rooms and thus
avoid having to enter through a succession of two adjoining
rooms.
Criteria i and ii
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.
Deir el-Qamar and the seigneurial palace of Beiteddine form
a whole that is an integral part of the history of Lebanon and
the Near East from the 16th to the 19th century, before
Beirut became the official capital of Lebanon. This
monumental and urban unity is a physical and still living
illustration of the important contribution made to the history
of the Near East by Moslem, Druse, Jewish, and Christian
communities. Deir el-Qamar, the first capital of an
independent state during the Ottoman occupation, succeeded
in being the home of three monotheistic religions that lived
together in harmony for a long time. Moreover, the town had
the first municipal council to be elected in the region and
served as the earliest example of direct democracy.
Independence and freedom accompanied the reigns of the
Maan and Chehab Emirs for about four centuries. These
“expressions,” which were forbidden and inconceivable
under the Ottoman Empire, disappeared in 1842, at the end
of the last Emirate, but resumed one century later, in 1943,
under a new form of independence for Lebanon.
Criterion iii
History and Description
History
Deir el-Qamar, the "Convent of the Moon," has a very
ancient origin. The Phoenicians had most probably built a
temple dedicated to the Moon, and the Byzantines
inhabited this site. During the Crusades, the town, which
was converted into a fortress, was mentioned in the
chronicles of the Knights of Saint John and the Teutonic
Knights.
The town flourished in the 16th century, when it became
for more than a century the seat of the governors of
Lebanon, the Maan Emirs, who were Druses of Kurdish
origin. It developed with Fakhreddine I Maan (1518–44),
who became an ally of the Ottoman Sultan Selim I when
he conquered Syria in 1516. Nominated Grand Emir by the
Sultan, he decided to make Deir el-Qamar his capital.
Fakhreddine I extended and established his authority from
Jaffa to Tripoli (Lebanon) where he erected numerous
As a capital recognized by contemporary international
authorities, Deir el-Qamar developed an urban infrastructure
136
For over thirty years Emir Bechir II was the almost
independent sovereign of a country that had once again
become prosperous and safe. Although he was a Sunni
Moslem, he secretly became a Maronite in order to have
the clergy on his side, but he did not dare favour the
Christians openly. The construction of the palace at
Beiteddine, which started at the end of the 18th century on
the site of a hamlet enclosing a Druse stone house, a
khalwa, took some 36 years, in a succession of phases
lasting up to 1840. In 1812 the sovereign demanded of his
subjects two days of free labour to lay down the pipes.
buildings and fortresses. He was murdered at the
instigation of the Ottomans, like his son Qorqmaz forty
years later.
Fakhreddine II, the grandson of Fakhreddine I, was
appointed governor in 1598 and tried to unify the leading
feudal families of the country. He started by expanding his
territory well beyond the Chouf, until his authority covered
what is now Lebanon. At the same time, he encouraged
trade and alliances with the West, particularly with the
Spaniards and the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, who had
ambitions to seize the declining power of Venice in the
ports of the Levant. In 1613 the Ottomans sent the Pasha
of Damascus, Hafiz Pasha, to oppose him and he was
forced into exile in Italy.
Like Fakhreddine II, Bechir II loved the arts and was a
great patron and protector. A whole host of poets and
writers resided in his palace at Beiteddine. Bechir II was
also highly appreciated for his policy of religious
tolerance, especially by Pope Gregory XVI. In 1840 the
English handed him over to the Turks against whom he
had taken sides by becoming the ally of Egypt, and he was
obliged to go into exile.
Fakhreddine II spent five years at the Court of Duke
Cosimo II de’ Medici. He took advantage of his stay in
Florence to learn about the political, economic, and social
life of the Italian republics. He initiated himself into
Florentine banking practices and studied Italian
agricultural methods.
His successor, Emir Bechir III, appointed by the Ottomans,
settled in Deir el-Qamar. Bloody incidents broke out in the
autumn of 1841 between Druses and Christians. The Porte
used this incident to put an end to the power of the
Chehabs. Bechir III was deposed the following year and
the Emirate abolished. 1842 marked the end of the
Lebanon of Emirs, a Lebanon grouped around its princes
and sheikhs, and the start of a long period of turmoil.
He returned home in 1618 and started to expand his
territory once again. Because of his passion for art, music,
and poetry, he brought scholars over from Europe, offering
them material conditions that were very favourable for that
time. Fakhreddine II introduced printing into Lebanon, an
activity that was unique in the East at that time.
The prince built new palaces in Deir el-Qamar, Beirut, and
Saida, his favourite places. At Deir el-Qamar, he installed a
drainage system, water pipes, and paved streets.
Fakhreddine II rebuilt the palace destroyed in 1615 by the
Sayfa, using stones from their castle at Akkar, which he
captured in 1627. Other constructions followed: the
Kaïssarie (Silk Market), a reminder that the breeding of
silkworms was one of the most prosperous activities of
Lebanon between the 17th and 19th centuries, the elKharge palace, and the seraglio built around a square, the
Midane.
Mount Lebanon was then governed directly by the
Ottomans who introduced a “dual kaimakamate,” dividing
the country into two districts, one Druse and the other
Maronite. The situation in Deir el-Qamar was delicate
because, although it was located in the Druse district, the
majority of the people were Maronite. The town was
neutralized and placed under the direct authority of the
Sublime Porte. The Beiteddine palace became the seat of
the Ottoman governors, and later of the Mutassarrifs of
Mount Lebanon, who occupied it between 1860 and 1915
and proceeded to make several additions.
The modernization works in Lebanon alarmed the
authorities in Istanbul. Denounced by his detractors,
Fakhreddine II surrendered in 1632 after a battle against
the Ottoman fleet and army, and he was executed in 1635
with his three sons. This enlightened prince had succeeded
in creating a modern Lebanon founded on solid institutions
that lasted for over thirty years. Thanks to his liberal
attitude, he was able to encourage all the religious
communities in Lebanon to live peacefully together. His
successors, however, were incapable of containing the
ambitions of the feudal lords and freeing themselves from
the control of the central power. As a result, power passed
into the hands of the Chehab, relatives and allies of the
Maan.
Trouble flared up again in 1860 and the violence did not
spare Deir el-Qamar. After the clashes between the
communities came to an end, the town started to sink into a
kind of provincial torpor. At that point, Lebanon enjoyed
an “organic status “ within the Ottoman Empire (1864).
This status gave the town of Deir el-Qamar a special
regime in order to avoid a repetition of events similar to
those that had broken out in 1860.
After World War I, the authorities of the French Mandate
(1920–41) housed some of their administrative services in
the Beiteddine palace. It was during this period that the old
capital finally gave way to Beirut and the towns along the
strategic axis between Beirut and Damascus. In 1943 the
palace of Beiteddine became the summer residence of the
Presidents of the Lebanese Republic.
Internal fighting frequently hampered the government of
the first line of the Chehab, stirred up by recalcitrant
Ottoman pashas and feudal lords who objected to any form
of central authority. Emir Bechir II Chehab (1789–1840),
subsequently known as Bechir the Great, did his best to put
an end to the upheavals caused by the emirs, feudal lords,
and clan chiefs. The situation remained unstable, however,
and when the seraglio of Deir el-Qamar became too
cramped he decided in 1807 to move to Beiteddine, where
he lived until he was evicted in 1840.
The 1975 war rekindled the old hatreds and resentments,
once again sweeping the communities into a vicious circle
of violence. Mostly driven away from the Chouf by the
Druses, the handful of Christians left in 1984 were nearly
all concentrated in Deir el-Qamar, the only area of
cohabitation in the region. The Chouf was then governed
by Walid Jumblatt who took possession of the Beiteddine
palace, returning to the fold of the State in 1992.
137
in relation to the first one and used for living. The sober
decoration of the palace is achieved through a polychrome
effect based on an alternation of white and yellow. The
yellow stones were brought from the Akkar, after the
destruction of the palace of the Sayfa, the enemies of
Fakhreddine II.
Description
-
DEIR EL-QAMAR
The mountains of the Chouf stretch from south of Beirut to
north of Nabatiyet and from the coast up to Jebel elBarouk (the Chouf Bayadi). Deir el-Qamar is at an altitude
of 800m and is built on terraces, facing south, above the
valley. The small town consists of sixteen palaces and
monuments arranged round a square, the Midane. The
historic area is also composed of old districts and lanes.
The network of streets and footpaths all radiate from this
square. They were paved in the 17th century, when the
town was also equipped with water pipes and drains, the
oldest drainage system in the Orient after that of Istanbul.
Deir el-Qamar is well supplied with springs, one of the
reasons why the Maan Emirs settled here. The Al-Chalout
fountain, the main spring of the town, and the OumNicolas fountain supply the various palaces, thermal baths,
and private houses of the town.
The seraglio, situated to the south of the square, was built
during the first half of the 18th century by Emir Melhem
Chehab, Governor of Lebanon from 1729 to 1754, and
later completed by his son Emir Youssef Chehab (1770–
89). The building served as the seat of the regional
government. The lower floor goes back to the Maan period
and was part of the palace of Fakhreddine I. The upper
floor, dating to the Chehab period, was inhabited until
1810 by Bechir II. This khan-type building is arranged
around a huge paved courtyard. The entrance is through a
beautiful monumental gate guarded by two lions, symbols
of the dynasty of the Chehab Emirs, and then through a
guardroom, perpendicular to the courtyard. To the west is a
iwan. The main room on the south side has a dome pierced
by a series of windows. Two small rooms on the courtyard
side have a magnificent wood decoration of geometric and
floral motifs. Semi-circular bouzennâr stone steps precede
every room and each door has a decorated lintel.
The commercial part of the town was divided between the
different guilds, with souks for shoemakers, butchers,
carpenters, etc. The old shoemakers’ souk had over 38
shops and some two hundred craftsmen worked there. The
Kaïssarie (Silk Souk) occupied the northern section of the
Midane. This closed market, built by Fakhreddine II in the
17th century, was originally intended for trade in jewellery,
silk, and imperial commodities. The rectangular building
has a central open square with a basin in the middle. The
arcades housed the shops of the craftsmen. This monument
shows that Deir el-Qamar was an important trading centre
until the 19th century.
Ahmed Chehab built the palace that closes off the east side
of the square in 1760. The architecture of this imposing
palace is of the khan type, with two floors overlooking an
open central courtyard. The entrance is inlaid with white
marble and red and white stone and framed by geometric
cable mouldings, sharply contrasting with the stone
bonding of the facade. The main entrance opens on to a
small room leading to the courtyard adorned with a
multicoloured pond and surrounded by huge rooms. The
south-west corner door of the courtyard is an interesting
architectural feature, typical of buildings of this type,
making it possible to use an independent corner room. A
decorative lintel composed of a double volute surmounts it.
The room in the north-west corner can only be entered
from the outside. On the eastern side of the courtyard are
the hammams, composed of small areas topped by domes
and corridors linking the huge rooms. On the northern side
of the upper floor is a iwan opening on an arched passage
with a pigeon house above it. A sculpted wooden kiosk on
the southern facade completes the ensemble.
The palaces and residences of the town are characteristic of
17th and 18th century Lebanese architecture, a synthesis of
eastern and western styles. The plans of the houses are
typical of Lebanese traditional domestic architecture, of the
khan type with a iwan, central hall, and gallery. The
construction method and the materials used are typically
Lebanese. The stone, from a quarry that is unique in
Lebanon, is called bouzennâr where the unusual nature is
due to a mixture of greyish beige and pink colours, and
from another quarry in the Akkar, known for its yellow
colour.
Four palaces clearly illustrate the architecture of Deir elQamar from the historical and chronological view, as well
as in terms of typology and architectural exchanges and
contributions: the palace of Emir Fakhreddine II, the
seraglio, the palace of Emir Ahmed Chehab, and the palace
of the poet Nicolas el-Turq.
The khan-type palace of the poet Nicolas el-Turq was built
in 1805 on uneven land. It is laid out around a paved
central courtyard with an octagonal fountain. On the
northern side of the courtyard, a iwan decorated with a
small basin and leading to side rooms was reserved for
women. The iwan in the south of the courtyard, slightly out
of line in relation to the first, was reserved for men. To the
west an arched passage links the two parts of the building.
Two sculpted oculi give a certain rhythm to this arcade.
The arches of this passage, slightly in Moorish style, are
borne by fine smooth columns. The lack of symmetry was
deliberate on the part of the architect. The pond in the
courtyard is not placed in the axis of the iwans and the
openings on each side of the entrance door are not
symmetrical. The south facade has three mandalouns
looking out on the mountain.
The palace of Fakhreddine II, on the east side of the
Midane square, was first destroyed in 1615, and then
rebuilt around 1625 under the supervision of two Tuscan
architects and sculptors, Francesco Cioli and Giulio
Pariggi. The khan-type building has one dwelling floor and
one partial floor built around a paved central courtyard.
The massive building is partly built on a very solid base. It
is entered through a first vaulted guardroom preceding a
second room. The latter leads through a right-angle to the
open courtyard. This indirect access permitted the guards
to defend the entrance to the palace more effectively, a
protective measure typical of the plans of Arab houses and
palaces. To the north of the central courtyard, with its
octagonal fountain, are a service iwan with its own
fountain. To the south is a second iwan, slightly out of line
The originality of the palaces and houses of Deir el-Qamar
lie in the fact that they are the result of different
architectural traditions, both in terms of geography and of
time. Some of the main features of Islamic architecture can
138
middle residence), and the Dar el-Harim (the private
residence). Building began with the Dar el-Harim at the
end of the 18th century and lasted until 1840 when the Dar
el-Baranie was completed.
be seen in this ensemble. The houses arranged around a
central courtyard function like a closed world. The
fountains and ponds in the middle of the residence are a
reminder that water, the symbol of purity, is one of the
important elements of this architecture. The influence of
Islamic philosophy is also reflected in the artistic and
architectural shapes and details (geometric and polychrome
decoration), especially of the entrances marking the
transition between the inside and outside, the fountains,
and the woodwork. The elements composing the windows,
mandalouns, roses, oculi, and balconies result from the
blending of Arab and European decorative movements.
There is a certain resemblance to the twin windows with
small columns on the facade of the Ducal Palace in
Florence, where Fakhreddine II resided during his exile.
The kiosks, galleries, and corbels have definite similarities
with Venetian architecture of the 14th and 15th centuries.
The entrance to the palace is through this last part. It is
composed of a rectangular courtyard, 107m long by 45m
wide, the midane, which is reached through a wide vaulted
corridor. The madafa, a building where visiting guests
were accommodated, closes the courtyard on the north
side; the south side looks over the valley. The first
courtyard was used for holding the crowds and organizing
games.
Dar el-Wousta is reached by a monumental double
staircase on the east side of the midane. It was used for
dealing with official business and for big receptions. Built
around a courtyard embellished with a basin and a water
channel, it overlooks the valley on the south side. The
offices of the secretaries of the Emir are in the north
section. This part of the building, known as the Dar elKataba, has a facade with a double staircase and an arcade.
The east wing contains the apartments of the sheikhs, the
ceremonial rooms, and the offices of high officials, in
particular that of the Minister Boutros Karami. This room
is decorated with marble mosaics and delicately sculpted
and painted woodwork. Wall fountains cool the rooms in
the summer. The north-west corner of the courtyard has a
wooden kiosk, a kind of open balcony from where the
Emir watched certain events. The courtyard is closed on
the west side by a facade marking the entrance to the Dar
el-Harim, the private apartments of the Emir.
Deir el-Qamar also has many buildings for worship – a
mosque, a synagogue, and five churches and chapels
belonging to different rites (Maronite, Greek Orthodox,
and Greek Catholic) – reflecting the policy of religious
tolerance adopted by Fakhreddine II.
Construction of the mosque began in 1493 and it was
restored by Fakhreddine I for his Sokman mercenaries. It is
the oldest mosque of Mount Lebanon, built in the
Mameluke style. It has a vast square room with groined
vaults resting on a massive pillar and an octagonal minaret.
The blind arcade sculpted with interlacing has the kind of
geometric motifs often used in Islamic art.
The synagogue, of the Maan period (17th century), was in
ruins in 1900 but was restored in a somewhat fanciful
manner. The Jewish community of Deir el-Qamar,
probably founded in the 16th century, was mainly of
Spanish origin. The community was well integrated in the
life of the town and lived there until the mid 20th century.
The private residence is entered through a gate decorated
with mosaics of coloured marble and sculptures in
bouzennâr stone. It is framed by a projecting arch resting
on stone pillars in two colours and has two oculi. The
southern part of the Dar el-Harim has an antechamber or
room with a column, a reception room or salamlek, and the
apartments of the Emir arranged around a small closed
courtyard. The walls and floor of the antechamber are
covered in different types of marble forming an inlaid
pattern, plus motifs in stucco and finely carved stone. The
ceiling is richly decorated with woodwork. The reception
room, built on two levels, is decorated with sculptures,
coloured marble mosaics, and panels ornamented with
maxims in calligraphy. The traditional Damascus forms
and techniques are easily recognizable here, especially the
technique used for colour paste. The kitchens and the
lower harem are located on the north side of the covered
courtyard.
The churches of Deir el-Qamar have a simple plan: a nave
without side aisles. This type of plan is directly inspired by
rural architectural tradition and displays the same austere
exterior as the houses. The church of Saïdet el-Talle, built
in the 5th century over an old Phoenician temple dedicated
to the Moon, was destroyed by an earthquake in 859 and
rebuilt during the reign Fakhreddine I. The building is
enclosed in a convent of Maronite monks built in 1831.
The old door of the original church was inserted in the
facade overlooking the valley. It has a lintel in Byzantine
style, adorned with a cross in relief and surmounted by an
inverted crescent, the tips of which hold a rose.
-
BEITEDDINE
The middle part of the Dar el-Harim consists of an upper
harem, reception rooms, and tribunal (mahkamat). The
upper harem opens on to the courtyard of Dar el-Wousta
through a passage with arches resting on fine pillars. A
double staircase leads up to it.
Built on a rocky spur 850m high and overlooking the
valley, the palace of Beiteddine is surrounded by gardens
and terraces. This building is nearly 300m long and has a
simple exterior. Italian engineers directed the works, which
were carried out by local foremen and workers from
Damascus, Aleppo, and Istanbul. Like other Ottoman
palaces (Topkapı in Istanbul), several inner courtyards are
placed along an axis (slightly broken in this case),
revealing the hierarchy of their different functions. Details
typical of Lebanese architecture are incorporated in this
system of courtyards, such as the arched passage and the
iwan.
The northern part of the Dar el-Harim is occupied by the
hammams. Following the tradition of Roman baths, they
are composed of a cold room (frigidarium), warm rooms
(tepidaria), and hot rooms (caldaria). The cold room, used
for resting, is a small construction covered by a dome, with
a marble pool in the middle. The warm rooms were used
for massage and served as a transition between the cold
and hot sections of the baths. The floors are covered in
marble. The Dar el-Wousta and the Dar el-Harim are built
over vast vaulted rooms that once housed the stables.
The building is divided into three sections: the Dar elBaranie (the external residence), the Dar el-Wousta (the
139
revenues from the entry tickets to the site. The Ministry of
Tourism is in charge of its tourist promotion
The architectural composition of the Beiteddine palace has
a wide variety of techniques, forms, colours, and materials,
resulting in a blend of Eastern and Western stylistic
features.
The Beiteddine Palace only became the responsibility of
the Ministry of Culture in 1999, after having been under
the civil administration of Walid Jumblatt during the war
in Lebanon.
Management and protection
The town of Beiteddine also has a master plan,
promulgated in 1971. However, no information was
provided in the nomination dossier about the arrangements
made for the management and conservation of the Palace.
Legal status
The seraglio of Deir el-Qamar, the mosque of
Fakhreddine I, the door of the palace of Fakhreddine II,
and the palace of Ahmed Chehab were listed as historic
monuments by Decree No 208 of 5 June 1934. The Deir elQamar square, the residences and palaces, and the old
lanes in the historical area are also protected by
Regulations No 166 of 7 November 1933 and No 225 of
28 September 1934. Presidential Decree No 2837 of 16
March 1945 designated the entire area, including the Maan
and Chehab palaces of Deir el-Qamar, as a "listed site of
historic monuments.”
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
After Deir el-Qamar was stripped of its status as a capital
on the removal of Bechir III it sank into a period of relative
stagnation until recently. The fifteen years of war suffered
by Lebanon isolated the town and pushed its inhabitants to
flee. Paradoxically, the Department of Antiquities carried
out major restoration works during this period. It cleared,
refurbished, and restored the Midane Square and
neighbouring palaces, using photographs and old plans as
a guide. The shops, especially the souk of the butchers and
part of the souk of the shoemakers, as well as the modern
buildings on the Midane Square and around the mosque,
were demolished. The walls of the mosque were
strengthened. The fountain in the square was moved back
to its original place and installed on the esplanade of the
public square. The Kaïssarie and the el-Kharge palace were
restored and the staircase leading to the palace
Fakhreddine II was rebuilt.
The palace of Beiteddine was listed as a "historical
monument" on 5 June 1934.
Management
The monuments and residences of Deir el-Qamar belong to
different private, public, and religious bodies –individual
owners, the Department of Antiquities, the town council,
the Moslem Wakf, the Greek Catholic Wakf, and the
Mariamite Order of Maronites
The owners of monuments and sites are responsible for the
protection, management, and maintenance of their
properties. Several public authorities, including the
Ministries of Culture, the Environment, and Tourism,
supervise the management of private palaces.
At present the seraglio houses the offices of the town
council of Deir el-Qamar, the Kaïssarie now
accommodates a French cultural centre, and the palace of
Fakhreddine II has been converted into a wax museum.
Protective buffer zones around Deir el-Qamar have been
established by the regional master plan, including
recommendations relating to new constructions on empty
plots of land. They do not take into consideration either the
aesthetic aspect of the building or the urban fabric. In 1996
the municipal authorities of Deir el-Qamar developed, in
collaboration with the Office of Regional Planning of the
Chouf based in Beiteddine, a procedure for the “heritage
control” of applications for building permits. This makes it
possible to evaluate the inclusion of a building on the site,
the aesthetics of the project, and the functional integration
of a programme, and, if necessary, to modify or re-adapt
certain projects in accordance with specific directives.
The churches were also restored in the 1980s and 1990s.
These works were not always undertaken in an appropriate
way, especially in the use of certain materials and from the
stylistic point of view. A mandaloun was added to the
facade of the synagogue, an unusual decorative feature for
a religious building. After the war the inhabitants returned
to the town and it started to develop once more. The
municipality was obliged to strengthen the regulations
controlling new buildings.
