The Influe nce of Norse Mythology on the United Kingdom, using
the example of J.R.R. Tolkien’s works
Freiherr-vom-Stein-Schule
Fach: Englisch
Fachlehrer: Frau Becker
Verfasser: Vera Mertens
Kaufungen, den 27.04.2011
1
The Influence of Norse Mythology on the United Kingdom,
using the example of J.R.R. Tolkien’s works
1. Preface
p. 3
2. J.R.R. Tolkien and the Norse Mythology
p. 4
3. Comparing J.R.R. Tolkien’s Middle-earth to the Mythology
p. 5
3.1 Runes
p. 5
3.2 Names
p. 8
3.3 Gandalf the Pilgrim and Odin the Wanderer
p. 10
3.4 Norse Gods in Valinor
p. 12
3.5 Of Túrin Turambar, Sigurd Fáfnisbani and other epics
p. 16
4. “The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún”
p. 20
5. Epilogue
p. 23
6. List of References
p. 24
7. Appendix
p. 28
2
1. Preface
As I have been interested in Norse Mythology and the works of J.R.R. Tolkien for a
very long time, I decided to write my Jahresarbeit about this topic. The Norse Myths are
very complex and provide many possibilities for interpretation. When the Vikings came
to Great Britain, they brought their traditions and beliefs with them, and even though
the Christianisation erased many Norse beliefs and covered Norse sagas with Christian
virtues, the magic of the Norse era is still there in the United Kingdom and can be found
by those who watch closely. J.R.R. Tolkien, as “a wandering explorer […] in the land
full of wonder” 1 saw this magic and, by using the old sagas as an inspiration and
including parts of them in his extensive works, passes it on to those who read his texts.
3
2. J.R.R. Tolkien and the Norse
Mythology
J.R.R. Tolkien, a famous author, philologist and
professor best known for his masterpiece “The Lord of
the Rings” (first published in 1954-55), resurrected the
Norse myths in his intention to create an English
mythology on the basis of Scandinavian and Germanic
stories 2 . Tolkien wanted to show the noble Norse spirit
in its true nature. 3 Considering his works as a revival of
old sagas of the Norse, one finds many analogies to
Fig. 2: Professor J.R.R. Tolk ien
them, especially in the posthumously published books
“The Silmarillion” (1977), which tells about Middle-earth’s history beginning with the
Creation, and, being a new lay of the Niflungs and Völsungs, “The Legend of Sigurd
and Gudrún” (2009). “The Lord of the Rings” contains some influences of the Norse
mythology too.
Two lines of an old poem from the 8th century were the source of all Middle-earth and
its history. Tolkien himself said that these two lines were full of a strange distance and
beauty, and they woke up something within him. 4
“Eala Earendel engla beorthtast/ ofer middangard monnum sended”
“Hail Earendel, brightest of angels/ above the middle-earth sent unto men”5
Relating to the fantastical of Norse mythology, J.R.R. Tolkien declared that only few
who have been reading old Norse poems of the Edda “can have missed the sudden
recognition that they had unawares met something of tremendous force, something that
in parts (for it has various parts) is still endowed with an almost demonic energy […].
The feeling of this impact is one of the greatest gifts that reading of the Elder Edda
gives. […]; once felt it can never be buried by mountains or molehills of research, and
4
sustains long and weary labour.” 6 According to this statement, Tolkien found Norse
mythology very fascinating and he was fond of it.
3. Comparing J.R.R. Tolkien’s Middle-earth to the Mythology
3.1 Runes
In Norse mythology, runes appear as signs of wisdom, skaldic poetry and magic. The
Edda tells that Odin sacrificed himself to himself by hanging for nine nights in the
world tree Yggdrasil to achieve the knowledge of runes and their meanings. Finally
knowing the runes and their magical power, Odin sings about their attributes, such as
healing, bringing victory, mediating and, above all, the ability to bring life back to the
dead.7 “Egil Saga”, a saga telling the story of the skald Egil Skallagrimsson, refers to
the healing power of runes: Egil finds a girl who has fallen ill by the misuse of runes
and by using the right runes to correct the mistake he heals her with their magic. 8
Nowadays runes are used by the believers of Ásatrú, the Germanic paganism, for
writing, magical rites and divination. Some people wear runes that are of great
importance to them as jewellery and amulets.
Historically, runes were the Vikings’ script, but supposedly they were also used for
magic. The first runic alphabet had had 16 letters and was called Futhark, for its first six
letters were f, u, th, a, r and k. It was used throughout Scandinavia and by many of the
other Germanic peoples. Having been developed for cutting in wood, stone, metal and
bone and not for writing in ink, the letters do only have straight lines and no curves.
Discovered rune-stones are mostly memorials or parts of graves, but there are also
stones and other items inscribed with charms. Old runic inscriptions are hard to read; as
there were not many runes, the Vikings used some of them for more than one letter. For
example, there was no letter for p, so they used b instead. 9 During the Migration Period
the languages changed and so did the runes: People developed more alphabets and runes
were added to express new sounds. 10
J.R.R. Tolkien, as a lover of languages, etymology and the changes of sounds, found
that language and mythology could not be parted, for every language needs a history,
lands and inhabitants. As Tolkien had always invented languages, he created a world, a
history and a mythology for his languages and, for his peoples, a script for its use.11
5
Because of being similar to the Futhark, Tolkien’s Angerthas alphabet might have been
inspired by the old Norse script. The Angerthas developed from an elder runic alphabet
called Cirth, which was conceived to express sounds of the Sindarin, the language used
by the elves in Middle-earth. According to Tolkien, the Cirth contained 20 runes in the
beginning and was later expanded, when new runes were added to express sounds that
were not yet included in the existing alphabet. 12
There were several types of Germanic runes; shown here is the Elder Futhark
containing 24 letters, being one of the first Viking alphabets created in the second
century13 . The runes can be split up in three so-called ættir of eight letters each. The
Angerthas is one of two of Tolkien’s alphabets. Comparing them, one sees that they
have many runes in common, even if they might not have the same meaning.
Fig. 3: The Elder Futhark
Fig. 4: The Angerthas
All of the runes of the Futhark find an equivalent in the Angerthas except for three of
them (no. 12, 16 and 22). Though one quarter of the runes is similar to the Tolkien’s, it
is not exactly the same; the rest of the runes are identical. Even the history of the
alphabet seems to be similar; both of them had had fewer letters in the beginning and
new ones have been added when necessary. Tolkien wrote about his alphabet that the
6
dwarves of Moria changed the meaning of some letters and also added new ones, and so
did the dwarves of Erebor14 . Both the Norse alphabet and the Tolkien alphabet changed
and evolved new scripts fitting the evolution of language.
It is remarkable that Tolkien indeed used the same runes as the Vikings did, but entirely
changed their meanings. In fact, there is only one pair of runes that has the same
character in the Roman alphabet: Futhark rune 11 and Angerthas rune 39.
Futhark rune no. 11
Angerthas rune no. 39
Roman: i
Roman: i (y)
Two other pairs of runes appear to have related meanings. No. 23 and its equivalent
both represent a vowel and the other pair has the sound of d in both runes.
Futhark rune no. 23
Angerthas rune no. 42
Roman: o
Roman: u
Futhark rune no. 24
Angerthas rune no. 38 (I)
Roman: d
Roman: nd
Although Tolkien copied Viking runes and even made up a similar history of the script,
he did not adopt it the way it was. Tolkien did not adopt any mythological attributes of
the runes; in his world runes have no magical power, people solely used them for
writing. Obviously, Tolkien did not want to copy the old way of writing for his
inventions, but intended to renew it as a part of a completely new world, giving the
runes to new peoples in unknown lands.