The Beiteddine Palace was damaged by a fire in 1912. The
Department of Antiquities renovated the buildings after it
was listed as a historic monument in 1934, and new
restoration works were undertaken shortly after 1943,
when the monument became the summer residence of the
President of the Lebanese Republic. The palace was also
damaged during the Lebanese war. From 1984 to 1990 the
civil service set up by Walid Jumblatt financed works to
restore and waterproof the buildings, costing some $3.5
million. During the same period, a commemorative
monument, the Immortal Flame, and a statue of Kamal
Jumblatt were erected in the Dar el-Baranie.
The first master plan for the town was promulgated in
1971 by Decree No 1770. It divides the town into different
areas, subject to specific regulations. Area S, which covers
the historic centre of the town, accounts for less than 1% of
the total surface of Deir el-Qamar. The other areas, which
are residential, residential and commercial, or devoted to
tourism, sports, or industry, are spread around Area S. The
Urban Planning Department, in collaboration with the
town council of Deir el-Qamar, is at present revising this
plan with a view to strengthening the protection of the
historic centre and its surroundings.
The building is now home to several museums; the Kamal
Jumblatt Museum near the main entrance, the
archaeological and ethnographical museum on the first
floor of the madafa, and a museum of Byzantine mosaics
The Beiteddine Palace belongs to the Lebanese State. Its
management is the responsibility of the Department of
Antiquities, which comes under the Ministry of Culture
and appoints the Curator of the Palace. The Ministry of
Finance and the town council of Beiteddine share the
140
ICOMOS comments and recommendations for future action
in the former stables. Sizeable sums of money were also
spent to enrich the collections of these museums.
The historical centre of Deir el-Qamar and the Beiteddine
Palace were proposed for inscription in 1983 and rejected
by the World Heritage Committee because it felt that this
cultural property did not meet the criterion of outstanding
universal value. The present proposal for inscription,
entitled "Ensemble of the natural site of the Chouf region
with its monuments and sites" is, in fact, only a resubmission of the 1983 nomination under a different name.
Authenticity
The geographic location of Deir el-Qamar has helped to a
certain extent to protect the monuments and residences of
the town. Even though certain inappropriate materials,
such as concrete, have been used and certain stylistic
inconsistencies have been noted in the course of the
restoration works, the degree of authenticity of the
historical centre is high in terms of the urban fabric,
materials used, design, and building techniques.
The latter focused on the Beiteddine Palace and treated the
two cultural properties independently and individually.
The 1984 ICOMOS evaluation was accordingly based on
the same principle. The present proposal for inscription
restores the place of Deir el-Qamar by providing more
detailed and comprehensive documentation on the town.
Nevertheless, even though ICOMOS recognizes the
cultural value of Deir el-Qamar and the Beiteddine Palace
at national level, it has doubts as to the outstanding
universal value of this ensemble.
The Beiteddine Palace, standing on a rocky outcrop and
surrounded by a defensive wall, is also well protected. The
same applies to Deir el-Qamar, which has a high degree of
authenticity in terms of the design of the building, as well
as the materials and construction techniques used, although
the square has been undermined by the erection of the
commemorative monument.
Two comments arise directly from this observation. First,
the State Party should be requested to provide a fuller and
more detailed study to justify the outstanding universal
value of the ensemble composed of the historic centre Deir
el-Qamar and the Beiteddine Palace. Secondly, the present
title of the nomination does not illustrate accurately the
nature of the property proposed for inscription, and
ICOMOS therefore suggests that it should revert to its
earlier title.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the town of Deir elQamar and the palace of Beiteddine in February 2001.
Qualities
The town of Deir el-Qamar and the Palace of Beiteddine
were the princely residences of the Lebanese Maan and
Chehab Emirs during the Ottoman period. They form a
homogeneous architectural ensemble that is characteristic
of Lebanese architecture in the 17th, 18th, and 19th
centuries, which skilfully integrated local designs and
construction techniques with eastern and western
components. Their geographic position in the Chouf
mountains made it possible, to a certain extent, to preserve
and protect them from ill-considered urban developments.
They illustrate the determination of the Emirs
Fakhreddine II and Bechir II to unify and encourage the
co-existence of feudal families and religious Moslem,
Druse, Christian, and Jewish communities in this part of
the Near East.
The ICOMOS expert mission was able to discuss the
revision of the master plan for the town of Deir el-Qamar
with the authorities on the spot. It was stressed that the
new master plan should incorporate certain proposals made
by the mission organized in 1999, within the framework of
assistance to the State Party for the preparation of the
nomination dossier for Deir el-Qamar. The report of this
mission emphasized the importance of increasing the
surface of Area S by about 40% and of adopting a detailed
conservation plan. ICOMOS feels these points should be
taken into consideration when finalizing the master plan. It
suggests that this last phase should be undertaken in close
collaboration with the Department of Antiquities and that
Areas E and E1, consisting of the two slopes opposite
Beiteddine and Deir el-Qamar, should be subject to
specific regulations preventing construction in this area,
especially south of the river
Comparative analysis
From the stylistic point of view the monuments of Deir elQamar can be compared to certain 17th and 18th century
residences in Damascus and Aleppo (eg the Jumblatt and
Ajiqbach houses). The Beiteddine Palace can be compared
to the palaces of Azem de Hama (1740) and Damascus
(1749). Aleppo and Damascus were inscribed on the
World Heritage List in 1979 and 1986 respectively.
ICOMOS notes that there are certain gaps in the
nomination dossier relating to the management and the
state of conservation of the Beiteddine Palace, and to the
plans and boundaries of the two properties. In fact, the
dossier indicates that the historic area of Deir el-Qamar
corresponds to Area S of the master plan for the town, and
that the buffer zones correspond with Areas E and E1. A
preliminary master plan drawn up in 1996 was provided,
but it does not correspond in an adequate and coherent way
to a boundary plan for the area proposed for inscription
and the buffer zone of Deir el-Qamar. Nor is such a
document included for the Beiteddine Palace. It would be
desirable for the State Party to provide such boundary
plans while at the same time studying the creation of a
buffer zone common to both properties.
However, the unusual nature of the residences of Deir elQamar and the Beiteddine Palace is due to the topography
of the site, which dictates the orientation of the buildings.
These face the valley and have to adapt to the uneven
ground, by means of solid bases. The compact plan of the
Azem Palace in Damascus contrasts with the open and
elongated plan of the Beiteddine Palace. Moreover, the
local features of these mountain residences predominate
over the Ottoman style of architecture.
141
Recommendation
ICOMOS recommends that the proposal for inscription be
deferred to enable the State Party to prepare a justification
of the outstanding universal value of the ensemble formed
by the two properties, to finalize the master plan for Deir
el-Qamar taking the above comments into consideration, to
provide detailed information on the management plan and
state of conservation of the Beiteddine Palace, and to draw
up a boundary plan for the areas proposed for inscription
on the World Heritage List, as well as the buffer zones for
the two properties.
ICOMOS, March 2001
142
the construction of rova or fortified royal enclosures
(analogous to hillforts in western Europe during the 1st
millennium BC). On the summits, woodland was kept
for practical and spiritual reasons but the forest on
lower ground was cleared to provide the economic base
for such places to exist. Agricultural terraces were also
constructed on the lower hill-slopes. In effect, the
cultural landscape was in place by the 16th century. The
only major change since then has been the removal of
upland forest on the neighbouring heights to
Ambohimanga during the French colonial period.
Ambohimanga (Madagascar)
No 950
Ambohimanga itself originated in at least the 15th
century and by the 18th century, particularly under
Andriantsimitoviaminandriana
(1740–45),
had
developed into a capital with defences and seven gates.
Outer defences and seven more gates were added,
probably before 1794 when the royal palace was moved
to Antananarivo, leaving Ambohimanga as the royal
burial place and religious capital. The existing defensive
wall was built by Queen Ranavalona I (1828–61), with
new gateways to north and south-west (c 1830). The
palace Fandriampahalemana and the glass pavilion
Tranofitaratra were added in 1871.
Identification
Nomination
The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga
Location
Municipality of Ambohimanga
Rova, Province of Antananarivo
Avaradrano
State Party
Republic of Madagascar
Date
7 July 2000
In March 1897 the mortal remains of royalty were
transferred to Antananarivo by the French colonial
authorities in a failed attempt to erase the holiness of the
site and the nationalistic legitimacy attached to it. The
royal tombs were demolished and military buildings
erected in their stead for the garrison on the site. By
1904, all trace of them, in their turn, had been removed.
The site continued to be used for religious purposes,
particularly as a pilgrimage destination, throughout the
20th century, and remains an active holy place today.
Justification by State Party
The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga provides an
exceptional witness to the civilization which developed
on the Hautes Terres Malgaches between the 15th and
19th centuries, and to the cultural and spiritual
traditions, the cult of Kings and Ancestors, which were
closely associated there.
Criterion iii
Description
The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga consists of a royal
city, a burial site (royal tombs), and a collection of
sacred places (wood, spring, lake, public meeting
place). It is associated with strong feelings of identity,
emphasizing its sacred character, which continues into
the present in popular recognition. It is a pilgrimage
destination within Madagascar and internationally
(Ivato international airport lies 10km to the west). In
addition, it possesses an architectural quality in its
groups of buildings and an ecological value in its
natural ecosystems which conserve numerous species of
indigenous plants. The site is inhabited by some 900
people, with about 2000 in the buffer zone.
The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga provides an
outstanding example of an architectural ensemble (Le
Rova) and an associated cultural landscape (wood and
sacred lakes) illustrating significant phases in the
history of the islands in the Indian Ocean between the
16th and 19th centuries.
Criterion iv
The countryside of the Royal Hill of Ambohimanga is
associated with historic events (the historic site of the
unification of Madagascar) and living beliefs (ancestor
worship), giving it an exceptional universal value.
Criterion vi
The whole can be considered as an assemblage of ten
sous-ensembles:
1. The Hill, rising to 1468m above the plain at an
altitude of about 1300m, carries residual forest cover
which masks numerous archaeological remains and
shelters the royal city.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this
is a site. In term of the Operational Guidelines for the
Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, para
39, it is also a cultural landscape.
History
2. The fortifications protected the royal city in an
arrangement of banks, ditches, and 14 stone gateways.
The outer seven were built in 1787; the inner seven,
interspersed around a 2.5km circuit, date to the early
18th century. Doors were large, thick and up to 12
tonnes in weight – very much status symbols. Use of
these gateways was carefully regulated.
The growth in Madagascar of a fragmented political
structure based on local lords meant that, from the 15th
century onwards, defensible hills were in demand for
3. The fortified royal city (Le Rova) originated in the
15th century and developed in the 17th and 18th
centuries. Contained within an enclosure, it consists of a
History and Description
143
coherent suite of buildings and provides a place for
public functions. Called Le Fidasiana, it was where
sovereign and subject met in the shade of royal figtrees. Royal pronouncements were made from a holy
stone; nearby was a sacrificial stone. The space was
ritually divided e.g. the eastern sector was the sacred
area, for ancestor worship and royal burial. Two holy,
rock-cut basins, filled with water by young virgins,
played a significant role, particularly at the time of the
annual royal ‘fête du Bain’. Royal corpses rested in a
wooden mortuary house, Tranomanara, en route to the
royal tombs whence royalty, as ancestors, continued to
exercise powers of protection and punishment over the
living from inside a holy place enclosed by a wooden
fence coloured in white and red, the holy colours of
Imerina royalty . There, eleven sovereigns rested in
tombs surmounted by small wooden houses,
Tranamara, until, in an abortive attempt to break the
power of both the ancestors and the site itself, the
French colonial authorities moved the regal mortal
remains to Antananarivo in March 1897.
agricultural plots, houses and gardens, and family
tombs, a situation which has existed since the end of the
19th century.
In general, the legal provisions and regulations (details
are provided in the nomination dossier) are adequate,
but a special point is being made to the authorities to try
to ensure that their implementation is both vigorous and
rigorous, not least in the buffer zone. The sacred nature
of the site affords it a strong guarantee of protection in
some respects, for the hill is an object of popular
veneration.
Management
Site management is provided by a Site Committee made
up of national and local representatives, with a small
permanent staff on site. Its responsibility is to manage
according to the Management Plan, giving special
emphasis to maintenance and preventative conservation,
promotion, education, and publicity. It is advised by a
Scientific Committee, particularly in respect of the
maintenance of the site’s integrity and authenticity.
Another Committee is currently charged with revising
the Management Plan, and will revise it periodically
thereafter.
4. The royal trees are species of Ficus and Draceana
sp., specifically reserved to royal cities, apparently since
1540.
5. The seat of justice, on a huge spherical, granite rock
in the northern sector, is surrounded by a brick
balustrade and shaded by a royal fig tree with stone
steps
surrounding
its
trunk.
Here
Andrianampoinimerina was proclaimed king and
dispensed justice.
Locally, and day-to-day, the Municipality of
Ambohimanga and the Museum Service (Directorate of
Cultural Heritage) are responsible for the management
and security of the site. Professionals from the Service
visit the site regularly. Nine guards during the day and
three at night provide on-site security. In total, 21
people are employed on site.
6. Other holy places, natural and constructed, exist both
inside and outside the royal enclosure.
Finance is provided nationally via the Mayor’s office,
and from 60% of entrance fees received. Annual
expenses are of the order of US$113,000; gate receipts
US$20,000. External grants have been obtained for both
restoration work and publicity.
7. The holy spring is natural and always flowing, exiting
through two orifices beneath a drystone cover. Its water
is regarded as purifying.
8. The holy lake of Amparihy is artificial, its use being
confined to royalty and ritual, such as the annual royal
bath, princely circumcision, and the receipt of royal
entrails. The bath is particularly symbolic, for then the
king takes upon himself all the sins of the kingdom and,
in ritually cleansing himself, both purifies his subjects
and enables nature to regenerate.
An important role is played by non-governmental
bodies (NGOs), notably MAMALOMASO and
MIKOLO. Most of the restoration work, for example on
the gates, stone-paved roads, and holy fountain, are
undertaken by them with respect to appropriate
standards of work. They are also involved in significant
fund-raising, and play an important role in the dialogue
between local inhabitants and other interested parties.
With national and local authorities, universities and
conservation professionals, and local people, the NGOs
participate in the co-operative management of the site
through the three Committees enumerated above.
9. The sacred woods consist of indigenous plants and, in
a manner now absolutely rare on the Hautes Terres,
represents in residual form the natural forest which once
covered this and other hills. It has survived because it
was always in the royal domain, managed under strict
regulations. Attempts are in train to eradicate alien
species introduced since the end of the 19th century.
Visitor numbers have risen from 34,000 to 41,000 (c
20%) between 1995 and 1999 (4% annually on average,
though in fact there was a slump in 1996–98). Foreign
tourists now number c12 000 a year, having risen by c
30% since 1995 (again after a slump). The site can take
c 1000 visitors per day or 120 per hour; in 1999 the
average was 187 visitors daily, but much higher
numbers were recorded on some days in May 1999.
Some visitor wear-and-tear has been noted and
preventive measures are being considered.
10. The agricultural terraces developed during the
17th–18th centuries on the north and south of the hill,
extending the royal power into economic matters and
representing on the lower slopes of a holy hill
agricultural production of rice, the staple food of the
local population. The higher terraces are dry, the lower
ones are in effect stepped rice paddy-fields.
Pressures on the site appear to be minimal. There is
concern about the gradual degradation of the
countryside, but more obvious threats from
development seem to be almost non-existent. A buffer
zone is nevertheless proposed, primarily to keep the
long-term threat of urbanization at bay. Fire is the main
Management and Protection
Legal status
The area of the proposed World Heritage site belongs
largely to the State. Private individuals own some
144
day-to-day risk, and steps are in hand to improve on-site
precautions.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
Both the proposed site itself (59ha), and its buffer zone
(425ha) are well defined and realistic.
It has been intended that a joint IUCN/ICOMOS
mission should visit the site in January 2001 but,
through force of circumstances, the mission was carried
out almost completely by ICOMOS alone.
Conservation and Authenticity
Qualities
Conservation history
The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga constitutes the most
characteristic and most representative example of this
type of site in Madagascar. It is an historic place,
containing clear archaeological evidence of the former
exercise of power and justice while marking the
independence of the modern state of Madagascar. At
the same time it is a holy place, recalling past kings and
revisiting them as ancestors.
Ambohimanga owes its state of preservation to the fact
that it remained the religious capital and burial place of
the royal family until 1896 and has continued to be
revered and respected since. The removal of the mortal
remains of royalty in 1897 was followed soon
afterwards by the destruction of the tombs and the
construction of temporary military buildings, removed
by 1904. The place retained, however, as it continues to
do, its feeling of sanctity, with a lawn now growing
where the tombs once stood.
The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga bears a remarkable
witness to, on the one hand, eastern Asiatic cultures
through the cult of ancestors and in agricultural
practices, notably rice-growing by irrigation and on
terraces, and, on the other, to eastern and southern
African cultures through the cult of royalty.
A programme of positive maintenance and restoration
began in 1996 and has resulted in a satisfactory state of
conservation. The nomination dossier details the state of
each of the gateways, the defences, the footpaths, the
royal city itself (including the palace and glass
pavilion), the sacred places, and the natural resources
(including the royal trees and sacred woods). While
much work remains to be done, with a need above all
for continuous maintenance, overall the situation is in
hand. This was found to be the case by the ICOMOS
mission.
Comparative analysis
No other comparable property is inscribed on the World
Heritage List and no study of such sites has yet been
undertaken in a World Heritage context. However, the
tombs of the Baganda Kings at Kasubi (Uganda), which
is nominated for 2001, is a comparable site with, as at
Ambohimanga, qualities based on hill-top location,
royal residence, royal burial, ancestor worship, and a
sanctity linked to group identity continuing into the
present.
Authenticity and integrity
The site possesses an exceptional universal value as a
place representing the political aspirations of an
indigenous people and representative of other
iconographic places in the world where long-term
historic, cultural, and spiritual values coalesce on the
same spot. It is highly valued by the people of
Madagascar and additionally, in the World Heritage
context, provides an excellent example of one of those
places in the world which have commanded peoples’
veneration and respect through numerous vicissitudes
over several centuries. Today it is apparently
appreciated by an increasing number of visitors.
The nomination claims that the combination of material
and spiritual in the context of a cultural landscape
developed in Madagascar following the integration of
cultural influences from eastern Asia and eastern
Africa. This was effected in a particular geographic and
biological context which allowed the inhabitants of the
Hautes Terres Centrales of Madagascar to express a
close relationship between the natural setting and the
elements of power, between authority and the sacred.
The expression took the form of the double cult of
ancestors and royalty.
Ambohimanga has lost one of its principal functions, as
a centre of political power, and it is no longer used for
royal burial (but that is the result of the political
process, and not Ambohimanga’s fault); it has also lost
the original royal tombs. There are, however, no
inappropriate additions on site, and only one intrusive
addition nearby (which is being dealt with). Overall, it
is physically in good shape, with a reasonable degree of
integrity despite the considerable range of its
constituent parts.
A number of other similar sites exist in Madagascar.
Ambohimanga is the one which best preserves its
integrity and spiritual significance. A visit to the site by
an outsider brings to mind, in a completely different
context, the atmosphere of the Shin-to shrines of Isé in
Japan.
Similar sites in Africa in general testify to a relationship
between the natural heritage and sanctity in a context of
mythology and cosmology embedded in spirituality.
While such African holy sites are frequently associated
with ancestor worship, they are not generally linked to
local secular power. Their function and significance are
therefore different to those of the royal sites of the
Hautes Terres Centrales in Madagascar. (However, the
site of Kasubi in Uganda, referred to above, would seem
to be an exception to this generalization.)
It also possesses a high degree of authenticity. In this
respect, its signal attribute is that, despite political
moves to degrade the nature of the site, the hill has
maintained its sacred nature and the respect of the
people, somehow managing to transfer its qualities from
the political context of a kingdom to that of a republic.
145
ICOMOS comments and recommendations for future
action
The Royal Hill of is a significant and well-run site,
highly regarded in Madagascar. ICOMOS wishes to
make the following observations:
i. While adequate statutory protection is in place
on paper, it is crucial that its provisions be
implemented and that the Management Plan be
followed, monitored, and revised from time to time.
ii. It is particularly important for as much support
as is actually needed, in terms of both visible
encouragement as well as financial and other
resources, to be given to the managers and on-site
personnel by the relevant authorities.
iii. The particular threat on this site is from fire and
so it is imperative that appropriate fire precautions
measures, with an adequate water supply, are
installed, implemented, and regularly tested.
iv. Inscription, if implemented, is likely to
encourage tourists to a site where, at the moment,
visitor management is well controlled. The
consequences of increased numbers, and probably
in particular high numbers at predictable times,
should be anticipated in terms of site management.
Brief description
The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga consists of a royal
city, a royal burial site, and an ensemble of sacred
places. It is associated with strong feelings of national
identity, and has maintained its spiritual ambience and
sacred character in both practice and popular respect
over some five hundred years up to the present. It
remains a place of worship and a place of pilgrimage
from within and outside Madagascar.
Recommendation and statement of significance
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage
List on the basis of criteria iii, iv, and vi:
The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga is of great
significance to the people of Madagascar as a
place vital in their political development yet at the
same time of great religious meaning. As such, the
Royal Hill of Ambohimanga is also of global
significance as an excellent example of a place
where, over centuries, so much of the common
human experience comes to be focussed in
memory and aspiration, in ritual and prayer.
ICOMOS, March 2001
146
Alto Douro exhibits an important interchange of human
values over a span of time within a specific cultural area.
The property is a continuing, organically evolved cultural
landscape, truly representative of the Demarcated Douro
Region. It reflects specific techniques of sustainable landuse, those of both the past and the present, alongside a set
of significant natural habitats typical of a Mediterranean
environment.
Criterion ii
Alto Douro (Portugal)
No 1046
Alto Douro is an outstanding example of a technological
landscape that illustrates several significant stages in
human history. Here, in spite of nature’s hostility to human
settlement, man adapted Mediterranean crops, particularly
vines and olive and almond trees, and planted them on
terraces fashioned from the steep rocky slopes. Changes in
the several methods employed over the centuries are
evident in the landscape.
Criterion iv
Identification
Nomination
Alto Douro Wine Region
Location
Douro Region, Trás-os-Montes e
Alto Douro
State Party
Portugal
Date
30 June 2000
Alto Douro is an outstanding example of a traditional
human settlement and land-use that has become vulnerable
under the impact of irreversible change. Although its
geomorphological nature and its climate do not invite
human settlement, the vine – as well as the olive, the
almond, other fruits and cereals – has sustained a dynamic
economic activity.
Criterion v
Justification by State Party
Category of property
The Alto Douro represents a unique example of people’s
relationship with the natural environment: it is a
monumental combined work of nature and man. First, the
river dug deeply into the mountains to form its bed. Then
people adapted the steep hillsides for the cultivation of the
vine. Using methods and means acquired over the ages,
they scarified the land and built terraces supported by
hundreds of kilometres of drystone walls. With great
acumen and creative genius, they mastered the physical
constraints of the natural environment and exploited the
opportunities presented by the climate and the nature of the
soil. Thus was born one of the most ancient winemaking
regions in the world, one that produces a universally
acclaimed wine designated “Porto.”