7
3.2 Names
Some names that appear in “The Lord of the Rings” and “The Hobbit” are taken from
the Völuspá, the Wise Woman’s prophecy, the very first song of the Elder Edda. Mainly
they turn up in “The Hobbit” as the names of the dwarves accompanying Bilbo and
Gandalf on their journey to the Lonely Mountain. The dwarves are, ordered as Bilbo
meets them for the first time, Dwalin, Balin, Kili, Fili, Dori, Nori, Ori, Oin, Gloin,
Bifur, Bofur, Bombur and Thorin. 15 These are the stanzas of the Edda, containing some
dwarves’ names:
12 Vigg and Gandalf, Vindalf, Thrain,
11 Nyi and Nithi, Northri and Surthri,
Austhri and Westhri, Althjof, Dwalin,
Thekk and Thorin, Thror, Vit and Lit,
Bifur, Bafur, Bombur, Nori,
Nyr and Nyrath,-- now have I told--
An and Onar, Ai, Mjothvitnir.
Regin and Rathsvith-- the list alright.
13 Fili, Kili, Fundin, Nali,
15 There were Draupnir, and Dolgthrasir,
Heptifili, Hannar, Sviur,
Hor, Haugspori, Hlevang, Gloin,
Frar, Hornbori, Fræg and Loni,
Dori, Ori, Duf, Andvari,
Aurvang, Jari, Eikinskjaldi.
Sirfir, Virfir, Skafith, Ai. 16
The names appearing in “The Hobbit” are cursive. Eleven of thirteen dwarves’ names
are mentioned in the Edda, Balin and Oin are the only ones missing.
Another dwarf’s name adopted by Tolkien is “Durin”. He does not appear in “The
Hobbit” though, but he can be found in “The Silmarillion”, being one of the Seven
Fathers of the dwarves and the mightiest and eldest of them. The dwarves think that the
Seven Fathers will reincarnate among their own families again and again. 17 In the Edda,
Durin in mentioned as the second of all dwarves and he could be the sovereign of the
peoples living in stones. 18 Tolkien did not just adopt the name, he adopted parts of the
character, too. His Durin is the lord of mines of Moria, while the Norse Durin also
reigns over peoples living in stones; both Durins are one of the firsts of their kin.
It is noticeable that even the name “Gandalf” is taken from the Edda. According to
Tolkien, Gandalf and other names he used are mere replacements to express them in
8
English. In fact, Tolkien used that name because it seems to include “gandr”, which is
Norse for a staff, in particular a wand. Supposing that Gandalf’s name includes this
word, it could mean “elvish creature with a wand”. 19
9
3.3 Odin the Wanderer and Gandalf the Pilgrim
Odin is the major god of the Norse mythology; he is the eldest of the Æsir and their
principal. He is the god of wisdom, war, death, magic, runes and poetry and his
characteristics, names and deeds are complex. 20 Odin’s attributes are a spear, his hat and
cloak, the ring Draupnir and his being one-eyed. He is accompanied by two ravens
called Hugin and Munin, meaning thought and memory, who explore the nine words
every morning to bring tidings to their master; his horse Sleipnir is eight- legged and
runs faster than all horses. As a death deity, Odin affects the fate of warriors, for he can
bring victory to some but defines their date of death thereby. He assembles the strongest
and most valiant warriors in Valhalla, where they await Ragnarök to fight for the gods.
As a wanderer, Odin sometimes appears as an old grey-bearded man in a blue cloak and
with a wide-brimmed slouch hat and a staff (or spear). Looking for knowledge of the
past and the future, Odin wandered in the nine worlds and soon became the wisest of the
Æsir. 21
Gandalf is perhaps the best known wizard in fantasy literature. He appears in “The
Hobbit”, “The Lord of the Rings”, “The Silmarillion” and other collections of earlier
versions of Tolkien’s stories. He is one of the five Istari, wizards who came from the
Undying Lands as envoys to help fighting against Sauron in Middle-earth. As they were
prohibited to use any kind of violence, they appear in human form, having never been
young and growing old slowly. Gandalf is one of the heads of the Istari; being the most
reliable of them he was entrusted with Narya, one of the Three Rings of the Elves, for
giving aid to the fulfilment of his hard mission. He leads and organises the offence and
defence during the War of the Ring. 22 Gandalf’s attributes are his hat and cloak, his staff
and the ring Narya. He is a friend of most of the peoples of Middle-earth and he has
many names in different languages. From the king of Rohan he got the horse
Shadowfax, which runs faster than all horses in Middle-earth. Actually, Gandalf’s
outward appearance gives the impression of a weak man, but he is more powerful than it
seems.
Odin, portrayed as an old and robed wanderer, figures in a description of Gandalf in
“The Hobbit”, where he is described as a man with a staff, a tall blue hat, a long grey
10
cloak and beard, looking like a small and old man. 23 A picture of Gandalf in the film
“The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring” shows a remarkable similarity to
the 1886 drawing “Odin, the Wanderer” by Georg von Rosen. Both Odin and Gandalf
have a long grey beard, wear a hat and a cloak and they carry a staff (or a spear).
Fig. 5: Odin the Wanderer
Fig. 6: Gandalf the Pilgrim
Not only their outward appearance is similar, but Odin and Gandalf do also have
resembling characteristics and attributes. For instance both of them are roamers; Odin is
sometimes mentioned as an exploring wanderer, Gandalf is called Mithrandir, which
means Grey Pilgrim, for he has never stayed at one place for long. Additionally, both
Odin and Gandalf are concerned with war matters, for Odin is a deity of war and
Gandalf an envoy to aid the free peoples of Middle-earth in the War of the Ring. Odin
chooses those he wants to win in battle, so one might say he brings esperance to the
fighters. Gandalf, too, symbolises hope for his allies. During the siege of Helm’s Deep,
for example, he gathered Rohan’s men on foot and the Huorns, living trees, and
surrounded the attacking Uruk-hai so that Rohan’s people won. One similar attribute of
Odin and Gandalf is the ring Draupnir compared to the ring Narya. Draupnir, Odin’s
ring, has the ability to produce eight similar rings every nine days. Coming back from
the realm of Hel after Odin gave the ring to his dead son Baldur, the ring symbolises
hope for the return of fertility and peace after Ragnarök. 24 Narya, being one of the rings
of the Elves, brings hope and peace too, as well as power for those who bear it and
splendour and luck for the things the bearers create. One other notable similarity is
Odin’s and Gandalf’s horses. Both of them are the princes of their races and the fastest
and most persistent horses existing.
11
Both Odin and Gandalf are mighty figures and well-regarded by their peoples and
adherents. With Gandalf showing similar characteristics and attributes compared to
Odin, J.R.R. Tolkien created a powerful wizard for the aid of Middle earth’s peoples.
12
3.4 Norse Gods in Valinor
In “The Silmarillion” Tolkien tells the history of his world Arda. It was created by the
Ainur (also called Valar), the Holy Ones, who originated the world by singing and later
lived in it for preparing it for the Elves’ arrival. They live in the Undying Lands, in
Valinor, where no mortal being
is admitted. During the first and
second age they sometimes
intervened in happenings in
Middle-earth to bring peace in
some degree. 25 They are no
gods, for Ilúvatar, the Creator
of the Ainur, is the only god in
J.R.R. Tolkien’s mythology, but
in the following part they will
be mentioned as ‘gods’ where
confusion with the Norse deities
Fig. 7: “The Fairy Coast”, a drawing of Valinor, by
J.R.R. Tolk ien
is impossible.
Comparing Tolkien’s Ainur to the Norse Gods, one finds many analogies to them.
J.R.R. Tolkien created many gods having one principal, Manwe; the Norse Gods are led
by Odin. Odin and Manwe are similar as well as the evil gods Loki and Melkor. There
are also remarkable parallels between other major and minor gods of both mythologies.
Manwe, being the master of the Valar, figures in the principal of the Norse gods: Odin.