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site. In terms of the definition in the Operational Guidelines
for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention,
para. 39, it is also a cultural landscape.
History and Description
History
Recent archaeological discoveries have revealed the
presence of very ancient human settlements in the more
sheltered valleys of the Douro and its tributaries and in
neighbouring mountains. The great many Palaeolithic rock
carvings found in the extreme eastern area of the
Demarcated Douro Region between the valleys of the
rivers Côa and Águeda and Douro represent a cultural
aggregate that itself is of outstanding universal value.
The justifications for the inscription that we feel are most
relevant, are:
Natural elements: the narrow valleys, the steep slopes; the
paucity of water, the scant rainfall; the diversity of natural
habitats, the transition from the Atlantic to the
Mediterranean; select Mediterranean crops: grapes, olives,
and almonds; the ephemeral: light and colour, sound and
silence and smells
Seeds of Vitis vinifera have recently been found at the 3–4
thousand year old Buraco da Pala Chalcolithic
archaeological site near Mirandela. However, the more
significant relics of viticulture and winemaking that have
been uncovered date to the Roman occupation and
particularly to the end of the Western Empire (3rd and 4th
centuries AD). At the beginning of the Christian era, the
Romans redefined all the land-use and restructured the
economic activities in the entire valley of the Douro. From
the 1st century onwards, they either introduced or
promoted cultivation of vines, olive trees and cereals (the
“cultural trilogy of Mediterranean agriculture”), exploited
the numerous sources of mineral water, mined minerals
and ore, and built roads and bridges. One of the most
important rural sanctuaries in Europe (Panóias, near Vila
Real) shows traces of native, Roman, and oriental religious
cults.
Cultural elements: land-use: the structure of the landscape,
the dominant vineyards, the human settlements and the
fabricated soil, or anthroposoil; access (the river Douro
and the railway); cultural landmarks (the quintas and the
casais); religious structures; and the walls.
The boundaries of the nominated property define the exact
territory that is simultaneously 1. truly representative of the
nature of the Demarcated Douro Region and its three subregions, from the most Atlantic to the most Mediterranean,
2. most consistently enclosed the majority of the most
significant assets, and 3. best preserved overall.
The Alto Douro’s claim of outstanding international value
is further supported by three of the six cultural criteria:
From the beginning of the Middle Ages, until just before
the birth of Portugal as a nation in the 12th century, the
valley of the Douro was ruled in turn by the Suevi (5th
147
century), the Visigoths (6th century), and the Moors (8th–
11th centuries). This opening of the region to a
communion of assorted, continuously overlapping, cultures
is reflected in the traditional collective imagination. The
victory of the Christians over the Moors in Iberia does not
appear to have interrupted the Douro valley’s longstanding tradition of interracial cross-breeding and cultural
acceptance.
certifying the product, supported by a vast legislative
framework.
The first demarcation enveloped the traditional winegrowing area, mainly in the Lower Corgo. Not until 1788–
92 did the vineyards expand to the Upper Douro. The surge
of commercial vineyards eastwards of the gorge, however,
only occurred following epidemics of diseases of the vines
(especially oidium in 1852 and phylloxera in 1863) that
devastated the vines in the traditional wine-growing areas.
The regime that relaxed control over production and trade
(1865–1907), and the construction of the Douro railway
line (1873–87) encouraged this expansion. When in 1907
the State undertook a profound revision of the legislation
regulating the winemaking sector, the new demarcation
covered the entire area under vines, including the Upper
Douro, as far as the Spanish border.
The valley continued to be occupied. Viticulture increased
during a period of the establishment and growth of several
religious communities whose importance to the economy
was especially noteworthy from the mid-12th century
onwards, namely the Cistercian monasteries of Salzedas,
São João de Tarouca, and São Pedro das Águias. They
invested in extensive vineyards in the best areas and
created many notable quintas. The end of the Middle Ages
saw an increase in population, agriculture, and commercial
exchange as towns and cities grew, particularly walled
towns such as Miranda and Porto. Long-distance trade
flourished, namely the shipping of products from the
region down river to the city of Porto, linked with the
major European trading routes. The rising demand for
strong wine to supply the armadas led to a new expansion
of the regional vineyards, particularly in those areas that
were rapidly becoming famous for the quality of their
wine.
Concurrently, in 1876, Douro farmers began to recover the
vineyards that had been damaged by phylloxera. As
throughout Europe, the definitive solution only appeared
with the introduction of American rootstock on which
domestic varieties of vines were grafted. Recovery of
Douro viticulture and the introduction of new techniques
for planting and training the vines has had a significant
impact on the landscape due to the construction of wider
socalcos with taller and more geometric walls that are
distinctly different from the narrow pre-phylloxera terraces
and their lower, tortuous walls.
From the 16th century onwards, the making of quality
wines for commercial purposes assumed an increasing
importance. Viticulture continued to expand throughout the
17th century, accompanied by advances in the techniques
for producing wines and increased involvement in
European markets for wine. The first reference to “Port
Wine," in a shipping document of wine for Holland, dates
to 1675. This period marked the onset of a great volume of
trade with England that benefited greatly from the wars
between Britain and France. Port rapidly dominated the
British market for wine, overtaking those from France,
Spain, and Italy. The 1703 Treaty of Methuen between
Portugal and England set the diplomatic seal of approval
on this trade and granted preferential rights to Portuguese
wines. Throughout the 18th century, the fact that the sale
of fortified wines from the Douro depended on the British
market was reflected by adapting the product to the taste of
this market and, at the same time, by a rapid increase in the
number of British wine merchants. The British Factory
House was founded in Porto in 1727.
Throughout the 20th century the Demarcated Douro
Region has been subject to several regulatory models. The
Interprofessional Committee for the Demarcated Douro
Region (CIRDD) was instituted in 1995. The principal
regulatory mechanism for production continues to be the
system for distributing the benefício, according to which
the amount of must that is authorized for making Port
Wine is allocated according to the characteristics and
quality of the respective vines. Mechanization was
introduced, somewhat hesitantly, in the 1970s to help with
some of the more arduous tasks in the vineyard such as the
scarifying of the land and bringing with it new wide, earthbanked vineyards and “vertical planting” along steeper
hillsides that no longer require building walls to shore up
the terraces. The aesthetic impact of these new vineyards
on the landscape varies, yet the mountain viticulture of the
Douro continues to be carried out almost totally by hand.
The rocky nature of the soil, the steep hillsides, and the
existing terraces themselves are extremely difficult to
adapt to the use of machines; though the product, port
wine, is today mostly made in modern, totally mechanized
wineries.
Conflicts arose between these commercial interests and
the Douro farmers. The latter were forced to accept
continuously lower prices, together with the demand for
darker, stronger, sweeter wines with a higher alcohol
content. The State therefore regulated the production and
trade of this vital economic product, initially with the
creation, by Royal Charter on 10 September 1756, of the
Companhia Geral da Agricultura das Vinhas do Alto
Douro. The productive region was formally marked out. Its
entire perimeter around the vineyards was carefully
demarcated by 335 large rectangular, flat, or semi-circular
granite markers. The word FEITORIA and the date on
which each was placed in situ (usually 1758, occasionally
1761), was carved on the side facing the road.
Description
Protected from the harsh Atlantic winds by the Marão and
Montemuro mountains, the nominated property is located
in the north-east of Portugal, between Barqueiros and
Mazouco, on the Spanish border. The Mediterranean
climate in this landscape of schist and steep hills far from
the sea, adds a unique flavour to the feeling of genius loci.
The popular saying about it is: “Nine months of winter and
three months of hell."
The terraces, by blending into infinity with the curves of
the countryside, endow this property with its unique
character. Seen from above, the vineyards look like a series
of Aztec pyramids.
This first demarcation represents an early manifestation of
unmistakably contemporary practices. It included making
an inventory and classifying the vineyards and their
respective wines according to the complexity of the region.
It created institutional mechanisms for controlling and
148
The Douro and its principal tributaries, the Varosa, Corgo,
Távora, Torto, and Pinhão, form the backbone of the
nominated property, itself defined by a succession of
watersheds. The Douro itself is dammed, so its valley
through the property now contains a long reservoir 100–
200m wide. However, although this change is important
from the ecological and visual points of view, the flooded
part of the valley was neither occupied nor cultivated. The
boundaries correspond to identifiable natural features of
the landscape – watercourses, mountain ridges, roads, and
paths.
mortórios. These have become overrun with native scrub
or olive trees. More continuous, regular olive groves have
been planted on either side of the land under vine. In the
Upper Douro, olive and almond trees represent the
dominant crops, although these are slowly being replaced
by vines. Along the lower banks of the Douro or on the
edges of watercourses on the hillsides are groves of orange
trees, sometimes walled. On the heights, beyond that
altitude at which vines can grow, the land is covered with
brushwood and scrub and, here and there, a coppice of
trees. Woods are still to be found in places on the ridges
and amongst the crags.
The area of nominated property is:
Alto Douro Wine Region
24,600ha
Buffer zone
225,400ha
During the long, hot, dry summers that afflict the region,
water used to be collected in underground catchments
located on the hills or even within a vineyard. From there it
was channelled along stone gutters to storage tanks,
usually made of granite, scattered throughout the quinta. In
contrast, the winter rain gushes down the hills in torrents,
so underground conduits and drainpipes attached to the top
of retaining walls try to prevent it destroying the socalcos.
Demarcated Douro Region 250,000ha
The landscape in the Demarcated Region of the Douro is
formed by steep hills and boxed-in valleys that flatten out
into plateaux above 400m. The Douro valley is now waterfilled behind dams. Valley sides slope at over 15%,
particularly in the Lower and the Upper Corgo. Soil is
almost non-existent, which is why walls were built to
retain the manufactured soil on the steep hillsides. It has
been created literally by breaking up rocks and is known as
“anthroposoil.”
Grain-mills stood next to the watercourses but there are
few settlements in such a disease-ridden location. Above,
characteristically white-walled villages, medieval in origin,
and casais are usually located midway up the valley sides.
Around an often imposing 18th century parish church,
rows of houses opening directly on to the street to form a
web of narrow, twisty roads with notable examples of
vernacular architecture, now occasionally tarnished by
inappropriate recent building. The Douro quintas are major
landmarks, easily identified by the groups of farm
buildings and wineries that crowd around the main house.
Although notably present throughout the region, they are
particularly evident in the Upper Corgo and the Upper
Douro.
The most dominant feature of the landscape is the terraced
vineyards that blanket the countryside. Throughout the
centuries, row upon row of terraces have been built
according to different techniques. The earliest, employed
during the pre-phylloxera era (pre-1860), was that of the
socalcos, narrow and irregular terraces buttressed by walls
of schistous stone that were regularly taken down and rebuilt, on which only one or two rows of vines could be
planted.
No churches or shrines of any significant value lie in the
nominated property, although the landscape is dotted with
small chapels located high on the hills or next to manor
houses. Some chapels and shrines were erected on the site
of ancient settlements, usually hillforts. Furthermore,
Douro folklore is a compendium of tales and legends that
associate elements of Celtic, Arab, and Christian culture.
The long lines of continuous, regularly shaped terraces
date mainly from the end of the 19th century when the
Douro vineyards were rebuilt, following the phylloxera
attack. The new terraces altered the landscape, not only
because of the monumental walls that were built but also
owing to the fact that they were wider and slightly sloping
to ensure that the vines would be better exposed to the sun.
Furthermore, these terraces were planted with a greater
number of rows of vines, set more widely apart, in order to
favour the use of more technical equipment such as muledrawn ploughs. The great majority of the hundreds of
kilometres of walls that cover the riverbanks today date
from that late 19th/early 20th century stage in the evolution
of the Douro landscape. In the Lower and Upper Corgo a
great many post-phylloxera terraced vineyards represent up
to 50% of all the area under vine in each parish.
Transforming the natural environment, clearing the land,
and restructuring the hillsides required a great of labour
that was brought in from outside.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The cultural landscape of the Alto Douro is community
property. The various elements that make up this
landscape, however, are generally privately owned by a
great many individuals, mostly local residents. Today,
48,000ha of vines are distributed over more than 100,000
plots, as well as many tens of thousands of hectares of
olive groves and other crops.
The region does not enjoy a specific juridical protective
statute, as Portuguese jurisprudence makes no mention of
cultural landscapes. The instruments governing the landuse and protection of the landscape are the Municipal
Master Plans, created under the terms of Decree-Law No
69 of 1990. All such Plans for all the townships in the
municipalities in the Demarcated Douro Region are fully in
force. These plans consist of three essential sections: the
general cartographic map, the updated map of restrictions,
and the regulations. It is now up to the Intermunicipal Plan
for the Alto Douro Wine Region to integrate the various
plans.
The more recent terracing techniques, the patamares, and
the vertical planting that began in the 1970s have greatly
altered the appearance of this built landscape. Large plots
of slightly sloping earth-banked land, usually planted with
two rows of vines, were laid out to facilitate mechanization
of the vineyard. Trials of other systems are continuing with
a view to finding alternatives to the patamares and to
minimize the impact of the new methods on the landscape.
Among the expanse of vineyards remain areas,
nevertheless, which have survived untouched since the
days of the phylloxera, abandoned socalcos known as
149
Management
The process involved in nominating the Alto Douro for the
List of World Properties has itself stimulated interest in
developing facilities for tourism. This will most probably
result in the creation of an Integrated Structural
Programme for Regional Tourism in the Alto Douro that
will supply a structure for the many private and public
projects for tourism to be developed in the region over the
next few years. In effect, some of these projects have
already been put into practice, such as the Port Wine
Route, Medieval Routes, and the Route of the
Romanesque, Tourist and Historic Trains of the Douro,
among others. The flow of visitors to the region, although
significant, is attenuated by the size of the property and,
according to the nomination, has so far not created any
major problems (though four are incidentally explicit and
others well known elsewhere, are implicit), but there is no
serious discussion of the likely nature of an expanded
tourism or of its long-term impact on the character of the
area and on management requirements.
Management interventions in the Demarcated Douro
Region have rapidly increased over the past few years as it
has come to be realized that increasing pressures require
active management to preserve and safeguard the
landscape over and above its function of producing wine.
The regime currently regulating the region, as fine-tuned
over the centuries, is centred on regulating, licensing, and
controlling planting and cultivation of the vineyards. The
process of progressively regulating local supervision and
management of the land has culminated with the approval,
during the 1990s, of the Municipal Master Plans. These are
centralized and uniform instruments for regulating and
managing the use and occupation of the land, at the county
level.
Key elements are:
•= The Intermunicipal Plan for the Alto Douro Wine
Region (PIOT), directed at conserving and improving
the living, evolving cultural landscape;
The Alto Douro already offers some facilities for visitors,
such as Municipal Tourist Bureaux. It is, however,
essential that the Alto Douro Wine Region Landscape
Management Programme address the creation of an
integrated network of all these services. From the
viewpoint of the tourist market, the Douro has gradually
acquired a degree of national and international fame as a
new destination, and the number of visitors is consistently
rising at 10–20 % per annum. Cruises to the Douro Valley,
for example, are attracting 100,000 users annually; Mateus
Palace is attracting 40,000 visitors/year; the Festival of Our
Lady of Remedy, Lamego, attracts 10,000 visitors. Local
promoters have substantially increased the local hotel
facilities, especially at the top of the range. Existing
structures can, however, support a sustained growth in
tourism if all-year-round use is promoted.
•= Alto Douro Bureau, consisting of a technical
management assistance staff, who will act in close cooperation with an Association to Promote the Alto
Douro World Heritage;
•= The Association to Promote the Alto Douro World
Heritage, an entity devoted to encouraging private and
public entities interested and/or involved in the
ownership of assets, in preserving, safeguarding,
improving and promoting the Alto Douro.
Responsibility for the management of the territory and the
management and protection of its territorial assets and
local infrastructures rests with the municipalities. The
proposed property covers thirteen municipalities, plus an
additional eight that are part of the buffer zone.
Responsibility for the management of the vineyards and all
agricultural and forestry land, as well as private buildings,
rests with their owners.
The principal objectives of the Alto Douro Wine Region
Landscape Management Programme are to improve the
landscape and its patrimonial assets, minimize all
interference with the landscape, and raise the quality of the
environment and the standard of living in the area. It
includes schemes, for example, to improve features of the
landscape such as walls and terraces, to survey the
heritage, to stimulate rural activities such as crafts, to
facilitate the reception of visitors, to organize festivals and
country fairs, and, under "Research and Development,
Education, Training and Support," to provide local courses
on how to interpret the landscape. The Plan also entails the
Alto Douro Bureau’s implementation of more specific
management and conservation tasks, including monitoring.
The Intermunicipal Plan for the Alto Douro Wine Region
will reveal and formulate a series of relevant steps to
monitor the state of conservation of the landscape.
Amongst the principal indicators, the physical ones are the
most noteworthy: the walls and their state of conservation,
the methods for creating vineyards, the associated planing
of other crops, the trees that are used to edge properties
with vertical vines, the elimination or reduction of
intrusions on the landscape, and the registration and
conservation of the vernacular heritage.
When it is created, the Alto Douro Bureau will undertake
to safeguard and protect the cultural landscape of the Alto
Douro by co-ordinating the technical management
assistance that is given at a local level, in direct
collaboration with the municipalities and the Association
to Promote the Alto Douro World Heritage.
Several EU-based plans currently in force directly address
the Alto Douro landscape. Municipal Master Plans exist
for each of the eight municipalities in the buffer zone and
several Urban Plans, namely for the county seats.
Furthermore, three major Plans are currently in the final
stages of their preparation: the Plans for the Carrapatelo
Reservoir, the Bagaúste Reservoir, and the River Douro
River Basin. The Intermunicipal Plan for the Alto Douro
Wine Region is expected to be concluded by the end of
2001.
Finance, and the resources funding makes available, come
from a mixture of European, state, and local sources. It is
anticipated that current programmes will be completed and
similar funding will enable similar programmes to continue
in future. The PRODOURO Programme (1996–99), for
example, will continue from 2000 to 2006 through the
Third Community Support Framework. Similarly, the
Operational Economic Programme will undoubtedly, as
part of the section for tourism, aim to strengthen the
Douro’s position as an alternative tourist destination.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
Conservation as a "heritage concept" has scarcely been
carried out in this area until recently. With everything
150
subordinate to wine-growing, functional need has driven
maintenance. As a result, the state of conservation of the
Alto Douro, in particular of the majority of supporting
walls, is remarkably good, and clearly superior to that of
the buffer zone. There, although a considerable amount of
land under vine in quintas and casais and considerable
vernacular heritage exist, the settlements in particular have
suffered the loss of much of their original character.
special effort will be needed to restore parts of vineyards to
working order.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited Alto Douro in February
2001. ICOMOS also consulted the ICOMOS-IFLA
International Scientific Committee on Historic Gardens and
Landscapes.
Authenticity and integrity
The cultural landscape of the Alto Douro is an outstanding
example of humankind’s unique relationship with the
natural environment. Its nature is determined by wise
management of limited land and water resources on
extremely steep slopes. It is the outcome of permanent and
intense observation, of local testing, and of the profound
knowledge of how to adapt the culture of the vine to such
extremely unfavourable conditions. The landscape is an
expression of people’s courage and determination, of their
acumen and creative genius in understanding the cycle of
the water and the materials, and of their intense, and almost
passionate, attachment to the vine. The setting, in the
landscape of several forms of training the vines, is an
outstanding example of human ability to master physical
constraints, here actually creating the soil and building an
immense and extensive construct of buttressed socalcos. It
is this acumen that enabled a multitude of anonymous
artists to create a collective work of land art.
Qualities
The landscape is visually dramatic, a very unnatural
creation. It is witness to the huge efforts of many
generations of almost entirely anonymous farmers and
winemakers to master the physical constraints of a natural
environment in order to create conditions favourable to the
production of wines (and other crops) whose quality and
distinctive characteristics have enjoyed worldwide acclaim
since the 17th century. Specialization in the making of
quality wines and the early assimilation of Douro wines by
international circuits exposed, early on, the Douro valley to
a cosmopolitan system of relations.
Wine from the Douro, especially port wine, represents a
collective cultural creation. For countless generations, the
inhabitants of the Alto Douro developed specific
techniques for cultivating the vine and making wine, many
of which were introduced in Roman times and had been
perfected by the Middle Ages by religious communities.
From the Middle Ages, the Douro valley has attracted huge
numbers of outside workers, and it is in part very much
their monument. The role of the Douro valley as both
destination and corridor of peoples and cultures endures to
this day, not least in the traditional visual and oral manner
of expression of its people.
This landscape, however, is a whole and it is in constant
evolution, now with new terrace-forms reflecting the
availability of new technology. It is a diverse mosaic of
crops, groves, watercourses, settlements, and agricultural
buildings, arranged as quintas (large estates) or casais
(small landholdings). Today they maintain the landscape’s
active social role in perpetuating a prosperous and
sustainable economy. Popular identification with the
Region is reinforced by the congruence between its area
now and that of the original demarcation.
Comparative analysis
The Demarcated Douro Region is one of the oldest of all
the historic winemaking regions in the world. It was the
very first institutional model for organizing and controlling
a winemaking region. Contrary to that which occurred
following earlier demarcations of other winemaking
regions (Chianti 1716, Tokay 1737), demarcation of the
Alto Douro was accompanied by mechanisms for
controlling the quality of the product supported by a
legislative framework and a system for classifying and
qualifying the wines. In many ways, the winemaking
legislation of this region led the way for the modern
legislation adopted by many wine-producing countries.
The Alto Douro Wine Region has, and undoubtedly always
had, a different meaning according to the perspective of
each interest group. It is not looked at in the same manner
by the parishioner who lives in the middle of the vineyard
that has shaped his horizon since birth and which provides
his sole source of income, or by the man from the
mountain who remembers the days when the roga joyfully
descended the hills to the Terra Quente to spend a few
weeks working for the vintage. The Douro equally belongs
to the small shopkeepers and middlemen in the region, to
the owners of the quintas – both Portuguese and foreign –
who stay there at different times in the year, to the shippers
in the Douro and in Vila Nova de Gaia who are engaged in
the wine trade, and to all those people in Portugal and the
world over who have learnt to celebrate each great moment
in their lives or in the destiny of nations with a glass of
port wine.
All the major mountain winemaking regions of the world,
including the Demarcated Douro Region, are members of
the Centre de Recherches pour la Viticulture de Montagne
et/ou en Forte Pente (CERVIM). In comparison with them,
Alto Douro is the most extensive, the most historical, and
the one with the greatest continuity and the greatest
biological variety in terms of the vines that have been
perfected there.