In the mind of the One God in Tolkien’s mythology, Manwe is the brother of evil
Melkor, yet Melkor is not counted as one of the Valar anymore because of his evil
deeds. Loving all winds and clouds, Manwe is the lord of the air and of all beings living
in there. He loves birds, especially eagles, for they are his ambassadors. Manwe is
married to the mistress of the Valar, Varda. They live on the top of the highest
mountain, Tanequitil; and being there together, Manwe can overview the world and he
sees all. 26 Compared to Odin, Manwe is quite similar to him. Both of them are the heads
of their kin and the brothers of the vicious gods Melkor and Loki. Whereas Manwe is
married to Varda, the mistress of the Ainur, Odin is married to Frigga, who is the
greatest goddess. Both Manwe and Odin live on the highest of mountains, Tanequitil
and Hlidskjálf. Sitting there, they can see all that happens in the world. Additionally, the
13
two of them have birds bringing tidings to them, for Manwe is the lord of the eagles and
Odin’s companions are the ravens Hugin and Munin.
The greatest lady of the Ainur is Varda, wife of Manwe. She is described as very pretty
and the Elves love and honour her more than any other of the Valar. Varda, having
kindled the stars, is the goddess of light. As the Elves saw her stars when they first
awoke, they sing songs for her at night and call on her from Middle-earth when they are
in need. 27
The Norse Frigga, sometimes mistaken with Freyja, is the major goddess of the Æsir
and wife of Odin. She is portrayed as a guardian of life and wisdom and as the Mother
of Earth. With Odin, Frigga lives on the mountain Hlidskjálf, whence they can watch
the world. 28 Comparing Frigga to Varda, one sees that they have a few characteristics in
common: Both Varda and Frigga are the major goddesses of their kin and are married to
the head of the gods. Furthermore the two of them are worshipped by a certain group of
people: The Elves honour Varda and Frigga was the patroness of the Lombards.
The evil and malicious person in Tolkien’s mythology is Melkor, who is the first
dictator and predecessor of Sauron. Being Manwe’s brother in the mind of the One God
Ilúvatar, Melkor is as strong and wise as Manwe but spoiled his skills and powers for
evil purposes like tyranny, violence and destruction. Melkor destroys and despises all
which is not his own work. Being devious and full of guile, Melkor manages fighting
the Valar and the people living in Beleriand many times and reigning over most areas of
the world. 29 His equivalent in Norse mythology is the fire god Loki, who is the most
negative being of this mythology. He is tricky, sly, cunning and shrewd. He is both
deceiving but, on the other hand, helpful as well, for he helps the gods in many matters
but is also their most powerful enemy. Although being blood-brother of Odin, Loki is
not counted as one of the Æsir anymore. He is a deity of fire and, as a foe of the gods,
causes them much trouble. For instance, Loki is responsible for the fair god Baldur’s
death because of lies and guile. After finally managing to capture him, the Æsir fetter
him and banish him into the underworld; yet Loki is partly responsible for Ragnarök,
freeing himself to fight the gods and having begotten the Fenris wolf, the Midgard
worm and Hel, who arise to bring the end of the Æsir. 30 Both Melkor and Loki are the
originators of fights, decay and malice in their worlds. They are tricky and guileful;
Melkor is a foe of the Ainur and Loki is one of the enemies of the Æsir. Having caused
much damage to happen, Melkor was banished into the outer world, whereas Loki was
14
fettled in the underworld. One other similarity is the repudiation of both gods. Despite
their being brothers of the heads of the gods, both Melkor and Loki were expelled from
their kin because of their evil deeds.
Yavanna is the second most powerful of the Valier (that being the female Valar). She is
the wife of Aule, who created the dwarves. Yavanna, having created all trees and
flowers in the world, is called “Giver of Fruit” and “Queen of the Earth”31 . Where
Yavanna is, all would flourish and grow. Loving plants, Yavanna often appears dressed
in green or shaped as a tree. 32 The Norse goddess having approximately similar
characteristics as Yavanna is Idun. She is the lovely goddess of everlasting youth.