Yet the man-made landscape of so many significances is
visibly there, a series of impressive views but also a
seriously complex machine, still working. The Alto Douro
is of outstanding universal value both as a monumental
construct in a demanding environment and as the unique
setting for an exceptional product. The general state of
preservation of this historic landscape is good, Alterations
do exist, but they do not seem of sufficient importance to
impair its integrity. Some terraces suffered badly during
torrential rain in the later part of January 2001, and a
Of all the historic mountain vineyards in Europe, the Alto
Douro with its 36,000ha of steeply sloping vineyards is the
most significant example of this type of viticulture. It
represents about 18% of all European mountain vineyards
registered with CERVIM.
151
Other winemaking regions already inscribed on the World
Heritage List are Cinque Terre (Italy), Saint-Émilion
(France), and the Wachau in Austria, all cultural
landscapes. Future likely nominations are the Pico Wine
Region in the Azores (Portugal) and Le Vignoble
Champenois (France).
However, as many other areas have experienced, tourism
can bring far more than ugliness to a landscape; it can also
erode the social fabric, something of great concern when a
cultural landscape such as this needs large numbers of
local residents, together with their skills and dedication, to
keep the landscape working. Without a firm grasp of such
consequences of tourism in a poor, deeply rural area, and a
well informed management sensitivity about, in effect,
sociology and the aesthetics of landscape development,
experience suggests that this area might well be seriously
compromised in 25 years' time. That the process, of both
degradation and management reaction has started is
acknowledged in the nomination, and it is crucial that,
should this nomination be approved, local awareness and
resources are ready to deal with the extra pressures.
The Alto Douro demonstrates, particularly as regards the
socalcos, its original formula for terracing to create
vineyards. Motivation was functional but, particularly in
this case, the resultant landscape, as at Cinque Terre, can
be seen as the expression of a centuries-old toil
transforming an inhospitable land of rock and shrubs into a
fertile winemaking region.
All the CERVIM vineyard areas share – Alto Douro
dramatically – the guideline for quality winemaking rooted
in Roman viticulture and best-expressed in the saying
"Bacchus loves rugged hillsides." The Douro valley is in
fact universally acclaimed as the source of one of the finest
fortified wines on earth, port wine.
No management plan specific to the nominated area
accompanies the nomination nor is one proposed in the
nomination but the mission found one is in active
preparation. ICOMOS recommends that this address the
issues of controlling development in the buffer zone and
maintaining the characteristic features of the infrastructure of
the landscape, notably the narrow, stone-paved local roads,
the vernacular architecture, and, above all, the ability to
maintain and rebuild the stone revetments of the terraces. So
far the changes in viticultural practice, including making
fields up and down rather than always along the contours,
have not affected the landscape adversely; indeed, they have
added to its time-depth and visual variety. It is crucial that
the further development of this "continuing landscape," for
example in response to technical change, occurs in the same
mode.
Yet, while wine-production has contributed significantly to
the national and regional economy, paradoxically the
locality only benefits from one-fourth of the added value
generated by this product. This, as compared to the
majority of other winemaking regions, explains the marked
dissimilarity between the opulence of the landscape and the
humble buildings in the settlements.
As an agricultural landscape, Alto Douro demonstrates its
own unique process for optimizing the ecological
conditions under which water resources are very carefully
controlled to produce a crop. In that sense, it is comparable
to another World Heritage cultural landscape, the ricegrowing terraces of Banaue in the Philippines, a
masterpiece of simple montane hydrology producing a
dramatic landscape.
Following completion of the Intermunicipal Plan for the
Alto Douro Wine Region, the Alto Douro Bureau should
prepare a management plan specific to the area and status
of the World Heritage Site, taking into account existing
management plans for comparable properties.
ICOMOS comments and recommendations for future action
ICOMOS considers that the Alto Douro does not particularly
exhibit "an important interchange of human values"
(criterion ii). Much more appropriate is criterion iii, for it
very much provides an exceptional testimony to a living
cultural tradition. While undoubtedly an outstanding
example of a type of landscape, it does not, however,
illustrate particularly well "significant stages in human
history" (criterion iv) because, despite the length of history
which has passed in this area, much of the visible physical
landscape is of late 19th/20th century date. On the other
hand, it could still qualify under criterion iv if the phrase
‘technological landscape’ is allowed from the wording of the
criterion, for that is exactly what it is, a landscape reflecting
responses to changing technology in the context of an
evolving relationship between man and the natural elements.
ICOMOS therefore recommends that this nomination should
be considered, as was that of the closely comparable St
Emilion, under criteria iii, iv, and v.
The Alto Douro wine region produces a world commodity,
port, a wine of a quality defined and regulated since 1756.
Centred on the valley of the River Douro, now flooded, the
region is characterized topographically by sloping vineyards
arranged in various terraced configurations. Most date from
after the phylloxera disease of the mid-19th century, but
some are earlier – wine-growing here goes back at least to
Roman times – and the 20th century added to the range of
types of vineyard and terrace in response to changing
technology and the constant needs to control water and
prevent erosion The result is a visually dramatic landscape
still profitably farmed in traditional ways by traditional
landholders.
ICOMOS appreciates the attractions of promoting tourism
as a relatively new phenomenon in the area, and would
encourage the authorities to be proactive as well as well
informed and as sensitive as possible about the range of
possible consequences arising from such promotion.
Critical are such concepts as, for example, Planning
Control and "appropriateness" in terms of scale, design,
and materials for the various new facilities like hotels and
visitor centres envisaged as necessary in the visually
dramatic and sensitive landscape of this nomination.
That this nomination be referred back to the State Party so
that it may complete and implement a management plan
for the Alto Douro Wine Region. In the event of this being
submitted in time for the December 2001 meeting of the
World Heritage Committee and found to meet its
requirements, ICOMOS recommends that this property
should be inscribed on the World Heritage List on the basis
of criteria iii, iv, and v:
Brief description
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
152
ine has been produced in the Alto Douro for some two
thousand years, and since the 18th century its main
product, port wine, has been famous for its quality
throughout the world. This long tradition has produced
a cultural landscape of outstanding beauty that is at the
same time a reflection of its technological, social, and
economic evolution.
ICOMOS, March 2001
153
roads – a factor to be repeatedly influential - gave it a
significance in the political geography of the time. It lay in a
sparsely populated region thereafter and was eventually
granted by the Crown to the military order of St James of
Santiago in the medieval period. Towards the end of the 14th
century, the knights built a palace in the middle of the
woods, then replete with game.
Aranjuez (Spain)
No 1044
Aranjuez became a Royal site in the 15th century, but it was
Philip II in the 16th century who created the first period of
splendour. He built a new palace and large ornamental and
vegetable gardens laid out according to geometric principles,
attempting to symbolize his world-wide imperial sovereignty
based on a centralized state while, at the same time,
celebrating a return to nature, its structure, and man’s
supremacy according to the canons of Humanism. It was
also a private and personal retreat. Phillip meanwhile
pursued botanical experimentation, acclimatizing plant
species from all over the world, and introduced hydraulic
engineering based on best practice in central Europe and
Italy. During the 17th century Aranjuez prospered as the
annual abode of royalty, a place of pageantry and hunting,
and a source of inspiration for and patronage of some of the
greatest Spanish poets of the Golden Age.
Identification
Nomination
The Aranjuez Cultural Landscape
Location
Aranjuez, Madrid
State Party
Spain
Date
30 June 2000
The continuing splendour of the 18th century culminated in
the building of a new town close to the palace. During the
reign of Charles III, the city and its surrounding area became
an experimental ground for physiocratic, agricultural,
scientific, and social ideas lying at the heart of the
Enlightenment. The King sought to provide exemplars both
for horticultural practice and in the design of model farms.
Such cultural grandeur effectively died when, under external
pressure of French Revolutionary ideas and Napoleon’s
ambitions, the Aranjuez Riot at the end of the century
signalled the end of Spain’s Ancien Régime.
Justification by State Party
Aranjuez has been witness to various cultural exchanges
over a span of time, in a specific cultural area, that have had
a tremendous influence in the development of its landmarks
and the creation of its landscape.
Criterion ii
Aranjuez offers a splendid example of diverse architectural
styles and varied landscapes that depict key periods
throughout the history of mankind.
Criterion iv
Aranjuez represents a model for a given culture’s use of its
territory. However, the city has become increasingly
vulnerable since the disappearance at the turn of the century
of the Royal Court that had so much influence in its
development.
Criterion v
After a brief revival which added a new element of
modernism and eclecticism to the Royal Site during the first
half of the 19th century, the end of the reign of Isabella II
marked the close of the Crown’s exclusive role in the history
of this riverside complex and community. A City Council
was established independent of Royal command (1836) and
the Royal family’s use of Aranjuez decreased. At the
Revolution in 1868, all Crown property passed to the State
and, although large parts of Aranjuez were initially excepted,
all that was left in Royal hands by the early 1870s were
fragments of their former estate. Meanwhile, the population
increased and a railway line (1851) stimulated vigorous
economic activity at the price of cutting the Palace’s eastern
vistas and bisecting the Picotajo garden. During the 20th
century Aranjuez became a densely populated satellite city
of Madrid, an industrial and cultural centre in which memory
and maintenance of the Royal Site deteriorated.
Nevertheless, the Site overall kept its integrity, and by the
end of that century new assessments, policies, and
programmes of works reflected new attitudes of respect for
the Royal Site.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site. It is also a cultural landscape as defined in para. 39 of
the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the
World Heritage Convention.
History and Description*
History
The Aranjuez area enjoyed a long history of human
settlement before becoming a strategic stronghold during
Roman times. Then its position at a river crossing and cross-
Description
*
Aranjuez and its history were elegantly synthesized by Carmen
Añon Feliu in her contribution to von Droste B., Plachter H. and
Rössler M., Cultural Landscapes of Universal Value – Components
of a Global Strategy (Fischer Verlag, Jena, Stuttgart and New York,
1995), pp 295–306. The nomination elaborates on but closely
follows her work, in particular using her categorization of the types
of landscape present at Aranjuez (as does the Guidebook submitted
with the nomination). The present "Description" therefore uses the
same structure.
The nominated property lies at the junction of the Rivers
Tajo (Tagus) and Jarama, south of Madrid and north-east of
Toledo. The buffer zone embraces parts of the valleys of
both rivers upstream of Aranjuez itself and the south side of
the valley downstream towards Toledo. The whole area
"floats," as it were, beside and above hundreds of waterchannels ranging in scale from waterways to narrow
irrigation ditches. As a result, it appears as a green oasis in a
154
landscape otherwise of sierra type, dry, brown and fairly
barren of vegetation as a result of climate, geomorphology,
and over-exploitative land-use. This "natural effect" is based
on the genuinely natural resources of the place but is actually
artificial, the result of a conscientious effort to create a place
of enjoyment and well-being, a sort of Eden for its
inhabitants and visitors.
in terms of separate units of designed garden. The westerly
half is subdivided into eight gardens, all essentially
geometric to a greater or less extent except for one half of
the Jardín Séptimo which is arranged around an irregular
water feature with an island hermitage. Outstanding in the
magnificent botanical collection are eighteen monumental
trees The eastern half, the Parque de Miraflores (1848),
was a park in the English style, effectively an irrigated
horticultural/nursery area where functionalism took
precedence over ornamental geometry. Now decayed, it is
not open to the public. Overall, the network of ditches in
the Prince’s Garden is more than 6000m in length, from
which the entire garden is naturally watered.
The site incorporates a planned town, large gardens,
vegetable gardens and orchards, lagoons, rivers and
waterworks, woods, and moors. The main elements are:
1. The Palace and Island Garden The Palace lies along
the south bank of the Tajo, arranged around a plaza with,
on the east, the King’s Garden of irregular plan with
fountains and, on the west, avenues and vistas eventually
cut by the railway. Across a canal to the north, entirely
within a sharp bend of the river beyond the Garden of the
Statues and a fountain, is the geometric Island Garden full
of fountains and other structures. Beyond that are kitchen
gardens, with woodland occupying the end and sides of the
peninsular.
These elements are subsumed in a series of intermeshed
landscapes as perceived by the nomination, all combining
conceptually to create a cultural landscape:
- The water landscape: rivers, leets, dams, ditches,
fountains
In medieval times and earlier, the valley was filled with
marshy areas, mud slides, water courses, forests, and
wetlands. Archaeology shows early attempts to control this
natural situation in Roman and Visigothic times. The
documented history of Aranjuez began as an attempt to
control its rivers by restraining, crossing, and steering them.
The riverbanks were filled with dams, jetties, feeders, and
bridges, and came to represent a pioneer system of hydraulic
engineering. The rivers both demanded and gave the
opportunity for the development of a complex system of
irrigation which enriched Arabic and medieval traditions
with Renaissance engineering. Phillip II built leets in
particular as part of an irrigation system for the area’s fertile
soils as he attempted to create in central Spain a little bit of
landscape like those he had seen in Flanders and knew about
from Italy. The ubiquitous water is both symbolic and
functional. It tells on the one hand of life and happiness and
provides the stage for metaphorical shipyards, naval fleets,
and iconographic statues and fountains. On the other, it
releaes the fertility of the soil for edible crops while
providing a moving dimension in the static formal geometry
of the ornamental gardens.
2. The Great Historic Garden (Huertas históricas) This
consists of a series of gardens which together comprise the
bulk of the area of the nominated property. On the west, at
the junction of the rivers, is Legamarejo Garden, essentially
a large number of small irrigated plots with boundaries
connecting to the feeder channels following the river banks
on either side and only in part related to a south-westerly
axial line from the Garden of the Twelve Roads (see below).
North-east of that is Picotajo Garden with some irrigation
channels but generally larger plots and much more closely
related in its main subdivisions to the geometry of the axial
line already mentioned. It is bisected by the main railway
line to Madrid. North-east of that again is the Garden of the
Twelve Roads, a roughly triangular area with a near-central
point from which radiate twelve alignments marked by roads
and tracks. The longest is that to the south-west through the
two gardens already described. Four others link westwards
to the adjacent Rebollo Garden, the whole of its southern
edge along the north bank of the Tajo. Like the Legamarejo
Garden, it is characterized by irrigation channels, most
striking in plan being an extensive area of regular, rectilinear
plots either side of a channel through its centre and parallel
to the river.
- The agricultural landscape: vegetable gardens, orchards,
nurseries and stock-breeding
The growing of edible crops at Aranjuez depends on the
soil’s fertility and the success of irrigation not only in
providing water but in controlling flooding. Royalty
banished "common" vegetables and encouraged the
cultivation of "worthy and regal" varieties. Aranjuez gave its
name to exquisite fruits: in particular strawberries,
asparagus, plums, and water pears. Agricultural experiments
were based on models in Flanders, Switzerland, and
Valencia. The grounds contain a fowl house, a cattle house,
and, in particular, the Royal Stud House, which greatly
contributed to the breeding of Spanish horses.
3. The urban area For the purposes of the nomination,
this is subdivided into two: an industrial area west of the
Palace, incorporating the railway station and the gardens
west of the Palace (see 1. above); and the 18th century
town which is now the historic core of modern Aranjuez.
The original town plan is intact, incorporating in particular,
across its northern, riverside end, two broad avenues
radiating from the east end of the Palace and earlier than,
though apparently cutting, the urban geometric grid plan.
In the town’s north-western corner, adjacent to the Palace,
is a complex of official buildings around the Plaza de San
Antonio, with other major civic, religious and private
buildings, including five nobles’ palaces, occurring
throughout the measured symmetry of the urban fabric.
The southern edge of the grid is marked by the Bull Ring.
-
The gardens, a delectable landscape
Gardens along the Tajo are representative of the Spanish
experience in this field: Renaissance gardens with a slight
Arab touch; Baroque and French Classicism-style gardens;
"Anglo-Chinese" gardens; and 19th century bourgeois
gardens. Trees and shrubs from all over the Spanish Empire
were brought to be acclimatized and cross-cultivated, often
then being returned to their place of origin.
4. The Prince’s Garden This late 18th/early 19th century
garden stretches along the south bank of the Tajo, northeast of the town. Its ruler-straight southern edge is along
the Calle de la Reina, the third, and most northerly, of the
easterly lines radiating from the Palace (see 3. above). It
contains two distinct areas, each with further subdivisions
155
-
Landscape and geometry
The nomination dossier is descriptive of these and other
management matters, but no analysis is provided of
effectiveness, nor proposals for prioritization, co-ordination,
review, or revision. ICOMOS would stress the need for the
ready availability of high-quality management information,
based here above all on well researched historical data
implemented by management sympathetic to the priority of
historicity throughout the work of maintaining and
improving the site.
There is no single geometric axis or grid for the whole site,
but the whole of the site is affected by geometric design
ranging from the grand alignments of Phillip II and the
"Great Historic Garden" to detailed arrangements in nursery
gardens. If there is one main axis, it is the Calle de la Reina
laid out by Phillip II with that intention; if there is one main
control point, it is the node in the Garden of the Twelve
Roads, for its axial influence extends right across the whole
property north of the River Tajo and, indeed, across the river
to the lines radiating from the Palace and the geometry of the
new town. Particularly outstanding is the way in which the
apparently asymmetrical, rectilinear grid of the new town, a
late addition to an already geometrically complex landscape,
was "morticed" into existing axial lines emanating both from
the Royal Palace and from the gardens. Geometry also
influenced parts of the hydraulic system, though clearly
other factors were at play there; conversely, the hydrology
fed the fountains and ponds, which were usually placed at
particular points determined by geometry, albeit serving an
aesthetic purpose (eg in the Island Garden and the western
parts of the Prince’s Garden).
-
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
Essentially the well-being of Aranjuez was sustained and
promoted under continuous Royal care until the 1868
Revolution. Ownership then became fragmented and the site
became both prey to neglect and vulnerable to pressures of
industrial, commercial and demographic growth. Despite a
railway and National Highway through it, and despite being
surrounded by economic development, it survived this phase
remarkably well, however, and was undergoing restorative
programmes and enjoying better-informed conservation
management by the end of the 20th century. The
Ayuntamiento has, for example, embarked on a programme
of renewing and repairing the avenues and their associated
roads in the former Royal estate where they are such a key
element in the historical layout. The ICOMOS mission
noted, however, that many components of the site need
repairing, renewing, improving, and even, in some cases,
recreating in order to improve the historical integrity and the
understanding of it for the present-day visitor.
The constructed landscape: roads, architecture, town
The "New City" was built in the 18th century fronting on to
the Tajo. It was designed in the form of a new garden, but
with buildings where there would have been flowerbeds. A
pattern of radial and lattice lines are superimposed on the
geometric plan. The Canal de las Aves zigzags its way
through the town centre; straight, tree-lined streets overlie
channels of running water. The architecture and the urban
spaces are contrived to seem like decoration for the abundant
vegetation in and visible from the streetscape. The whole is
linked visually, in plan, hydrologically, and botanically to
the surrounding landscape, yet the city is part of that
landscape in a unique composition.
Authenticity and integrity
Both the natural and geometric bases of the site as a whole
survive remarkably well, with relatively little loss and
effectively, modern communication routes apart, no
inappropriate intrusion. Major buildings as well as the city’s
layout and its gardens and tree-lined avenues have been
preserved as the characteristic of an urban community
among orchards and groves living on a ground plan
mimicking those of ornamental gardens across the river.
Though some of the garden areas require restoration, overall
the state of preservation is such that the site is able to
demonstrate clearly, not its state at any one moment in
history, but the stages of its development from mid-16th to
mid-19th century.
Management and Protection
Legal status
Two legal instruments are specific to Aranjuez. The whole
area was declared an Historical Complex in 1983 under the
Spanish Heritage Law. This sets basic guidelines to ensure
the preservation and upkeep of the city’s historic area as well
as the landmarks, palaces, orchards, avenues and groves. The
Urban Development Plan sets objectives for and analyses the
city’s status and preservation, establishing what sort of
activities should be encouraged and discouraged. In addition,
the nominated area is covered by a wide range of regulations
from other government bodies (eg the Madrid Community
and Aranjuez City Council).
The most important general factor which makes Aranjuez
and its landscape distinctive and a strong candidate for
World Heritage status, is the way in which it has been
shaped and developed by the interests of the Kings and
Queens of Spain and their Courts between the early 16th and
mid-19th centuries. Both Charles V and Phillip II were
leading figures in Europe and the world in their time, and
therefore in the history of Europe and the world. They were
extremely well informed, immensely influential, and
wealthy. The present site still recognizably represents the
Golden Age of Aranjuez, not only as the creation of Spanish
Royalty but as a place and a period when ideas and materials
from much of the known world came to Aranjuez and ideas
and influence emanated from it for long after the 16th
century.
Management
National, regional, and local agencies are all involved
separately, but it now seems that a series of specialized
agencies are likely to exert control over the preservation of
the historical complex. They are: the National Heritage, in
charge of Crown properties such as palaces and gardens; the
Local Heritage Commission, consisting of representatives of
regional and local government; the Technological Institute
for Agricultural Development, Ministry of the Environment,
which manages the orchards and historical avenues; and the
Tajo Hydrographic Confederation, which is in charge of the
management of the water and its associated structures.
A detail, but an important one, is that the Palace was
originally approached from the west and not the east i.e.
from both Toledo and Madrid. This is now impossible
because both bridges across the Rio Tajo are missing.
156
The ICOMOS mission also noted the omission from the
nomination, without explanation, of several structures and
features which appear to be integral parts of the whole: eg
the Royal stable near the Rio Tajo east of the Jardin del
Principe, the Casa de la Monta, and the late 18th century
model farm, the Real Cortijo de San Isidro.
and aesthetics, and how rulers can best use their power and
resources.
Comparative analysis
The nomination offers no comparative analysis. A
guidebook submitted with it contains, however, a map of
"European Royal Sites" which presumably provides the
context within which Aranjuez would wish to be seen. These
include: within Spain, the Escorial (World Heritage Site –
WHS) and La Granja clustered with Aranjuez around
Madrid; Sintra (WHS) and Queluz near Lisbon; Caserta
(WHS) near Naples; Schönbrunn (WHS) outside Vienna;
Potsdam (WHS), Berlin; Compiègne, Versailles (WHS) and
Fontainebleau (WHS) around Paris; Greenwich (WHS),
Hampton Court and Windsor near London; and Mariefred
outside Stockholm
Another question concerns the wider landscape: the views
out from the proposed area, and the way in which the
proposed area sits within the wider landscape, are significant
aspects of the nature of the site and its integrity. In
particular, is the boundary on the north west far enough out?
Should it be across, not along, the Rio Jarama?
A daily loss of integrity is produced by the large amount of
traffic, affecting not just the town but also the Palace, the
gardens, and their landscape setting. Improvements need to
continue to be made, and to be kept under review.
The constant references in the nomination’s text to the
sources of inspiration underlying the development of
Aranjuez also imply comparisons. Phillip II in particular was
much influenced in terms of waterscape by his travels in
Flanders. A completely different example of external
influence is the Petit Trianon at Versailles which was the
immediate reference for the artificial streams and ponds
arranged irregularly as the context for classical pavilions and
"eye-catchers" of Chinese and Turkish inspiration, obelisks,
false ruins, and artificial prospect mounds in the Prince’s
Garden.
The site is in general of high integrity and retains its
authenticity to a considerable degree, authenticity of place
and in design, architecture, and hydrology, and to a
surprising extent, in function too, though it has, of course,
lost its role as a royal residence.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the site in February
2001. It also consulted the ICOMOS-IFLA International
Scientific Committee on Historic Gardens and Landscapes.
Though design and cultural context are completely different,
at global level this nomination seems as a cultural landscape
conceptually close to that of Vat Phou, Laos, among current
nominations.
Qualities
ICOMOS comments and recommendations for future action
Aranjuez the town, as distinct from the whole landscape, is
an integral part of the cultural landscape. In this context, its
relationship with the design of both the water management
and with the geometric dimension of the planned landscape
is outstanding. As a town in its own right, its salient
characteristics are covered by the Operational Guidelines for
the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention,
paragraph 27, where it falls into category (ii), and by
paragraph 29 where it meets criteria about "spatial
organization, structure, materials, forms and … functions"
which "essentially reflect the civilization which [has]
prompted the nomination," and falls into category (iii),
"Historic centres that cover exactly the same area as ancient
towns and are now enclosed within modern cities." Aranjuez
the town is, in other words, a distinctive and distinguished
urban ensemble which might well have been considered for
World Heritage status in its own right. However, it is
properly presented in its landscape context, thereby adding
to understanding of its own nature and becoming a key
element in the cultural landscape nominated for World
Heritage status.
The nomination documentation was exemplary in many
respects but it made ICOMOS’s task a little more difficult
than need have been the case by containing no comparative
analysis and omitting a scale from all maps.
No management plan was submitted with the nomination
and a request from the World Heritage Committee for
technical assistance to prepare one has apparently not
produced a positive response. All the elements required in a
management plan are actually present in, though dispersed
throughout, the documentation. The missing elements are a
statement of objectives on a short- and long-term basis (five
and twenty years?) and a formal mechanism for reviewing
implementation of the plan and making consequential
revisions.
ICOMOS also recommends that such revision should
include reconsideration of the boundaries of the nominated
property. Some buildings are inexplicably omitted. More
generally, the outer boundaries of the buffer zone across the
river on the north-west and west of the site need rethinking..
Although the river itself is clearly a convenient line,
ICOMOS is anxious to see some protection in place of views
out of the core zone into the surrounding countryside.
Stages of that landscape’s development from the mid-16th to
mid-19th century are clear on the ground and in plan. This is
particularly important because several of the stages capture
significant phases in the development of European thought,
scientific enquiry and landscape design.
Further consideration also needs to be given to an exposition
of the policies, both general and more specific, that will
apply to the proposed site and buffer zone, in connection
with their conservation, care, and use. It would also help if
more explanation could be offered in respect of the
management structure for the implementation of these
policies. Mechanisms for co-ordination, monitoring, and
review are needed.
The combination of natural situation with running water,
managed hydrology, fertile soils, scientific plantsmanship,
great garden design, royal palatial context, and planned
urban development makes for an outstanding cultural
landscape, well within the Western tradition in thought and
physical realization but expressing values of global interest
about matters such as man/nature relationships, technology,
157
With regard to executive capacity, ICOMOS notes the
familiar organizational complexity and overlapping fields of
responsibilities and expertises that exist in the management
of the whole Site It therefore recommends that the
authorities concerned give serious consideration to the
establishment, under democratic control, of a dedicated
executive agency solely concerned with promoting,
sustaining, and, where necessary, defending the interests of
the nominated property. This might well prove to be
appropriate in so large and multi-dimensional a cultural
landscape which can only be given part of the attention of
institutions with many other responsibilities. It would follow
such a step in the case of the Loire Valley and run with a
similar proposal being implemented in the case of Alto
Douro, Portugal (currently being evaluated).
Brief description
The Aranjuez cultural landscape is an entity of complex
relationships between man and nature, between horticulture
and ornamental garden, between fixed structures and
flowing water, between sinuous water courses and straight
lines of geometric landscape design, between the rural and
the urban, between carefully regulated treescapes and as
carefully modulated architecture in palatial buildings, garden
furniture, and streetscape. Three hundred years of Royal
attention to the development and care of this landscape have
seen it variously express concepts such as humanism and
political centralization and enshrine values such as those in
the 18th century of the French-style Baroque garden and, a
little later, urban living side by side with the scientific
practice of plant acclimatization and stock-breeding in the
Age of Enlightenment.
ICOMOS reiterates its appreciation of both this site and the
quality of the work on the nomination already achieved. Its
unusually detailed response here recognizes those facts, and
is motivated by the thought that here is a splendid
opportunity to produce an exemplary World Heritage site if
all concerned will dedicate time and effort to achieving a
correct nomination.
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
That further consideration of this nomination be deferred
to allow time for the State Party to prepare and submit for
approval a revised nomination with an appropriate
management
plan
(addressing
inter
alia
the
recommendations
in
"ICOMOS
comments
and
recommendations for future action").
Whether or not Aranjuez be inscribed on the World Heritage
List, the fact that eight royal palace/park/garden complexes
in Europe are already inscribed might suggest that, in a
world perspective, the List is now reasonably representative
in this respect (particularly as it also includes other, nonroyal, European designed parks/gardens).
ICOMOS, March 2001
158
ordinary visitor as many ceremonies are performed
secretly inside the buildings. This aspect of the Ganda
tradition represents a continuing link with the
longstanding Baganda belief system.
Criterion vi
Kasubi (Uganda)
No 1022
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage convention, this is
a site.
Identification
Nomination
Tombs of the Buganda Kings at Kasubi
Location
Kampala District
State Party
Uganda
Date
20 June 2000
History and Description
History
The Baganda belong to the Bantu-speaking people and
date their political civilization from about the 13th
century AD. Today, the Baganda are the major ethnic
group in Uganda, their 6 million people constituting
about 28% of the population. The Buganda region
covers about 66,350km². From the first legendary
Kabaka, Kintu, to Muteesa I, there were 35 Kabakas.
Precise dates, however, are known only from Suuna II
(1836–56), who established his palace at Kasubi. He
was succeeded by his son Muteesa I who did likewise,
constructing the present tomb structure as his palace in
1882. He became a very powerful Kabaka, the first to
be influenced by foreign cultures. He adopted some
Islamic religious practices learnt from ivory and slave
traders from Zanzibar. He also showed interest in
Europe after acting as host in 1862 to John Hanning
Speke, the first European visitor. In 1875 he asked
Henry Morton Stanley, the explorer, for teachers of
European learning and religion. Some remaining
artefacts reflect this pivotal period in local history
when the Baganda were first exposed to Arab traders
and European explorers.
Justification by State Party
The royal tombs of Buganda Kabakas are sheltered in a
gigantic, circular, thatched building which is a unique
surviving example of an architectural style developed
by the powerful Buganda kingdom since the 13th
century. This structure represents one of the most
remarkable buildings using purely organic material in
the whole of sub-Saharan Africa. Its unusual scale and
its outstanding details of assembly bear witness to the
creative genius of the Baganda and are a masterpiece of
form and craftsmanship.
Criterion i
The Kasubi Tombs site is a unique testimony to the
living cultural traditions of the Baganda. The built and
natural elements are charged with historical, traditional,
and spiritual values. The site continues to be managed
in a traditional manner through a complex system of
responsibilities. The site is a major spiritual centre for
the Baganda and is the most active religious place in the
kingdom. Its place as the burial ground of the previous
four Kabakas makes it a religious centre for the royal
family, a place where the Kabaka and his
representatives carry out important rituals related to
Buganda culture.
Criterion iii
When Muteesa I died in 1884, he broke two traditions:
his body was buried whole and it was buried in his
palace, Kasubi, not somewhere else. This practice was
followed when, in 1910, the remains of his successor,
Mwanga II (ob. 1903), were brought back from the
Seychelles and also buried there, establishing Kasubi as
an important burial place of the Kabakas of Buganda.
This status was reinforced when his son and successor,
Daudi Chwa II, died in 1939 and was also buried at
Kasubi.
The Kasubi Tombs site is an outstanding example of
traditional Ganda architecture and palace design. Its
spatial organization represents the best existing example
of a Baganda palace/architectural ensemble. The
complex reflects the technical achievements developed
over centuries of the Baganda clans and the ingenuity
and creativity of the craftsmen who designed it and
continue to maintain it. The Tombs testify to the power
of Muteesa I and his importance in the history of the
Baganda, and mark a starting point for new customs
related to the burial of the Kabakas.
Criterion iv
His son and successor, Edward Muteesa II, was first in
conflict with Britain and then, after independence in
1962 when he became President, with his own Prime
Minister. Kasubi was stormed in 1966 and the President
went into exile, but when he died in 1969 his remains
were returned and buried at Kasubi in 1971. Four
successive Kabakas of Buganda were therefore buried
in the same tomb house at Kasubi, the building which is
at the core of this nomination. Each prince and princess
who is a descendant of the four Kabakas is also buried
there behind the main shrine.
The Kasubi Tombs site has a direct and tangible
association with the living traditions of the Baganda
people. Its rich architectural and decorative features and
the variety of custodians, each with his or her traditional
role to play, reflects the fusion between nature and
culture, between the spirits and the living population.
The site is strongly linked to the beliefs associated with
the spirits of the Kabakas buried there. Other traditional
events occur throughout the year, such as the new moon
ceremony, but the main spiritual life is not visible to the
Between 1967 and 1993 the site was controlled by
central government, but the traditional institutions of
kingship were restored in 1993. Kabaka Ronald Mutebi
II was crowned as the Kabaka of Buganda, and in 1997
the Kasubi tombs were returned to the Buganda
kingdom. Buganda is today one of four kingdoms in
159
Uganda. The site is now not only the most important
cultural shrine for the Baganda but also the most
attractive tourist site in the country.
area is sacred and is not open to visitors. It was formerly
completely screened off but now moves uninterrupted
into the agricultural land behind and east of it. This land
was originally occupied by homesteads but was later
subdivided among the widows of the Kabakas. It is now
rented to and farmed by members of the community;
the income is used on the site. The area contains graves,
two man-made mounds, medicinal plants, and the trees
used in making bark-cloth.
Description
The Kasubi Tombs site is situated on a hill within
Kampala. It covers an area of 30ha, on the hilltop and
down its eastern slopes. About 35 people live within it.
The whole is encircled by a fence of bark cloth trees,
now somewhat depleted. It consists of three main zones:
i. the main tomb area located at the western end
of the site on top of the hill;
Management and Protection
Legal status
ii. an area located behind the main tombs
containing a number of buildings and graveyards;
The King of Buganda is the private legal owner as
trustee for the kingdom.
iii. a large area on the eastern side of the site used
primarily for agricultural purposes.
The site is enlisted as a National Monument under the
Historical Monuments Act 1967, and therefore "shall
not be used for any use inconsistent with its character."
On the western border of the site is the gatehouse
(Bujjabukula), traditionally containing guards 24 hours
a day. It was constructed of wooden columns and
invisible walls of fired brick supporting a thatched roof,
with walls of woven reeds. Beyond is a small courtyard
containing the Ndoga-Obukaba, a circular building
containing the royal drums. Also of wooden columns
and thatch, it has walls visibly constructed of fired
brick. A recent cement floor is intended to protect the
drums from termites. Alongside is the ticket office, one
of the few modern buildings added to the site.
The site is located within a zoned residential area,
limiting the types of incompatible uses that could be
initiated nearby. The proposed buffer zone, if approved
by the Town Council, would limit construction to two
storeys and functions to those appropriate to the
environs of the Kasubi Tombs site.
Management
The site is protected under the Historical Monuments
Act from residential and other encroachment. Recent
attempts to breach this provision had been rebuffed at
the time of the nomination but, although the boundary
of the site as defined in this nomination is newly
mapped and marked on the ground, it is being less and
less respected.
The D-shaped main courtyard (Olugya) lies through a
gap in a reed fence. This fence encloses the courtyard
and links nine buildings, five of them houses for the
widows of the Kabakas, the other four respectively a
twins’ house, two tombs, and a mortuary. Variously
constructed of wattle-and-daub and fired brick, three
have round plans, the others are square. All were
originally thatched, but several now have new roofs of
galvanized metal
The site is managed under the overall authority of the
Kabaka. The Buganda kingdom is the single
management agency, and all those involved belong to it.
A management framework was defined in March 2000,
identifying the roles of each person involved in site
conservation and clarifying the hierarchy in the
decision-making process. The main management body
is the Buganda Heritage Site Commission (also
responsible for other sites; with external advisors). A
new Kasubi Tombs Heritage Committee includes the
site’s traditional managers. They are the custodians
deployed on site to perform precise, traditional tasks at
different levels: administrative, technical, and spiritual.
Significant roles belong to the Nalinga (spiritual
guardian and supervisor of the site) and the Lubunga
(land-use co-ordinator). All these tiers of management
share a commitment to the heritage of Kasubi tombs.
The ICOMOS mission was convinced that the tier
system of management provides adequate legal,
contractual, and traditional protection and management
mechanisms to ensure the conservation of the
nominated property.
The courtyard itself is empty, enhancing the visual
dominance on its eastern side of the large timber, reed
and thatched building (Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga)
housing the tombs of the four Kabakas. The building is
circular in plan and has a dome-like shape. Its external
diameter is 31m and internal height 7.5m. It has both
changed its profile and been significantly repaired since
its construction in 1882. The roof catches the eye: it
slopes right down to the ground and is reinforced
underneath by 52 woven rings of palm fronds and spear
grass, representing the 52 Ganda clans. The whole
structure is carried by gigantic straight wooden columns
wrapped in bark cloth.
The building is entered through a low, wide arch
flanked on both sides by richly woven reeds. Its inside
is partitioned with a huge bark cloth which hides the
"sacred forest" where four royal graves lie. Entrance to
the "forest" is limited to widows of Kabakas, the royal
family, the Nalinya, and Katikkiro. The inside of the
building is adorned with power insignia such as drums,
spears, shields, medals, and pictures of the buried
Kabakas. On the floor is a thick layer of lemon grass
and palm-leaf mats.
Thatching is clearly a major issue on the site. It is
carried out by the Ngeye clan, who are sole keepers of
the knowledge of how it is done and are the only people
allowed to climb on the roofs. They train young
members of the clan to continue the tradition and the
maintenance. They do not accept advice from anyone
nor do they accept technical orders.
Beyond the Olugya is scattered a large number of
buildings – houses, royal tombs and ones for
agricultural purposes – and a royal cemetery. The whole
160
The site is protected through Buganda custom because
of its strong traditional, historical, customary, and ritual
importance. Everyone fears the powerful Kabakas’
spirits and respect for age-old traditions affords
protection. Yet the site exists in the middle of a growing
urban area, with great pressure to encroach on it,
pressure which seemed to have increased quite palpably
between the time of the preparation of the nomination
and the ICOMOS mission. It was nevertheless a recent
but not immediately past development which stood out
on the western part of the core area, where a mosque
and modern Islamic primary school have not only
encroached but show a disregard for the norms of the
site. Understandably, these buildings represent a
particularly sensitive issue. Small-scale dumping on the
periphery had been a problem; a small corner of the site
was leased to an oil company in 1992 but local
opposition has so far stopped any development. But few
of the boundary bark trees remained in January 2001,
when the boundary itself was seen to be less and less
respected, being both encroached upon and in places
crossed. In particular, dumping of waste is taking place
at an accelerated rate and unauthorized farming by nonresidents of Kasubi is increasing.
heritage sites. The project aims to conserve and promote
cultural heritage, diversify the cultural product, and
encourage new income-generating activities.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
During its first fifty years (1882 to the 1930s) the
palace-cum-tomb called Muzibu Azaala Mpanga
experienced only minor maintenance work, although in
1905 it was reduced in size to make it more
maintainable. Since 1938, however, the building has
suffered several processes of restoration and
modification, primarily to meet threats of structural
failure. It was completely reconstructed in 1938–40;
modern materials were introduced, such as some
concrete columns. During the 1990s, changes incurred
by most of the buildings have slightly changed the
architectural value of the site. The tendency to
modernize the site has now been checked, however, and
efforts over the last three years have sought to change
attitudes and revive traditional skills.
The site suffers badly from rain, drainage problems, and
termites, with a constant threat of fire. Most of the
smaller buildings show deficiencies. Of their unsightly
and untraditional galvanized metal roofs, most leak.
One building burnt down in 1998 has been rebuilt but is
without a thatch roof for lack of funds. The Muzibu
Azaala Mpanga is structurally in good order but major
thatching works are necessary; too much repair work
has been done as emergency (see below). Partial
restoration of the drum-house in 1998 has left it without
an adequate roof. The gatehouse was also restored in
1998, an achievement which has already underlined the
need for continuous maintenance. The traditional
voluntary maintenance by the clans is tending to
disappear as there is no means of rewarding it: for
example, the traditional royal free meal, cooked by the
widows, no longer exists.
Rents and entry fees are the only source of funds for the
site. The State does not contribute. The widows who
maintain the tombs sustain themselves with small
amounts of cash collected in baskets displayed in the
tombs. About 4500 visitors a year come to the site; it is
hoped to increase that number to 18,000 by 2005.
Currently, once unavoidable expenditure like salaries
has been paid, little money remains for maintenance,
etc. In preparing this nomination, a Management Plan
was drawn up. It estimates that US$24,000 are needed
for immediate emergency conservation and
US$13,000 per year for regular maintenance.
The Plan’s twelve guiding principles include concepts
such as sustainability, partnership, transparency,
communication, education, and evaluation as well as
specifics such as improving the lives of the permanent
caretakers of the tombs, the widows. It identifies
priority actions in four main areas:
The original reed fence around the whole site has long
since disappeared; the living fence of bark cloth trees
around the site has suffered quite badly as an obvious
target in the endless search for firewood. The site has,
nevertheless, to an extent been preserved out of fear and
respect for its sacred and religious nature. This spiritual
protection has freed the site from urban modernization
in the 20th century, despite the booming development
which has occurred all around it. Yet, as the
Management Plan notes, "The vast majority of the local
population … do not consider the conservation of the
site as their primary objective."
1. to establish a sustainable funding system for the
site;
2. to stabilize the state of conservation;
3. to improve the visitor experience;
4. to improve the conditions for the expression of
living traditions.
The proposed buffer zone would be ineffectual given
that its restrictions are only on the heights of buildings
and uses inconsistent with the character of the site.
Some much stronger provision is now needed to protect
one of the main characteristics of the site, that is its very
authenticity in being on the original site which happens
now to have been caught up in rapid urban
development. The Ugandan authorities realize the
extent and nature of the problem, which has increased
in the last two years; but clearly there is no easy
solution. A fast-growing thorn hedge could provide
some physical protection if it was allowed to mature
over three years or so.
Authenticity
The existing layout of the site remains as it was at the
time of construction. It is a typical example of a palace
of the Baganda Kabakas. The Muzibu Azaala Mpanga
itself is now more rounded in profile than originally,
but this is neither deliberate nor the result of poor
workmanship but an accidental product of continuous
traditional maintenance. It does not affect the
authenticity in any significant way.
Materials are, however, another matter. Modern
materials introduced into the Muzibu Azaala Mpanga
in 1938–40 included a steel structure, a few concrete
The site is included in the Heritage Trail Project, an
initiative to promote community-based tourism at
161
columns, a curved concrete lintel above the entrance,
and some fired clay bricks. All are invisible. The
thatched roof resting on structural rings of palm tree
fronds is still intact, as are internal elements and
finishing materials such as the long wooden poles
wrapped in bark cloth decoration. Overall, especially
with regard to the main buildings – the Muzibu Azaala
Mpanga, the Bujjabukula (gate-house), and the
Ndoga-Obukaba (drum-house) – the material and
functional authenticity is high.
at all stages, as it was executed in the traditional way
using traditional materials.
Overall, and to a proven extent, Kasubi enshrines the
principles enunciated at Nara and at the Great
Zimbabwe meeting on authenticity and integrity.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the site in January
2001.
The houses surrounding the Olugya have experienced
more change, although the overall layout is authentic.
Two of the nine buildings are of wattle-and-daub
construction. The other seven have been constructed
or reconstructed using fired bricks. The roofs of all
nine are now of galvanized metal, visually damaging
but not structurally disastrous. A change back to
thatch is envisaged in the Management Plan, once
more urgent work has been executed. New thatching
is, of course, being put in place continuously on the
site. Woven reed partitioning is well preserved and is
another feature of organic material which can be
replaced using traditional methods and material.
Qualities
The site’s main qualities are intangible ones to do with
belief, spirituality, community, and identity. It has been
at the centre of the Baganda kingdom since its origins
about a thousand years ago, it has witnessed interaction
with the Arab world, it was in the vanguard of contact
with the arrival of the European world, and its influence
has stretched far over Africa and beyond. It possesses
an aura which is distinctly original. Simultaneously, it
possesses a considerable physical presence, being
visually striking and a place of the royal dead exhibiting
outstanding examples of indigenous architecture,
craftsmanship, and traditional organization, methods,
and skills.
Two of the 52 clans of the Baganda are directly
involved in maintaining the physical aspects of the site.
The Ngeye clan does the thatching, the Ngo clan is
responsible for the decoration and bark cloth. Execution
of these responsibilities continues, so the site is witness
to a high degree of authenticity in terms of traditional
workmanship.
Its overall plan also exhibits significant historical
patterning. A Kabaka became the first President of
Uganda. Almost all heads of state and dignitaries who
have cause to call on the Kabaka visit Kasubi as "the
spiritual heart of the Baganda." Furthermore, the site as
a whole is clearly of high potential in cultural and
tourism terms , and it acts as a "green lung" in an area
of rapid urban expansion.
Functionally – and perhaps most importantly in terms of
authenticity – the site retains its main purpose that it has
enjoyed since its nature was changed from a palace to
royal burial place in 1884. It also retains its purpose as a
living place for widows of the Kabakas, the custodians
of the tombs. It continues to be a primary religious and
ritual centre of the Buganda. In 1999 it featured
significantly in the wedding of the current Kabaka.
Comparative analysis
There are 33 tombs remaining in the kingdom where
previous Buganda Kabakas were buried. Traditional
practice was to bury each Kabaka at one site and
establish a royal shrine containing the royal jaw at
another. Many such shrines continue to be maintained.
The state of conservation is less good or well
maintained at most sites, and they are less well known
and less visited by tourists.