Moreover, she owns the fruits of life, which are apples. The Æsir rely on her, for if they
do not eat Idun’s apples, they will age. 33 Yavanna and Idun are alike in the matter of
keeping life and youth; whereas Yavanna is in charge of the life of the fauna, Idun is
responsible for the Æsir’s life. Both of them are portrayed as goddesses of lasting
existence.
There are two strong and mighty Ainur as well as two Norse gods fitting in their
description. As they are much alike, they will be compared all together.
Tolkien invented Tulkas and Orome, two powerful Valar fighting against evil actions.
Tulkas, being very brave, is the god of exploit and strength. He came to the Earth to
help fighting Melkor. Tulkas is described as a tall man with red-gold hair and a beard.
Orome is a Valar of great power and strength too. Being forceful and furious, Orome is
the hunter of all evil creatures and beasts and of Melkor himself. 34 The Norse gods
matching them are Thor and Tyr. Thor is the god of thunder and of war. Being one of
the most powerful of the Æsir, he is the main defender of the gods and mortal beings;
therefore he was the most honoured god of the Germanic people. Thor appears as a very
tall man having a red beard and red hair. His attributes are the hammer Mjöllnir, a belt
of power, an iron glove and the staff Gridarvölr. Tyr, a brave, courageous and strong
god, is a deity of war too. He lost one arm by putting it into the maw of the Fenris wolf
at the determination to fettle him, as no one else dared to do so. Tyr is much honoured
for his bravery and combativeness. 35 Comparing the four gods, one sees that they are
similar to each other. Tolkien’s Tulkas and Orome are as strong and powerful as Norse
Thor and Tyr. Being brave, courageous and combative, Tulkas and Tyr are much alike.
Furthermore, both the Valar and the Norse deities are the strongest of their race, with
Tulkas being the strongest of the Valar and Thor being the strongest of the Norse gods.
15
Additionally, Tulkas and Thor have notably similarities regarding their outward
appearance. As for Orome, he has the same characteristics as Thor, for both of them are
mighty and furious and great warriors.
After considering the Valar and the Norse gods, it transpires that Tolkien might have
had the Norse deities in mind when creating the Ainur. With major and minor gods
matching with each other in both mythologies, another trace of Norse mythology is
found in Tolkien’s world.
16
3.5 Of Túrin Turambar, Sigurd Fáfnisbani and other epics
In J.R.R. Tolkien’s hero Túrin Turambar, the existence of sun and moon and the
wielding of individual weapons traces of Norse mythology can be found.
In J.R.R. Tolkien’s universe the Narn i Chîn Húrin, the ‘Tale of the Children of Húrin’,
is perhaps the most tragic story of all. This story, telling the dramatic life and fate of
Túrin Turambar, might be inspired by the narratives of Sigurd and Beowulf, for there
are some similarities among the tales.