Although the site is now surrounded by urban
development, it is sufficiently large and well respected
to have resisted the worst effects. Being in its original
position, it therefore retains an authenticity of location
and setting, its interior in particular still being one with
a rural atmosphere. The most extensive, agricultural,
part of the site continues to be farmed in a traditional
manner.
The Kasubi Tombs site presents some unique features.
It is a multiple Kabaka burial site, the only one where
four are buried. It is also the cemetery of the royal
family. It is bigger than most other Baganda tombs, and
it is the best known. It has become a landmark, not only
for the Buganda but also for Uganda. Its location and
status ensure that the Kasubi Tombs site will continue
to be maintained for its cultural values. Were Kasubi to
be inscribed on the World Heritage List, it would bring
some unique elements currently missing among the
cultural properties.
A judgement about the degree and validity of
authenticity on the site is clearly finely balanced. The
nomination document itself states that "the authenticity
of the site, in all of its aspects remains at a very
acceptable
level,"
while
the
accompanying
Management Plan states that "…many changes have
already occurred on site which have seriously faded the
authenticity and the general value of the site." Perhaps
the most important point is in the former, where it goes
on to remark that "the conservation works carried out
since 1998 show a willingness by all those involved, to
maintain the site more faithfully…".
The ICOMOS mission visited two Kabaka tombs near
Kampala: the Wamala tomb where Suuna II is buried
only a few kilometres from Kasubi, and Masanufu
where Kiwewa is buried. Wamala was not mentioned in
the nomination but is in fact almost a replica of Kasubi,
although the relationship is rather the other way round.
Wamala is the earlier, because the first Kabaka buried at
Kasubi was the son of Suuna II (1837–56). The internal
arrangements of the Muzibu Azaala Mpanga at Kasubi
replicate those at Wamala; the traditional objects at the
Such an attitude was found to be in place in January
2001, when, following the brave decision to remove the
thatch roof from the Muzibu Azaala Mpanga, the
ICOMOS mission witnessed its replacement. Proper
documentation preceded and accompanied the exercise
162
latter are all in wood, replicated in metal by those at
Kasubi. It would seem, therefore, that Kasubi can best
be understood as a development of the formative
processes represented at Wamala, and should not be
divorced from them.
ICOMOS recommends that all other structures be
tackled following the same principles and appropriate
methodologies, that is using traditional materials and
techniques and recording both the state of conservation
and the course of the work on each structure.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
h. Particular attention should be given to reinforcing
the traditional roles played by such officials as the
Nalinga and the Lubunga.
-
General
a. Wamala should be recognized now as an integral
part of the ensemble containing Kasubi and as a future
addition to this nomination should it be inscribed on
the World Heritage List. Wamala will therefore in due
course need to enjoy a similar restorative and
maintenance regime to that Kasubi, so meanwhile
some effort should be made at least to prevent
deterioration of its critical elements.
i. ICOMOS recognizes the crucial nature and roles
of the agricultural and horticultural area of the site
downhill from the royal structures, particularly on its
east, and in order to reinforce the concept of this area
as an integral part of the site would therefore
recommend that the whole be inscribed as a cultural
landscape. ICOMOS also has in mind the analogies
with
the
Colline
Royale
d’Ambohimanga
(Madagascar) which was nominated, and is
recommended for inscription, as a cultural landscape.
b. Aware of the considerable input in recent years
from ICCROM, UNESCO, the World Heritage
Centre, and CRATerre-EAG, the ICOMOS mission
was highly impressed with the synergy at Kasubi
between the locally derived traditions and techniques
and those based on scientific principles. This
experience and the results should be publicized in the
interests of global conservation issues.
j. There may be some merit in reconsidering the
outer boundary of the buffer zone so that it accords
with some reality on the ground such as vegetation,
topography, or street/property lines, rather than simply
being a regular geometric shape.
k. Noting the considerable assistance already given
to this carefully selected site by the World Heritage
Centre, and noting its extremely fragile nature in terms
of its situation, nature, and proposed management, it is
suggested that, should the site be inscribed on the
World Heritage List, a mission to review the situation
may well be helpful to all concerned two to three
years after inscription.
c. While Kasubi is a Buganda heritage site, it is also
a significant component of Uganda heritage as would
indeed be acknowledged in the title were Kasubi to be
inscribed on the World Heritage List. Central
government funding of the site, in part at least, could
well be reconsidered.
-
Site-specific
Brief description
d. The Management Plan states that the car park is in
front of the site and that the ticket office is in a poor
state of conservation, but no mention of improvements
here is made other than noting that the latter requires
some conservation works. Rather than repairing the
ticket office in situ, it should be demolished, and the
whole issue of car-parking and ticketing should be
reconsidered in the context of a review of visitor
reception aimed at improving the visitor welcome while
restoring respect to the traditional entrance by removing
facilities for that purpose away from the entrance.
The Tombs of Buganda Kings at Kasubi is a site
embracing almost 30ha of hillside now within Kampala.
Most of the site is agricultural, farmed by traditional
methods. At its core on the hilltop, retaining its original
plan, is the former palace of the Kasanga of Baganda,
built in 1882 and converted into the royal burial ground
in 1884. Four royal tombs now lie within the Muzibu
Azaala Mpanga, the main building, which is circular in
plan and dome-like in shape. It is a major example of
architectural achievement in organic materials, here
principally wood, thatch, reed, and wattle and daub.
Maintenance is continuous and traditional. The site’s
main significance lies, however, in its intangible values
of belief, spirituality, continuity and identity.
e. n this context, ICOMOS notes the proposal for a
cultural village as an added tourist attraction, but could
discover in the dossier nothing about where this
development is to be sited or about its nature. It strongly
recommends that very careful consideration be given to
the character and theme(s) of this village, and to its
location. The latter could perhaps be away from the
core area of the site, and the possibility of carrying out
ticketing functions within it might then be particularly
appropriate.
Recommendation and statement of significance
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage
List on the basis of criteria i, iii, iv, and vi:
The most important value associated with the
Kasubi Tombs site are the strong elements of
intangible heritage. The built and natural elements
of the site, which is an outstanding example of
traditional Ganda architecture and palace design,
are charged with historical, traditional, and
spiritual values. The site is regarded as the major
spiritual centre for the Baganda. It also serves as
an important historical and cultural symbol for
Uganda and East Africa as a whole.
f. The Masiro road serves as the western boundary of
the nominated site. Beside it on its west (ie immediately
outside the site) is the mausoleum of a Katiro, a tomb
belonging to Jungu, son of Muteesa I, and the site of a
1971 ceremony involving the return of the body of
Muteesa II . These landmarks are there because they are
an integral part of Kasubi. They should therefore be
considered as part of the core area of the nomination.
g. The ICOMOS mission commends highly the work
under way on the Muzibu Azaala Mpanga and
ICOMOS, March 2001
163
nomination lies in a region that was Hungarian territory from
the 10th century until World War I.
Fertö-Neusiedler Lake
(Austria/Hungary)
The landscape began to be developed from at least the 6th
millennium BC. Then, early Neolithic communities lived in
large permanent villages: a row of such settlements follows
the southern shore of the Lake. Cultural and trading
connections with neighbouring areas are characteristics of a
later Neolithic phase. Distinct cultural attributes distinguish a
phase at the beginning of the 4th millennium when
settlements were on different sites and cattle-raising was the
basis of the economy. Metallurgy was introduced around
2000 BC, and thereafter this area shared in what appears to
be a general European prosperity of the 2nd millennium BC.
One of its manifestations was the dispersal of amber: the
Amber Route connecting the Baltic and the Adriatic passed
near the Lake.
No 772rev
Identification
Nomination
Natural Site and Cultural Landscape
of Fertö-Neusiedler Lake
Location
Burgenland, Austria
Györ-Moson-Sopron County, Hungary
State Party
Republic of Austria and Republic of
Hungary
Date
7 June 2000
From the 7th century BC onwards the shore of the Lake was
densely populated, initially by people of the Early Iron Age
Hallstatt culture and on through late prehistoric and Roman
times. In the fields of almost every village around the Lake
are remains of Roman villas. Two in Fertörákos are
accompanied by a 3rd century Mithraic temple open to
visitors. The Roman hegemony was ended in the late 4th
century, however, by the first of numerous invasions,
beginning a phase of continual change and bewildering
replacement of one people by another until the Avar Empire
in the 9th century. Hungarians occupied the Carpathian
Basin and became the overlords of the Lake area around AD
900.
Justification by State Party
The Fertö-Neusiedler Lake and its surroundings are an
outstanding example of a traditional human settlement and
land-use which is representative of a culture. The present
character of the landscape is the result of millennia-old landuse forms based on stock-raising and viticulture to an extent
not found in other European lake areas. The historic centre
of the medieval free town of Rust constitutes an outstanding
example of a traditional human settlement representative of
the area. The town exhibits the special building mode of a
society and culture within which the lifestyles of
townspeople and farmers form a united whole.
Criterion v
A new state and public administration system was
established in the 11th century. Sopron, a place with
prehistoric and Roman origins, became the seat of the bailiff
and centre of the county named after it. The basis of the
current network of towns and villages was formed in the
12th and 13th centuries, their markets flourishing from 1277
onwards, when they were effectively relieved of many fiscal
duties. A migration of German settlers started in the 13th
century and continued throughout the Middle Ages. The
mid-13th century Tartar invasion left this area unharmed,
and it enjoyed uninterrupted development throughout
medieval times until the Turkish conquest in the late 16th
century. The economic basis throughout was the export of
animals and wine.
Notes
i. Other elements under criterion v were advanced by the States
Parties but are excluded here because they lie outside the nominated
area.
Rust in particular prospered on the wine trade. Its
refortification in the early 16th century as a response to the
then emerging Ottoman threat marked the beginning of a
phase of construction in the area, first with fortifications and
then, during the 17th–19th centuries, with the erection and
adaptation of domestic buildings. The liberation of the
peasants after 1848 and the political situation after 1867
promoted development and building activity was renewed.
The most important events locally in the second half of the
19th century were the construction of railways and the
completion of the water management facilities.
ii. This property is nominated as a mixed site; the natural
significance has been assessed by IUCN and a report is awaited.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site. Under paragraph 39 of the Operational Guidelines for
the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, it is
also a cultural landscape.
In the 20th century, the Austro-Hungarian frontier created
after World War I divided the area into two, but true
isolation started only with the establishment of the Iron
Curtain between the Communist world and the rest of
Europe after World War II. It was at Fertörákos, "the place
where the first brick was knocked out of the Berlin wall,"
that participants at a Pan-European Picnic tore down the
barbed wire and re-opened the frontier which still crosses the
Lake.
History and Description
History
Two broad periods can be discerned: from c 6000 BC until
the establishment of the Hungarian state in the 11th century
AD and from the 11th century until the present. The
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Description
Management and Protection
The site lies between the Alps, 70km distant, and the
lowlands in the territory of two states, Austria and Hungary.
The Lake itself is in an advanced state of sedimentation,
with extensive reed stands. It has existed for 500 years
within an active water management regime. In the 19th
century canalization of Hanság shut the Lake off from its
freshwater marshland. Since 1912, completion of a circular
dam ending at Hegykö to the south prevents flooding.
Legal status
Ownership is complex: in the Austrian part of the
nomination less than 1% lies with the State, the bulk of the
41,590ha belonging to private owners and communities. In
the Hungarian part, within the Fertö-Hanság National Park
the State owns 10,790ha (86%), with other owners there and
elsewhere in the nominated areas being local government,
the Church, and private individuals.
The Lake is surrounded by an inner ring of sixteen
settlements and an outer ring of twenty other settlements.
However, only three – Podersdorf, Illmitz, and Apetion – are
entirely within the nominated area, with parts of Rust and
Fertörákos also included. The Palace of the township of
Nagycenk is included as a detached part of the core zone;
Fertöd Palace is also included, though in a detached area of
core zone outside the buffer zone.
Cultural property, including outstanding monuments,
groups of buildings, and objects, is protected by the
Austrian Monument Protection Act 1923, subsequently
amended several times. The entire historic centre of the
free town of Rust is under a preservation order. In
Hungary, the legal situation continues to evolve. The FertöHanság National Park was created in 1994, and now the
nationalization of National Park land formerly owned by cooperatives should soon be completed. New laws replacing
the object-and-monument-centred approach are in train. Law
No 65 of 1990 made the protection of the built environment
a task of both the communities and county-level local
government. Law No 54 of 1997 endeavours to promote the
interests of monument preservation within a holistic concept
of protecting the built environment with due consideration to
numerous other factors, including the promotion of public
awareness of the cultural heritage. The Széchenyi Palace,
Nagycenk, and the whole assembly of historic monuments
come under this Law; the same applies to the Fertöd
Esterházy Palace as well as the former Bishop’s Palace and
its garden in the protected area of Fertörákos. Law No 78 of
1997 defines as an objective the protection of village-scapes
and landscapes.
Among the three dozen or so settlements within the buffer
zone, several are picked out as being particularly noteworthy
by the nomination: Rust above all, but also Mörbisch, with
its typical narrow lanes, Donnerkirschen, with its
homogeneous settlement structure, walled Purbach,
Breitenbrunn with its peel tower, and Fertörákos, formerly a
lakeside settlement but now left high and dry as the Lake has
shrunk. It must be stressed, however, that, except for parts of
the first and last in that list, none are within the nominated
area, and so they are not further described here.
Two palaces are both within detached portions of core area.
Széchenyi Palace, Nagycenk, lies at the southern end of the
Lake, associated above all with one of the greatest
personalities in modern Hungarian history, Earl Széchenyi
István (1791–1860). The settlement itself was created by
merging several smaller medieval villages. The Palace is a
detached ensemble of buildings in the centre of a large park,
initially built in the mid-18th century in place of a former
manor house. It acquired some of its present form and
appearance around 1800. An addition in the 1830s after
English models was accompanied by sanitary novelties,
while on the east were the stables for some twenty stallions
and sixty mares bought by Earl Széchenyi in England as a
basis for renewed horse-breeding in Hungary. The Baroque
Palace garden originated in the 17th century. Its main avenue
leads 2.6 km to the lake-shore. In the late 18th century an
English-style landscape garden was laid out. Following
fashion, major trees were added in the 1860s. They and other
plants survived World War II but the building was much
damaged.
The Hungarian part of the nomination is covered by the
National Land Use Plan, which recognizes the FertöHanság National Park as a priority area and extremely
sensitive in terms of cultural heritage. The Park has
recently been successful in attracting significant foreign
funding for infrastructural development. Overall, the
objective is to preserve the entire heritage as one single
entity.
Management
For conserving the existing cultural properties on both
sides of the frontier, responsibilities are distributed
between Federal, provincial, and local levels. In Austria
the combined effects of the Monument Protection Act and
village renewal regulation within a tourist context
encourage sustainable tourism. In practice, work and
resources are in the hands of the cultural office of the
provincial government, the Burgenland tourist association,
provincial museums, and village renewal advisory boards.
The last produce binding village renewal plans which
provide the framework for management and development.
Between 1769 and 1790 Joseph Haydn’s compositions were
first heard in the Fertöd Esterházy Palace. It was the most
important 18th century palace of Hungary, built after the
model of Versailles. The plan of the palace, garden, and park
was on geometrical lines which extended to the new village
of Esterháza. There, outside the palace settlement, were
public buildings, industrial premises, and residential
quarters. The Palace itself is laid out around a square with
rounded internal corners. To the south is an enormous
French Baroque garden; the main avenue is more than 1km
long. The garden itself has been changed several times, the
present design being essentially of 1762. The garden was
reconstructed in 1904 after a long period of disuse and the
Baroque composition, though many of its elements require
restoration, remains almost intact.
Management is designed to supervise and monitor the state
of preservation. A complete inventory of monuments and
sites compiled at State level is available for conservation and
management. Arrangements are similar on the Hungarian
side.
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breeding for thousands of years. The water, the reed-beds
with their labyrinth of channels, the saline fields once
flooded by salt water, the row of hills enclosing the lake
from the west with forests and vineyards on top represent not
only the natural-geographical component features but also
hundreds of years of identical land-use, making the area a
unique example of humans living in harmony with nature.
The Leitha limestone, west of the Lake and quarried from
Roman times until the mid-20th century, provided building
stone to Sopron and Vienna as well as local settlements.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The whole area has been a nature and landscape protection
area since 1965, and the protection area has been classified
as a reserve under the Ramsar Convention since 1983. The
Fertö-Neusiedler Lake is a MAB Biosphere Reserve. In
Austria, Neusiedler See-Seewinkel National Park (1993) is
within the Ramsar area. The southern (Hungarian) end of the
proposed site has been a landscape protection area since
1977 and the Fertö-Hanság National Park since 1992.
The traditional architectural monuments within the property
and buffer zone are well preserved as regards the original
fabric, appearance, and artistic effect. The continuing
preservation and maintenance of the historic building
material is guaranteed. Rust was declared a "model town" as
a fully preserved vintners’ town by the Council of Europe in
1975.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
A joint ICOMOS-IUCN expert mission visited the site in
March 2001
Qualities
The provincial government of Burgenland recognizes the
principle of sustainable tourism and the special needs of a
region characterized by comprehensive landscape, nature,
and monument conservation programmes. Since 1976 it has
tried to reduce mass tourism in favour of individual
travellers. Policies and programmes designed to present and
promote the area are in place in a number of towns and
villages and throughout the National Park. Nevertheless,
especially in the Austrian part of the buffer zone, changes to
the fabric of several settlements and in the appearance of
numerous buildings, both as a result of unsympathetic
modernization over the last decades of the 20th century,
have cumulatively detracted from the historicity of an
important element in the landscape. Tourism grew during the
same period and the authorities nevertheless recognize that
properly preserved houses and townscapes are among the
area’s main tourist attractions. The Hungarian National Park
maintains a separate department responsible for "soft" or
sustainable tourism in an area visited by c 500,000 people
per year.
The area in general is of considerable cultural interest,
though much of the landscape containing and expressing that
interest lies in the buffer zone. The nominated area is
primarily concerned with the Lake itself and its shores, and
does not of itself constitute a cultural landscape. The Lake is
changing and affecting its environs, yet much of the cultural
value of the area lies in its genuinely unchanging qualities of
way of life and landscape based upon a traditional and
sustainable exploitation of a limited range of resources –
particular habitats for reed-production, cattle-raising, fishing,
and viticulture. Though tourism is both a change and a
bringer of change, as a phenomenon it was recognized early
and has been quite successfully controlled and modified to
suit the area. As a result, and largely concerning the buffer
zone, the insertion of the intrusively modern has been largely
confined to some of the main settlements and is not
generally apparent in either the wider landscape or
individual farms. Much of the vernacular architecture is well
preserved and is considered by many to be outstandingly
attractive. One of the great palaces of Europe, with a smaller
one of great national interest, stand in the core zone at the
Lake’s southern edge, both related, like everything else here,
to the Lake itself.
Authenticity and integrity
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Authenticity
The landscape overall and the scale as well as the internal
structure and characteristically rural architecture of the
towns and villages bear witness to an agricultural land-use
and way of life uninterrupted since medieval times. The
nomination dossier claims that "Both the area proposed for
inscription and the buffer zone are characterized by a
continuing settlement history dating back to the Middle
Ages"; the settlement pattern, and indeed the occupation, of
several present-day village sites actually go back to Roman
times and more. Buildings, walls, and vistas have been
preserved in such places as Donnerskirken and Purbach,
both nevertheless carefully excluded from the core zone of
the nomination.
Comparative analysis
The area is characterized by a long tradition of viticulture –
strong red wines on the low level lime-based rock and light
white wines on the eastern river bank since Roman times.
A similar viticultural area occurs on the Balaton hills,
Hungary, but they are on slopes and open straight on to the
water without the intervention of reed beds. The cattleraised beside the Lake, on the Aföld meadows, were driven
to the Austrian and German markets. That they were raised
here at all, however, results from the creation by natural
forces of excellent pastures, which has permitted a
particular type of economic activity otherwise more
characteristic of Eastern Europe and Asian grassy
biospheres, unknown to the west of Fertö-Neusiedler Lake.
A varied ownership pattern is exemplified by the remarkable
rural architecture of the very small villages situated in the
buffer zone and by the Fertöd Esterhazy and Nagycenk
Széchenyi Palaces, outstanding examples of the nobility’s
architecture of the 18th and 19th centuries.
-
Under "Comparative analysis" the nomination dossier
asserts that "The geographical position of the Lake has
contributed to an uninterrupted evolutionary process
involving diverse civilizations across two thousand years.
Such an organic evolution, interaction and close
association between the Lake and the local population
cannot be found in any of the comparable lakes." However,
no further comparative analysis of cultural matters is
offered there, though elsewhere it is stated that "The
Integrity
The landscape of the Fertö-Neusiedler Lake area has
advantageous natural and climatic conditions which have
made it suitable for agricultural cultivation and stock-
166
organic, historical and diverse associations of humans with
the ecological environment in the Fertö-Neusiedler Lake
area is unique among the salty, saline lakes of the world."
However, the comparative analysis of cultural matters
offered by the States Parties is weak: two assertions do not
constitute a compelling argument. On a comparative basis,
the nominated area of the Fertö-Neusiedler Lake and its
immediate surrounds are not presented as at all exceptional
in terms of cultural quality or history.
iii The absence of plans is a serious impediment to
understanding the detail and nuances of this nomination. It
also suggests an absence of realization that settlement-form
and settlement pattern are "cultural." There is no serious
spatial/historical analysis of the settlements, though clearly
this could contribute much to the interest of the nomination,
especially if at least some settlements, carefully selected by
clearly stated criteria, were included in the nomination. They
are an integral part of the cultural landscape physically and
should also be integral both conceptually and, in practice, in
the way the nomination is defined and presented. ICOMOS
advises that it regards this matter as central to a successful
nomination in this case and would encourage the nominees
to address it.
In fact, lakeside settlement by humans involving fishing and
stock-raising is common throughout Europe and has been
since the advent of people with domesticated animals c 6000
BC. It flourished in particular around, for example, Swiss
lakes in the 2nd millennium BC, the Somerset marshes in
England in the 1st millennium BC, and Scottish and Irish
lakes in the 1st millennium AD. A combination of stockraising and fishing with viticulture beside a lake, as distinct
from other crops and watersides, is, however, less common
and obviously confined to the wine-growing zone.
Analogues should therefore probably be sought in the
Mediterranean region or, for example, in the Rhône or
Rhine/Moselle drainage basins. A further qualification is
added in this case, however, because the Lake is saline,
which makes the combination of qualities rare. This is
perhaps emphasized by the obviously comparable saline
lakes in, for example, Israel whose shores support neither
viticulture nor cattle-breeding. IUCN has prepared from the
point of view of natural interest a comparative analysis of
saline lakes in the world for its report.
iv In addition to the major query about the line of the
boundary of the core zone, there are several queries about
detail of boundaries as they stand at present.
v ICOMOS notes that this property is nominated as a mixed
site, the cultural aspect being defined as a cultural
landscape. It recommends that, if the Fertö-Neusiedler Lake
area is to be considered as such, the nomination requires
significant reconsideration of the boundaries of the core
area, and of the concepts within which they are redefined.