Túrin is the son of the hero Húrin, whose family was
cursed by Morgoth because of Húrin’s being
steadfast for too long. As a child, Túrin was sent to
Doriath, a realm of the Elves, when his father did
not come back from battle. There, Túrin lives
happily until the ambassadors, who bring tidings of
his mother and sister, do not return, which makes
him suspect misery and war. Therefore he sets out
with his friend Beleg, but being unsuccessful, they
return home. Soon afterwards, Túrin flees Doriath,
for he is responsible for an Elf’s death. Beleg
follows him later to make him return, but they part
their ways again. Finding Túrin at a dwarf’s
dwelling on a later trip, Beleg joins him and his followers. After being betrayed by the
Fig. 8: Turin Túrambar, by Alan Lee
dwarf, Túrin is captured by orcs; Beleg persuades
them hoping to find his friend. He meets Gwindor,
an Elf of Nargothrond, and together they attempt to free Túrin, who, believing that
Beleg is an orc, kills him. Túrin, grieved deeply, travels on with Gwindor to
Nargothrond. There he becomes a mighty and strong man and when war befalls them,
he is courageous and one of the army’s leaders. Nonetheless they could not withstand,
for Morgoth has sent Glaurung, a powerful dragon, and almost everyone was killed
during the siege of Nargothrond. Túrin, succumbing to the dragon’s spell, flees and
Glaurung destroys the city. Believing his mother and sister enslaved, Túrin is hopeless
and joins a group of men and becomes their principal. One day he finds a young woman
who does not remember anything because of being accursed by Glaurung. Without
17
knowing that she is his sister, he takes her with him and names her Níniel; they marry
later on. When Túrin declaims against Glaurung and kills him, the curse on Níniel
dissolves and she remembers everything. Totally distraught, she drowns herself. Túrin,
discovering that the bane upon his house has come true in very many ways, commits
suicide by stabbing himself. 36
As mentioned before, the Norse sagas resembling the tale of Túrin are the Edda poem of
Sigurd, the Völsunga saga and the epic of Beowulf. Concerning the parallel between
Túrin in Tolkien’s universe and Norse saga of Sigurd, Tolkien’s son stated that “an
association with his own [J.R.R. Tolkien’s] mythology seems […] extremely
probable”37 . Sigurd and Túrin are indeed alike regarding the bad fate and history of both
men. Although Sigurd’s house is cursed because of the acts of violence concerning
Andvari’s gold and Húrin’s linage (that including Túrin and his sister) is cursed because
of Húrin’s withstanding, both men’s fates are affected by the banes. When Morgoth
cursed Húrin and his kin by saying that all who Húrin loved shall be brought “down to
darkness and despair”38 , Húrin does not believe that these things would ever come to
pass39 , yet the bane was fulfilled: Túrin and his sister fell into misery; naught they did
was for good and they committed suicide, trying to escape their hardship. The bane
affecting Sigurd was conjured by the dwarf Andvari, who, being extorted by Loki to
surrender his gold, doomed all to death who were to possess a ring, which was a part of
the treasure. 40 Sigurd indeed died early.
In addition, Túrin and Sigurd are alike in matters of fight, love and strange relations
within their families. For example, both Túrin and Sigurd are war heroes; Túrin, being a
successful and feared vagabond in the wilderness and a war hero when fighting in
Nargothrond, figures in Sigurd’s succeeding to claim back his father’s kingdom and his
various glorious fights. 41 Moreover, both men kill close acquaintances, although their
feelings towards the murders differ. Túrin, killing his friend Beleg by accident, is
inconsolable, whereas Sigurd, murdering his foster-father Regin, is glad about what he
did.
Furthermore, Turin’s and Sigurd’s defeating a dragon are resembling deeds. Túrin, in
pursuit of vengeance, sets out and kills Glaurung in a similar way as Sigurd kills Fáfnir:
Whereas Túrin hides in a chasm and finally stabs Glaurung in the belly 42 (the dragon’s
only weak part of the body), Sigurd does the same by waiting in a hole in the ground
and ramming his sword into Fáfnir’s stomach43 . In this way, J.R.R. Tolkien adapted the
fatal characteristic of Norse and Celtic dragons, as their only part of the body without
scales is their belly. Another dragons’ characteristic Tolkien took up is the guilefulness
18
of them. Both Glaurung and Fáfnir try to lead astray their victims, the former more
successful that the latter.
Another parallel between the two tales is the love affairs. In regard to this, Tolkien’s
hero is as ill- fated as Sigurd. Both of them experience forbidden love: Túrin’s and his
sister’s falling in love with each other is a case of incest. Sigurd falls in love with
Gudrún although he is engaged to Brynhild. The circumstances of these matters lead to
great misfortune for both men: They die because of their mistakes and because of great
disappointment. Furthermore, the motif of incest appears in both sagas. Regarding
Túrin’s history, it is his and Níniel’s expecting a child; in regard to Sigurd’s history it is
Sigurd’s father Sigmund’s and his twin sister Signy’s having sexual intercourse
although being siblings. 44
One similarity between the tale of Túrin and Tolkien’s version of Sigurd’s saga (The
Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún) is the heroes’ destiny to come back from the dead on the
day of the final fights. This does not appear in the original sagas of Sigurd, though.