In particular, the States Parties should be invited to clarify
their thinking about and presentation of the lakeside
villages, and about fields and field systems, preferably in
conjunction with their villages.
In comparable terms, a strong argument for a rare
combination of factors occurring at Fertö-Neusiedler Lake
can probably be advanced, including interactions between
people and nature. However, more thought needs to be given
to the expression of that cultural and cultural/natural
dimension in the landscape, both on the ground in terms of
what exactly needs to be nominated, and why, and on paper
to develop whatever line of argument proves most
appropriate for World Heritage cultural landscape purposes..
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
That this nomination be referred back to the two State
Parties, requesting them to revise it as proposed in
"ICOMOS recommendations and comments" above,
paragraph v. In the event that the revised text is submitted
in time and found to be satisfactory, ICOMOS
recommends that this property be inscribed on the World
Heritage List on the basis of criterion v:
The Fertö-Neusiedler Lake area is the meeting place of
peoples arriving as migrants or conquerors. The
dynamism of the Lake itself has presented people with
both challenges to face and a resource to exploit since
their arrival here some eight thousand years ago. The
diverse cultural landscape of which it is the core has
been created by an organic process of evolution, by the
work of man living in symbiosis with the natural
environment.
ICOMOS comments and recommendations for future action
i The documentation specifies only one cultural criterion
(v) to justify this nomination. The whole area does indeed
clearly constitute an "example of a traditional human
settlement and land-use," and one criterion may well be
sufficient; but most of the human settlement is excluded
from the nominated area and discussion of land-use is
conducted by simplistic reiteration. ICOMOS strongly
advises that it is essential to demonstrate by the production
of good cultural evidence (for example from documentary
research), and by cogent argument, that an area is a cultural
landscape in World Heritage terms.
ICOMOS, March 2001
ii ICOMOS notes in particular that the nomination is
over-reliant on its reiteration throughout of the importance of
the string of lake-side settlements which are – judging by the
care with which the boundary of the core zone avoids them –
nevertheless deliberately excluded from the nominated area.
This discordance between perception and text/graphics is
nowhere explained. Furthermore, not one settlement is
illustrated with a plan, nor are either of the two palaces
which are within the nomination. The section on "Cultural
property," which is mainly about the villages excluded from
the core zone, is therefore in a sense largely irrelevant,
unnecessarily long, and difficult to follow.
167
The ruins of Masada reflect several stages in human history.
These include classical Roman architecture (palace, bathhouses, store-rooms, water system, military installations),
humble Jewish domestic architecture (with a synagogue and
ritual baths), and early Christian monasticism. The most
outstanding elements of these are the Roman siege works
around the mountain, the most complete in the world and
almost completely unexcavated, and the Northern Palace.
Criterion iv
Masada (Israel)
No 1040
The ruins and historical accounts of Masada are directly
associated with the most fundamental human values. Issues
decided at Masada – the few against the many, liberty versus
slavery, religious freedom versus oppression, life versus
death – are subjects of universal moral and academic
discussion and will long continue to be so.
Criterion vi
Identification
Nomination
Masada National Park
Location
Tamar Region
State Party
Israel
Date
30 June 2000
Note This property is nominated as a mixed site. Its evaluation under
the natural criteria will be carried out by IUCN.
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
site.
Justification by State Party
Masada is a cultural and natural heritage site, with universal
importance. It is an isolated rock in a remote corner of the
Judaean Desert, facing the Dead Sea and expressing the
special geology and nature of that area. Its archaeological
remains relate to three periods of human settlement on the
site which are chronologically separated and different in
character. Each reflects on one hand certain uniqueness and
on the other a fabric of intertwined human cultural contexts
of its period.
History and Description
History
The history of Masada is known principally from the work of
Flavius Josephus, the Jewish historian of the 1st century CE,
and from the excavations of 1963–65.
According to Josephus, the site was first fortified by the High
Priest Jonathan. There were two High Priests of this name in
the 2nd century BCE and it is not certain to which he was
referring. The only material from the Hasmonaean period
(103–40 BCE) so far discovered in excavations at Masada is
a number of coins of Alexander Jannaeus, from the early part
of the period. There is evidence in the form of archaeological
finds in a cave that there was human settlement there in the
Chalcolithic period (4th millennium BCE) and then in the
Early Iron Age (10th–7th century BCE).
The sophisticated water system at Masada transformed a
barren, isolated hilltop with an arid climate into a lavish
royal retreat. This system used run-off water from a single
day of rain to sustain life for a thousand people for two to
three years.
The "hanging" Northern Palace with its three terraces
presents the ultimate challenge in designing and building in
extreme conditions. It is a masterpiece of the engineering and
architecture of antiquity.
Criterion i
Herod the Great (ruled 37–4 BCE) selected the virtually
impregnable site of Masada to build a refuge for himself and
his family at a period when he felt himself threatened both
internally by the Jews of his kingdom and externally by
Cleopatra, who wanted to add Judaea to her Egyptian
kingdom. At first the buildings were relatively modest,
though conforming with classical Roman architectural forms.
They were progressively enlarged and lavishly decorated, to
become a luxurious royal palace. Towards the end of his
reign Herod felt himself threatened once again and so the
fortifications were rebuilt and reinforced.
The developments in architecture and landscape design
illustrated by the three Herodian and later Zealot building
phases at Masada illustrate an important interchange of
human values over time. The early Herodian phase was one
of survival, but in which Roman architecture and the Roman
way of life were introduced into a harsh natural environment.
With the main Herodian phase a lavish architectural style
was adopted and fully integrated into the desert landscape.
The fear and paranoia of the king resulted in the site being
heavily fortified in the late Herodian period. Finally, a
humbler form of architecture was introduced during the
Zealot phase, suitable for a simpler way of life adapted to the
harsh living conditions.
Criterion ii
To the early phase (c 35 BCE) belong the nucleus of the
Western Palace, three small palaces, an administrative
building, a barracks, three columbaria (also used as watchtowers), several large cisterns, and a swimming pool. These
buildings are scattered all over the hilltop, without any
apparent overall plan. The architects had previously served
the Hasmonaean court, and the early buildings are strikingly
similar to those at Jericho.
The fall of Masada in 73 CE symbolized the end of the
Second Temple Period, which was a major turning point in
Jewish history. The Masada synagogue is one of the earliest
examples of a ceremonial prayer building during the last
phase of the Second Temple Period and after the destruction
of the Temple in Jerusalem.
Criterion iii
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Description
The main phase is dated to the mid 20s of the 1st century
BCE. The most important new construction was the large
Northern Palace; close by was the large bath-house, for the
use of the king and his family and guests. Also close to the
palace was a large storage complex composed of eighteen
long store-rooms. This group, together with an
administrative building, are located at the highest point of the
hilltop and constitute a defensible acropolis or citadel.
The towering hill of Masada, with its precipitous flanks,
overlooks a natural landscape of savage beauty. To the west
lies the Judaean Desert, with its hills and terraces: it is arid,
yet can burst into bloom during a rainy winter. To the east is
a wildly broken terrain, running down to the brilliant colours
of the Dead Sea. A giant scarp stretches to the south away to
the horizon – the western wall of the Syrian-African rift
valley – and Masada forms part of this scarp. The top of the
hill is roughly trapezoidal, measuring c 600m x 300m.
The Western Palace was considerably enlarged at this time.
A series of very large cisterns were dug, and new access
paths were laid out. By contrast with the early period, the
new works carried out in this period appear to have been
carried out in accordance with a plan. They are integrated
into two complexes, one around the Northern Palace and the
other round the Western Palace. The architecture is also
different in that it is in the full Roman style and tradition.
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The northern area (Herodian period)
The main structure here is the Northern Palace, which in its
present form is from the main phase (late 1st century BCE).
It was built on three slightly modified natural rock terraces.
The upper level, through which access was gained to the
Palace, was mainly used for residential purposes, with two
wings of bedrooms flanking a hall; all were originally
decorated with mosaic floors and wall paintings. To the
north of the bedrooms there is a semi-circular colonnaded
terrace surrounding what was probably a garden.
In the final phase, dated to around 15 BCE, the most
important new construction was the casemate wall, 1290m
long, which surrounds the entire summit. In addition, some
small modifications and additions were made to the northern
complex.
On the two lower levels are to be found imposing
colonnaded reception halls, one rounded and the other
rectangular; both had bathing facilities. The lower reception
level is the best preserved of the three. Access was through a
trapezoid courtyard, with store-rooms, meal preparation
facilities, and a small bathhouse below and around it. There
are two rock-hewn cisterns underneath.
With the end of the Herodian dynasty in 6 BCE Judaea came
under direct Roman rule, and a small garrison was installed
at Masada. At the beginning of the Jewish Revolt in 66 a
group of Zealots led by Menahem, one of the Jewish leaders,
surprised and slaughtered the garrison. The Zealots held
Masada throughout the revolt, and many Jews settled there,
particularly after the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of
the Temple by Titus in 70. They occupied some of the
Herodian palace buildings, and added more modest
structures of their own, such as a synagogue, a ritual bath,
and small houses.
On a small hill just to the south of the Northern Palace is the
large bath-house. The large courtyard entrance was probably
used as a palaestra (exercise area). The bathing facilities
consisted of a changing room (apodyterium), a cold room
(tepidarium) in the form of a stepped pool, and a large hot
room (caldarium) with a barrel-vaulted roof. The entire
complex was originally decorated with mosaic floors and
wall paintings, but the floor mosaics were later replaced by
coloured stone slabs (opus sectile). In addition, here are the
remains of the heating furnaces and water installations.
Two years later Flavius Silva, the Roman Governor, decided
to eliminate this last remaining centre of Jewish resistance.
He sent the X Legion and a number of auxiliary units there,
with many prisoners of war for manual duties. The Jews, led
by Eleazar Ben Yair, prepared for a long siege as the
Romans and their prisoners built camps at the base of the hill
and a long siege wall (circumvallation). On a rocky site near
the western approach to Masada they constructed a massive
ramp of stones and rammed earth. A giant siege tower with a
battering ram was constructed and moved laboriously up the
completed ramp. It succeeded in breaching the wall of the
fortress in 73, allowing the Roman soldiers to enter.
The store-rooms complex originally contained 18 rooms, 13
of which were 26m long. They are surrounded by a system of
long corridors, also probably used for storage. It was easily
defensible, with only two entrances. In addition, there were
two (perhaps three) guard towers. A number of long
storerooms were added to this complex at the end of the final
phase, together with another small bath-house.
The Zealots defended stoutly, but there was no hope of
resisting the Roman attack for long. Josephus reports that
Ben Yair talked to the 960 men, women, and children who
survived, telling them that "a glorious death is preferable to a
life of infamy." All but two took their own lives on 2 May
73.
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The western area (Herodian period)
Work on the Western Palace began in the early phase, but it
was substantially enlarged and rebuilt in the main phase. To
the nucleus, which consisted of a courtyard (with in all
probability a garden) surrounded by bedrooms and reception
rooms, were added two extensive service wings. Their
functions would have been varied: storage of furniture,
domestic utensils, and food, and food preparation for all the
palaces on the summit.
A Roman garrison was once again installed at Masada and
stayed there for some forty years. It occupied both the hilltop
and the fortress constructed by Flavius Silva for the
besiegers. After the withdrawal of the Roman garrison, the
site was abandoned until the 5th century. Following a
powerful earthquake, which caused most of the surviving
Herodian buildings to collapse, a small community of
Christian monks established themselves on the hilltop. They
built a modest chapel and lived in primitive cells constructed
from the ruins and in caves. After some decades this
community was disbanded and Masada was deserted until
excavations began in the 1960s.
The Palace was expanded once more in the final phase, with
the addition of new wings, including four long storerooms. It
became the largest building on the hilltop. Its size and layout,
together with the opulence of its decoration (mosaic floors
and walls of white plastered painted to imitate marble
panels). This confirms the hypothesis that this was the
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ceremonial palace, the Northern Place being the private
palace for the king and his family.
The great ramp used for the final assault was built of soil and
stones braced by an armature of timber beams.
There is a number of smaller palaces, residential blocks, and
administrative buildings to the east of the Western palace
and between it and the Northern Palace.
-
-
The church is located virtually in the centre of the summit,
and its walls still stand to a considerable height. It was built
of coursed dolomite, most of it robbed from the ruins of the
Herodian buildings. The walls were bonded with lime
mortar. The floor was originally covered with a mosaic, but
much of this was removed to the Louvre in Paris after a 19th
century excavation. The walls were plastered, and surviving
fragments show that it was decorated with designs made of
coloured stones and potsherds. The plan is the characteristic
rectangular hall with an apse at the east end and a narthex at
the west end.
The defences (Herodian period)
The casemate wall was built in the final phase. This massive
defensive wall, 1290m in length, contains nearly 70 rooms
on its inner side, some more than 30m long, and has 27
towers. Three gates pierce the wall: the Western Gate, the
Southern Gate, and the Snake Path Gate (the eastern gate).
The existing Water Gate, which gave access to the Northern
Palace, was not incorporated into the casemate wall.
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Water management
-
A number of deep cisterns were dug into the rock of Masada
in all three phases. The small ones dug during the first phase
were filled by run-off from the hill-top itself during the
winter. During the main phase two rows of cisterns were dug
beneath the hill-top. The row of four 130m below the summit
each had a capacity of 4000m3. The second row was 50m
higher: the eight cisterns was each capable of receiving
3000m3. Water was delivered through a network of dams and
channels into this system during the winter floods in the
wadis to the west of Masada.
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Building materials and techniques
Most of the Herodian walls and their foundations were built
of undressed blocks of the local dolomite, bonded with
mortar made of local earth mixed with straw. The blocks
were laid in courses, with larger blocks (c 90cm long) in the
lower courses. The only worked stones were those used for
constructing corners and doorjambs. Walls varied in
thickness between 60cm and 95cm. The defensive walls are
different both in dimensions and construction. They average
6.5m in thickness and consist of an outer wall 1.4m thick and
an inner one 0.95m thick filled with rubble.
Structures from the Zealot period
The use of ashlar (dressed stone) is very rare at Masada: it is
restricted to the three terraces of the Northern Palace and the
three columbaria. Here the stone used was not the hard local
dolomite but a soft grey-green limestone. Sandstone was
used where precision was needed: columns, architraves,
central pillars in staircases, etc. These materials were either
extracted from nearby quarries or from quarries near Jericho,
the latter being brought to Masada by boat. A lime-based
mortar was used in such cases
Most of the buildings on the hilltop were occupied by the
around one thousand people who lived there at that time, and
more particularly the casemates and the smaller palaces (the
Western Palace appears to have been used for communal and
administrative purposes). Large rooms were partitioned into
smaller units, existing entrances were blocked and new ones
opened, and temporary constructions added. Facilities for
baking and cooking, water, and storage were also inserted.
With the exception of the casemate walls, all the walls (and
many of the ceilings) were plastered. In many interiors a
plaster of earth and straw was used, identical with the mortar
used for wall building. This was probably coated with a lime
wash, though little of this has survived.
The most important new feature from this time was the
synagogue, a square building from the Herodian period that
was probably used as a stable. Three rows of benches,
characteristic of early synagogues, were built round the
walls, and the genizah (depository for superseded scrolls)
under the floor of the back room.
Lime-based plaster was also used in some cases, both
internally and externally. Where plaster was used on external
surfaces, it extended either over the lower section only or
over the entire surface. A special plaster containing ash as
well as lime (hydraulic plaster) was used in rooms exposed
to high humidity, notably the bath-houses, cisterns, and
water channels.
Seven or eight ritual baths (mikveh) were identified,
including one large stepped immersion pool to the south of
the Western Palace. A public hall was also constructed at this
time attached to one of the smaller palaces.
-
The Byzantine church
Roman military remains
There is a network of eight Roman military camps around
Masada, none of which has been excavated. Two are large,
two smaller. One of the large camps lies to the east and the
other to the west of Masada. Evidence from aerial survey and
probing show them to be standard Roman legionary
fortresses of quadrilateral plan. In that lying to the west
(which is believed to have been the headquarters of Flavius
Silva) a smaller sector had been fortified later, to form the
headquarters of the later garrison. Both lie outside the
circumvallation, whereas the smaller ones are more closely
associated with that long earthwork. A striking feature of all
the Roman camps are the hundreds of contubernia (messing
units), consisting of walls of stones 1–1.5m high on which
the soldiers erected their leather tents.
These techniques are to be found, to a high level of
craftsmanship, on the more substantial buildings from the
Zealot period.
Management and Protection
Legal status
The entire site is a National Park, established under the
provisions of the National Parks, Nature Reserves, Memorial
Sites and National Sites Law (1998), and the archaeological
sites are covered by the Antiquities Law (1978). The
National Park is further protected by being entirely
surrounded by the Judaean Desert Nature Reserve, also
established under the 1998 Act. There is also a belt of open
170
summit. There are underground parking facilities for cars and
small buses and an open park for coaches.
land between the site and the Dead Sea which is protected as
open agricultural land under the provisions of a local master
plan under the Planning and Building Law 1965. There are
very severe penalties for any unauthorized actions that in any
way affect the qualities of the National Park and the
archaeological monuments.
A number of commercial enterprises are to be relocated in a
new facility that will not be visible from the summit. The
youth hostel is also to be located here.
A new cable car, which began operating in May 1999, has
halved the waiting time for visitors; this starts from the new
entrance. The site of its upper terminal was carefully
selected: it is located below the ancient entrance gate and
access to the site proper is via a bridge. All the facilities that
are being replaced are being demolished and the land
restored to its earlier appearance.
Management
The entire nominated area and the buffer zone are owned by
the State of Israel.
Management of the Masada National Park and of the
Judaean Desert Nature Reserve is the legal responsibility of
the Nature and Parks Protection Authority, whilst
responsibility for the archaeological sites is vested in the
Israel Antiquities Authority. The belt of agricultural land
comes under the control of the Regional Council.
Of particular importance is the project to dismantle and
relocate the service cable lift, which dates from the
excavations in the 1960s. At present this passes directly
above the Roman ramp and enters the enceinte through the
breach made by the besiegers, which is one of the key
historical locations on the site.
Direct management of the Park is in the hands of the Park
Director. The nature reserves around the archaeological site
is regularly patrolled by rangers, operating from En Gedi
oasis and Arad, 20km north and 25km west of Masada
respectively.
There is a son-et-lumière installation below the western side
of the hill, used principally for educational purposes.
The headquarters of the Nature and Parks Protection
Authority has planning committees which are responsibility
for approving and implementing development plans.
Independent experts attend the meetings of these committees
and public hearings are held to consider issues of
outstanding national and international interest. The Israel
Antiquities Authority has an independent conservation
committee which considers conservation and reconstruction
proposals and projects.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The site was first identified as that of Masada by two
travellers in 1863. Other visits followed in the second half of
the 19th century and the 20th century, in particular the
scholars responsible for the Palestine Exploration Fund's
Survey of Western Palestine in 1867 and 1875.
Following the merger of the Nature Reserves Authority with
the National Parks Authority in 1998 an outline management
plan for heritage sites in nature reserves was prepared with
the assistance of the Getty Conservation Institute. An
updated version is nearing completion: the coverage is
comprehensive and fully in conformity with the requirements
of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the
World Heritage Convention so far as the cultural heritage
element is concerned.
A limited archaeological survey was carried out in 1955–56,
sponsored by the Israel Exploration Society, the Hebrew
University, and the Department of Antiquities. In 1963–65
Professor Yigael Yadin carried out his celebrated excavation.
The decision was taken before the excavations ended to open
the site to the public as a national park, and conservation
work began immediately the excavators moved out.
The work was based on a plan set up by a committee of
specialists, according to the prevailing standards of the
period (which involved the use of Portland cement, now
almost entirely replaced). Conservators from Israel and
abroad have worked on the site continuously since that time,
continually updating their techniques and expertise. In the
course of the past five years, since the Masada development
project began, most of the buildings in the northern area have
been worked on. Work has been carried out to evaluate and
improve the stability of the rock. A major stabilization and
conservation project is in progress on the Western Palace by
a team headed by Professor John Ashurst (University of
Oxford, UK).
One of the most serious problems is that of visitor numbers:
currently the number of visitors is around 650,000, and it is
forecast that this figure will rise to 900,000 by 2001 and 1.25
million by 2010 (it should be noted, however, that the
current disturbed internal political situation has resulted in a
drastic reduction in visitor numbers). There have also been
determined efforts in recent years to commercialize the
archaeological site. These points were given special
consideration in the development programme
A project for the construction of an hotel and recreation area
11km to the north has been shelved. A policy of prohibiting
commercial activities of any kind or picnic facilities on the
summit has been rigorously maintained. There is now a
visitors' trail on the summit with interpretation along its
length.
As part of the development project there is a five-year
conservation programme, due to end during 2001, which has
involved fifteen trained conservators and twenty unskilled
workers. From 2002 onwards there will be a planned
maintenance programme operated by a team of between five
and seven trained workers. This will coincide with the
introduction of a systematic monitoring process. A detailed
manual has been prepared, covering different aspects of
conservation, maintenance, and management, and is
systematically updated.
A new entrance project on the eastern side, almost entirely
invisible from the summit, is nearing completion and all
facilities are being moved there. This will house interpretive
material, conservation facilities, management offices,
restaurants, etc. The building is well designed so as not to
conflict with its historic and natural environment and sited so
as to have a minimal visual impact when viewed from the
171
For the Roman military camps, circumvallation, and ramp
there is no site that can compare with Masada in terms of
visibility and completeness.
An important part of the management plan is the decision to
carry out no further research excavation on the main site "in
the present generation." Limited excavation will be permitted
when necessitated by conservation or restoration projects.
ICOMOS recommendations for future action
Authenticity and integrity
Careful consideration needs to be given to the siting of the
coach park at the entrance facility. The present site interrupts
the line of the Roman siege wall between two forts. The
black tarmac surface is intrusive when seen from above.
This is a site that remained untouched for more than thirteen
centuries. The buildings and other evidence of human
settlement gradually collapsed and were covered over until
they were revealed in the 1960s. There have been no
additions or reconstruction (beyond an acceptable level of
anastylosis), and inappropriate materials used in early
conservation projects are being replaced. Certain significant
archaeological elements, such as the Roman camps and
siegeworks, remain virtually untouched. The authenticity is
therefore of a very high level.
Whilst good relations clearly exist between the groups
responsible for the management of the "cultural" and
"natural" elements, it would be desirable for there to be
careful scrutiny of their respective objectives and
programmes in order to ensure homogeneity and avoid
potential conflicts.
There is a case for examining the integrity of Masada, like
most archaeological sites. As mentioned above, nothing has
been added and nothing taken away from the remains. Of
equal importance is the fact that the setting of Masada, the
magnificent wild scenery of this region, has not changed
over many millennia. The only intrusions are the visitor
facilities, which in their new form have been designed and
sited sympathetically, and the cable car. The latter has been,
and still is, controversial. However, access to the summit is
extremely arduous: if some assistance were not provided,
many of the Jewish people for whom this site has immense
symbolic value would be unable to visit it. The new facilities
at each end have been designed and, in the case of the upper
terminal, located with care, so as to minimize their visual
impact.
Brief description
Masada, the site of the self-immolation of nearly a thousand
Jewish patriots in the face of a large Roman army, was built
as a palace complex and place of refuge by Herod the Great,
King of Judaea. Its extensive remains survive on the summit
of this seemingly impregnable fortress, set in a rugged
natural landscape of great beauty. Below are the unexcavated
sites and siegeworks of a large Roman army
Recommendation and Statement of Significance
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on
the basis of cultural criteria iii, iv, and vi:
The palace complex built by Herod the Great, King of
Judaea, on the summit of the dramatic mountain site of
Masada in the 1st century BCE consists of an
exceptional group of classical Roman Imperial buildings.
When this natural defensive site, further strengthened by
massive walls, was occupied by survivors of the Jewish
Revolt against Roman rule, it was successfully besieged
by a massive Roman army. The group of military camps
and siegeworks at Masada are the most complete
anywhere in the Roman world. Masada is a poignant
symbol of the continuing human struggle between
oppression and liberty.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
A joint ICOMOS-IUCN expert mission visited Masada in
March 2001.
Qualities
Masada is a dramatically located site of great natural beauty
on which the Judaean king Herod the Great constructed a
sumptuous palace complex in classical Roman style. After
Judaea became a province of the Roman Empire, it was the
refuge of the last survivors of the Jewish revolt, who chose
death rather than slavery when the Roman besiegers broke
through their defences. As such it has an emblematic value
for the Jewish people.
ICOMOS, March 2001
It is also an archaeological site of great significance. The
remains of Herod's palaces are outstanding and very intact
examples of this type of architecture, whilst the untouched
siegeworks are the finest and most complete anywhere in the
Roman world.
Comparative analysis
There are several imperial Roman villas from the 1st
centuries BCE and CE of which substantial remains survive.
The closest to Herod the Great's villa at Masada is probably
the slightly later Villa Jovis built by Tiberius on a similar
prominent site on the island of Capri. However, it differs in a
number of respects, notably the fact that it lacks the
associated administrative structures of Masada and its
massive defences.
172
Sikhote-Alin (Russian Federation)
is a site. It should also be considered a cultural
landscape, as defined in paragraph 39 of the
Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the
World Heritage Convention.
No 766rev
History and Description
History
People were active in the area in prehistoric times. In
the 7th century AD arrivals from Zabaikalie created a
new Tungus-language society, the Mukri, who
developed under Mongol and Turkish influence. In the
mid-19th century, the Ussuri region became part of
Russia, and thereafter various "Western" influences
affected local culture to some degree. Despite the
remoteness, traditional clothing materials, for example,
were replaced by woven cloths in the 19th century for
everyday use. About 1900 Chinese migrants brought
with them naive Taoism to mix with Udege paganism.
A further addition was given to local culture by the
arrival of Russian Old Believers, devout ultra-orthodox
Christians fleeing persecution and seeking refuge in the
remote valleys and mountains that were the hunting and
collecting territories of the indigenous peoples.
Identification
Nomination
Natural complex « Central SikhoteAlin »
Location
Ternejski, Krasnoarmejski,
Dalnegorski, and Pozharski Districts,
Primorski Region
State Party
Russian Federation
Date
27 June 2000
The process of collectivization reached even as far east
as Central Sikhote-Alin. In the later 1930s the
population in the nominated area was brought together
in just two settlements, one of which, Krasny Yar,
continues as the main settlement today. In 1993, the
Sikhote-Alin Ethnic territory was formalized around the
concept of man in relation to the taiga (pine forest)
environment, itself representative of the principle,
admirably expressed by the nomination, of "the
reasonable and sparing use of the nature resources," so
characteristic of the indigenous peoples of this area in
former times as well as the present. The continuance of
the indigenous way of life is now, however, under
severe threat, both because of the small size of the
population (c 2000) and from external influence.
Justification by State Party
Archaeological monuments include late Palaeolithic
sites with material analogues on Hokkaido Island
(Japan), a reminder that, as with the natural history, the
property occupies a key location in the study of the
interface between Eurasia and further east including,
ultimately, North America. Bronze Age and medieval
sites also exist on the property.
The traditions, language, and material culture of the
present-day Udege and their ancestors have been
preserved and are respected. Special words are in use
for various types of building: for example, kumirni used
as both birthing huts and mortuaries. Traditional clothes
are retained for ceremonies, festivals, and ritual
occasions.
Description
The nominated property lies on the eastern coast of
Asia between extreme north-eastern China and the Sea
of Japan. The total area of the nomination is
1,549,179ha, made up of five blocks of land. Only
2000 people live within it, a low number even by
Siberian standards of population density. It is a unique
region with locally dominant woodland such as virgin,
broad-leaved Korean pine forests on either side of the
Bikim valley to the north-west and, to the south in the
Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve and along the coast,
discrete areas of larch and Japanese oak. Overall, the
environment is remarkably stable and unpolluted.
Notes
i The dossier specifies no criteria under which this nomination
is proposed: the most appropriate cultural criteria, should the
nomination be approved, would appear to be iii and v (and only
those two on present evidence).
ii This property is nominated as a mixed site under both natural
and cultural criteria. IUCN will provide a complementary
evaluation of the natural qualities.
Reference is made in the nomination dossier to the
existence of Bronze Age and medieval sites on the
property, but it does not enlarge on their number or
significance.
iii In 1996 a nomination of this property for World Heritage
status was deferred by the Bureau on the grounds that the
boundary of the nomination was not justified, that a legal basis
was provided for only 14% of the nominated area, and that the
Regional Government wished to be involved in a revised
nomination. The last of those conditions has been met and the
second one may have been, but the nomination contains no
statement specifically on this matter.
The territory is home to the remaining indigenous
Udege people, 700 of whom live in one village, Krasny
Yar, in the Bikin valley immediately west of one of the
nominated areas. Hunting and fishing are their
traditional and basic activities, combined with
collecting fern, berries, mushrooms, and seeds. Their
ability to manage the game animals and the habitat by
the effective use of non-wood resources is critical to the
survival of the Udege. A particular habitat of
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this
173
outstanding importance and fragility is in the middle
and upper reaches of the Iman River, where the species
range from ginseng to the Amur tiger in association
with 122 people of the Iman group of the Udege.
moreover, its main thrust is concerned with the natural
aspects of the nomination.
The Strategy nevertheless contains in its Chapter 7
discussion of a system of protected territories and
territories having special resource-use restrictions, with
various proposals for extending the protected areas and
reducing modern-style activities such as logging. Part of
the purpose of these proposals is to provide for
indigenous peoples. A major proposal concerning the
headwaters of the Bikin, for example, is to exclude
commercial timber harvesting altogether, a proposal
which, if implemented, would have implications for the
inhabitants. The Strategy specifically acknowledges that
this is so, seeking a merging of the boundaries of areas
identified as important for nature conservation with
those of "Ethnic Territories."
Management and Protection
Legal status
The whole of the nominated area is the property of the
Russian Federation.
The nominated property area consists of four discrete
statutorily designated areas (here numbered to accord
with the map, Figure 2, not as in the text of the
nomination):
1. Sikhote-Alin State Biosphere Nature Reserve;
The traditional way of life in the area is now under
considerable threat of collapse. Its reinforcement
presents a task probably more important than simply
ensuring the physical protection of the nominated
territory. Faced by all the negative influences from man
and nature, the existence, even rebirth, of a strong
ethnic-cultural complex is a more reliable mechanism
for integrated management of people and nature than all
the laws that government can provide.
2. Goralij Zoological Reserve;
3. Verkhnebikinski Landscape Reserve;
4. The territory of traditional land-use by the
indigenous peoples of the Pozharski District on
both sides of (but divided by) the Bikin River.
Management
Management is delegated from the Federation to
various agencies, notably the Nature Reserve. Funding
of the Nature Reserve is currently self-generated,
Federal, and international, with nothing from the
Region. In 1999, international sources provided more
than twice the Federal budget and 65% of the total
($72,237). Of the 154 employees, six work for the
Department of Ecological Enlightenment. Eleven field
research stations inside the Reserve carry out
monitoring. Economic activity in the Nature Reserve is
nil, and its scale on adjoining territories extremely
limited. Only poaching causes some anxiety. Fire is the
main threat.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
No direct information is provided on this score (eg early
efforts at protection, dates of founding National Parks,
etc).
Fire, natural and man-made, is the principal agent of
change and is a regular feature of the nominated area.
Its effects are not necessarily either disastrous or longterm.
Currently a considerable effort, backed by international
funds, is being made to promote nature conservation
and tourism, especially in the upper and middle Bikim
River area, with an emphasis on aspects of the
traditional culture of the indigenous people.
Programmes of reviving traditional crafts and
ecological tourism are in hand. During 1999, the Nature
Reserve was visited by 85 people on the one-day
excursion, while 10–200 visitors per day bathed from
the tourist base on the coast. Tourism is more
developed, though numbers are still low, in the Bikin
region. Currently ten to twelve groups of foreign
tourists visit the whole territory per year.
Figure 1 in the nomination dossier purports to show a
buffer zone around Sikhote-Alin State Biosphere Nature
Reserve (1. above) but it seems, at least at the scale of
the map (not stated), to be coterminous with the
boundary of the Nature Reserve. None of the other
territories in the nomination claims a buffer zone.
Essentially, though supported by different regulations,
all four territories are collectively seeking to protect the
environment, conserve habitat, and maintain the
indigenous human population as a viable society. Only
No 4 is of direct concern to ICOMOS, and its detail in
the nomination shows a growing concern throughout
the 1990s, as expressed in statutory documents, for the
well-being of the small Udege community.
Authenticity
The remoteness of and difficulty of access to the area
mean that cultural contact is difficult and of limited
influence. Despite superficial changes, for example in
clothing, culturally the most significant point is that the
small indigenous population continues to live within a
sustainable hunter-gatherer economy which, as well as
keeping people alive, maintains the natural diversity of
flora and fauna. Authenticity and integrity are, in
cultural terms, respectively relatively undiminished and
reasonably intact, but both could well succumb to the
early 21st century.
In response to a request from the World Heritage
Centre, a management plan was added to the
nomination dossier (4 September 2000). The document
concerned is entitled A Biodiversity Conservation
Strategy for the Sikhote-Alin (2000), its primary
purpose being "as a pre-planning document that limits
the kinds and conditions of land-use, determines a
system of ecological, economic and social goals and
potential ways of achieving them." It is not a
management plan in a form familiar to ICOMOS and so
judgement must await the joint mission report;
174
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
For climatic and logistic reasons the joint ICOMOSIUCN mission will not be able to visit the property until
July 2001.
Qualities
The heritage qualities of this property derive from its
remoteness, unpolluted environment, nature/people
sustainability, and small remnant population in danger
of disappearing.
Comparative analysis
No comparative cultural data are supplied in the
nomination dossier. The earliest archaeology on the
property finds its material analogues in Japan rather
than mainland Asia.
ICOMOS comments
This property is nominated as a mixed site, under both
natural and cultural criteria. However, there is a very
close relationship between the natural environment
and the cultural element. This is in fact a cultural
landscape, in which part of the natural environment
has been, and continues to be, subtly modified by the
small Udege hunter-gatherer society.
This raises an important issue: that of the need for
consideration in a global perspective of "preserving"
small, essentially non-Westernized indigenous
populations in their "natural" habitats, as exemplified
by peoples like the Udege characteristically living in a
non-agricultural, or non-mechanized agricultural,
economy within a significantly non-monumental
lifestyle with minimal material culture. ICOMOS
therefore recommends that such a study be initiated.
Brief description
The Natural complex “Central Sikhote-Alin”
nomination is of a huge and very important area in
terms of natural history, consisting of several separate
blocks of largely forested landscape. It contains a small
population of hunter-gatherer people whose activities
exploit the natural environment in a sustainable way
and simultaneously have a significant effect upon flora
and fauna.
Recommendation
That further consideration of this nomination under
the cultural criteria be deferred until the Extraordinary
Meeting of the Bureau in December 2001 to await the
report of the joint IUCN/ICOMOS mission in July
2001.
ICOMOS, March 2001
175
History and Description
Karain Cave (Turkey)
History
In Palaeolithic times, a lake with Pleistocene fauna such
as hippopotamus lay immediately down hill and east of
Karain cave. Around it were "open" settlements so the
cave as a living place was part of a settlement pattern,
not a discrete habitation. Occupation was continual until
the Early Bronze Age; during the Upper Palaeolithic,
some 20,000–10,000 years ago, the population spilled
out into neighbouring caves. Local drainage and
irrigation systems were probably in place in the Roman
period when there was a high local population. Karain
itself was re-used as a shrine in late Roman times and
activity continued into the Byzantine period.
No 1059
Identification
Nomination
Karain Cave and the surrounding
Palaeolithic caves
Location
Yagca village, Yenikoy,
Province of Antalya
State Party
Republic of Turkey
Date
3 August 2000
Archaeologically, the cave was found in 1946 by
Professor Kökten and periodically excavated by him
until 1974. Since 1985, excavations have been
conducted under the direction of Prof Dr Isin
Yalcinkaya (Ankara University) in co-operation with
foreign universities. This work is planned to last for
another five years. No up-to-date report accompanied
the nomination though published academic works up to
2000 and three PhD dissertations 1999–2000 are cited.
Description
The Karain cave is situated 30km north-west of
Antalya, inland from the Mediterranean coast of
Turkey. It lies in the Western Taurus Mountains, on the
eastern slopes of Mount Katran in limestone at an
altitude of 430m. It is itself made up of seven chambers,
separated by calcite walls and linked by curving
passageways. Stalactites and stalagmites add to its
attractions, with niches and Greek inscriptions on the
outer surface. Karain contains Upper, Middle, and
Lower Palaeolithic levels; its depth of stratigraphy is as
much as 11m, mostly natural and the result of complex
patterns of deposition. Karain is part of a complex of
caves numbering perhaps as many as twenty; eight
partially explored ones seem to represent
Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age phases.
Justification by State Party
In general, the nominated area centred on Karain Cave
is the most important Palaeolithic site in Anatolia and
the Near East. The archaeological value of Karain itself
derives from its consistent stratigraphy, 11 m deep,
from the Lower Palaeolithic to the late Roman period.
Each chamber of the cave has nevertheless been used in
different periods. The Palaeolithic evidence is important
for demonstrating relationships between Europe and the
Near East. The earliest human fossil remains in the
Anatolian region have been found here, linking Near
Eastern and Western European Neanderthals in the
process of hominoid evolution. The cave is also
important for its palaeo-environmental and artefactual
evidence. In the late Roman period, one chamber was
used as a sanctuary of the goddess of the mountains.
The caves’ potential for further scientific research is
high, and the continuing excavations there provide both
a training and educational centre and, in Karain itself, a
tourist attraction. Overall, the Karain complex is an
authentic archaeological site of outstanding importance.
Criterion iii
The site in general overlooks a plain on its east,
formerly the site of one of the largest travertine seas in
the world. The ground is still wet in places below the
caves. A spring marks the northern end of the
nominated site; along its eastern edge, not mentioned in
the nomination, is a canal and irrigation system,
probably Roman in origin. High-rise buildings are now
visible in the distance from the site.
In particular, the caves are unique in providing evidence
of human history since the Palaeolithic period (c 50,000
years ago) up to the Roman and Byzantine periods. The
excavated artefacts include the earliest examples of
Anatolian art.
Criterion iv
Management and Protection
Legal status
The caves themselves and the area in front of Karain are
state-owned. The buffer zone is in private hands.
The whole site is a First Class Archaeological and
Natural Site under a decree of the Regional Council of
Antalya, 1990
Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this
is a site.
Management
The provincial authorities of the Province of Antalya,
and the Antalya Regional Council for the Preservation
of Cultural and Natural Heritage are generally
responsible for the caves’ management, under Law No
Note: it is nominated as a mixed site. IUCN is assessing its
natural values.
176
2863 for the Preservation for the Preservation of
Cultural and Natural Heritage. The Director of Antalya
Museum is professionally responsible; at the Cave, the
museum in Karain works in co-operation with the
excavation team, which is on site for 2–3 months each
year. Karain Cave is looked after in day-to-day terms by
two guards, responsible for maintenance and security.
There is public access throughout the year, for a fee.
19,459 visitors produced an income of $6,540 in 1999,
but, as the nomination dossier observes, "only interested
professionals or curious tourists visit the site"
(maximum c 150 per day at the height of the season
during excavation). A major increase in visitor numbers
is not anticipated.
development in situ and is subject to no significant
environmental pollution or tourist pressures. However,
economic development of the region in which it lies, the
hinterland of Antalya, is visibly occurring with some
rapidity.
The Regional Development Plan recognizes the area of
the nomination as one of archaeological and natural
sites, reserving the surrounding area for farming. The
aim is to prevent urbanization and development near the
cave and its vicinity, although recent building is already
visible from the site. There is also a landscape plan
(1990) for the entrance and surroundings of Karain cave
where what is described as "a very little museum-visitor
centre" and car-parking currently exist well below the
actual cave-mouth. The site is lacking in visitor safety
measures, especially around the excavation.
Scientific importance is claimed and, within that
context, high levels of authenticity and integrity are
manifest. Academic sources consulted by ICOMOS lay
stress on the importance of Karain in understanding the
movement of hominids from Africa into Europe
through Asia Minor. As far as can be judged from the
nomination dossier and the ICOMOS mission to the
site, no other significant qualities relevant to World
Heritage status are present.
Evaluation
Action by ICOMOS
An ICOMOS expert mission visited the site in January
2001
Qualities
Comparative analysis
The network of caves at this site is unique in Anatolia
and rare elsewhere in terms of its particular
characteristics. The 11m deep depositional sequence
and the richness of the archaeological and
environmental evidence make Karain unique in
Anatolia and the Balkans. In particular, the fact the
Karain contains Lower, Middle, and Upper Palaeolithic
levels makes it unusual. It shares some common
features with Near Eastern Palaeolithic sites such as
Shanidar (Iraq) and Mount Carmel (Israel).
Routine monitoring and care of the area is financed by
the Ministry of Culture, which also contributes to the
cost of the excavations, otherwise financed
independently. Annual records of the state of
conservation are kept by the excavation team and an
official of the Ministry of Culture. Periodic inspection
by staff of the Regional Council occurs, but in general
management is with a light touch. No management plan
exists. The nomination indicates cartographically that in
effect the nomination is of a conservation area in which
an area of natural interest acts as the buffer zone to four
archaeological sites, the largest around Karain Cave, the
others around three other caves.
ICOMOS comments and recommendations for future
action
ICOMOS was disappointed to read in the nomination
file the statement that "Karain has 54 years of
excavation history. It is not possible to give a brief
result of those reports." The onus for demonstrating
significance, in this case the scientific significance of
the results of 54 years of excavation, must surely rest
with the State Party. Particularly is this so when the
credibility of the nomination, rather unusually, rests on
a single significant cultural justification. Obviously, this
needs absolutely to be presented coherently so that it
can be peer-reviewed.
Conservation and Authenticity
Conservation history
The nomination mentions no activity in the cave
between the Byzantine period and Kökten’s
archaeological discovery of Karain in 1946. Excavation
has demonstrated a complex stratigraphy, most of it of
natural origin and deposition. Preservation and
conservation work now marches with the excavation
progress, and it is hoped to preserve a section for public
display; but no detail is provided. Nor is a statement
provided indicating how much of the deposit in Karain
Cave it is intended to excavated and how much to leave
in situ as a conscious conservation of the resource. A
wire fence across the cave-mouth keeps animals out.
Given the paying public access, presumably health and
safety factors come into play, though they are not
mentioned.
The inadequacy here is emphasized by two facts. One is
the nomination’s stated justification which claims that
"The earliest human fossil remains in the Anatolian
region" have been found at Karain, yet there is no
further discussion of this crucially important claim, for
example by providing the dating evidence, listing the
hominid remains themselves, and arguing their
significance. In fact, according to the later (1993) of the
two published reports submitted with the nomination
(see below), "a few fragmentary human remains were
uncovered during the Kökten excavations, but their
provenience is uncertain [ICOMOS italics]. One milk
tooth … belong[ed] to a Neanderthal child … In 1986
two additional teeth were uncovered … In 1987 one
tooth and a humerus head were found … additional
human remains are needed in order to achieve a better
definition of the Mousterian population of Anatolia."
Authenticity and integrity
The natural surroundings and structure of the caves are
well-preserved. Some 20 caves together form a
geological and archaeological unity. The long-term
excavations in Karain itself are well conducted and
have demonstrated a significant scientific value in the
deposits. The nominated area is also protected against
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The nomination does not mention any such additional
remains. The known material did not merit Karain Cave
being listed among the 31 sites identified in a
comparative study entitled Potential fossil hominid sites
for inscription on the World Heritage List (1997)
commissioned by ICOMOS from two academic experts
of world-standing.
The second presentational inadequacy is that the copies
of two academic papers included as Annexe V are
merely interim reports, one dated 1988, the other 1993.
This is clearly an inadequate basis on which to assess
the merit of a site nominated for World Heritage status
primarily on its scientific value. Consequently further
study needs to be made of at least some of the post1993 publications listed in the nomination’s lengthy
Bibliography. Meanwhile, the case for the Karain Cave,
which may well be a good one, has in effect suffered by
default.
In any case, both in the nomination dossier and on the
ground ICOMOS detected a sense that this nomination
is premature. The State Party might, therefore, be well
advised to withdraw it now until such time as the state
of the current excavations and associated research can
demonstrate beyond all doubt that this one site is of
outstanding scientific significance in early hominid
development, and until such time as the nomination
dossier can comprehensively synthesize the results of
all such on-site research, both in their own right and
also comparatively.
Were this nomination to move towards inscription,
ICOMOS would wish to recommend significant
changes to the boundaries of the property.
Brief description
Karain Cave, one of a number of caves in the limestone
of the Western Taurus Mountains, Turkey, has been
shown by over 50 years of archaeological excavation to
contain a scientifically-important sequence of deposits
ranging from the Upper Palaeolithic some 50,000 years
ago to the mid-1st millennium AD.
Recommendation
That further consideration of this nomination be
deferred, so that the State Party may prepare and
present both a more comprehensive and scientifically
well documented justification for inscription and an
adequate management plan for the site.
ICOMOS, March 2001
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