After his death, Túrin’s spirit shall be in the halls of Mandos in Valinor and he avenges
the children of Húrin by killing Morgoth in the final battle. 45 In Tolkien’s poem, Sigurd
is “the World’s chosen”, the “one they waited [for]”46 in Valhalla to fight in Ragnarök.
Hereby J.R.R. Tolkien creates another parallel between his hero and the most famous
one of the Edda heroes. Yet the last battle of Arda is not the fight resulting in the end of
the world (like Ragnarök), for good will reign again after Morgoth is destroyed.
Regarding the similarities between the epic of Beowulf and the Narn i Chîn Húrin, one
can say that there are only small analogies. The most conspicuous one is Beowulf’s
death compared to Túrin’s death: Whereas Beowulf, a successful and renowned hero of
Sweden, dies after his last and glorious fight with a dragon47 , Túrin dies after fighting
with Glaurung, too. In this way, both heroes meet their death because of dragons.
Summing up the influence of Sigurd’s and Beowulf’s sagas on Tolkien’s epic of the
Children of Húrin, one can say that it is obvious that J.R.R Tolkien, creating his heroes,
made use of the old Norse sagas. Yet the poems about the Niflungs, Völsungs and
Beowulf were not the only sources for Túrin’s history: According to a letter written by
Tolkien, his inspiration for Narn i Chîn Húrin also was the Finnish national epic
Kalevala, for these sagas’ hero Kullervo has roughly the same fate as Túrin does. 48
Considering other epics of the north and their equivalents in Tolkien’s universe, some
more similarities can be found. One notably similarity between Norse mythology and
Tolkien’s mythology is the history and naming of powerful weapons. Tolkien used the
19
Viking tradition of naming weapons of great meaning49 and he created a history of one
of his swords similar to Norse myths: the most famous weapon in The Lord of the
Rings, Aragorn’s sword Andúril. Being reforged out of the shards of Elendil’s broken
sword Narsil, it figures in Sigurd’s sword Gram. This weapon, too, was made of the
shattered pieces of Sigurd’s father’s sword. Both Andúril and Gram were destined for
fulfilling great deeds. Another weapon that can be found in both Tolkien’s and the
Norse mythology is Gil-Galad’s spear Aeglos. Being of great importance and renown in
Middle-earth, it could figure in Odin’s spear Gungnir.
Furthermore, J.R.R. Tolkien’s epic telling the story of the appearance and creation of
Sun and Moon echoes the tale of sun and moon in the Edda. In Tolkien’s mythology,
the Valar create sun and moon out of the last fruits of the Trees of Valinor, which were
destroyed by Melkor. Forging vessels and putting the last flower and fruit of the trees
Telperion and Laurelin in them, the Valar send sun and moon into the sky. The isle of
the moon Isil is pulled by Tilion; the sun Anar is dragged by Arien. One day, Melkor
attacks Tilion because of his being not able to stand light. Melkor, being afraid of the
blazing of Isil and Anar, sends his demons after them. 50
The Edda tells that the gods took the siblings Sôl and Mani into the sky to drag the
wagons of the sun and the moon. Since then they are in charge of the race of the
luminaries. They run fast, for they are pursued by some wolves of the evil. One day, by
eating the moon, the mightiest of the wolves takes part in instigating Ragnarök. 51
Comparing sun and moon of both mythologies, one sees that they are much alike.
Tolkien’s sun and moon are pulled by a girl and a boy as well as the Norse orbs. Being
attacked and chased by servants of evil, Arien, Tilion, Sôl and Mani have to flee, but
nevertheless they will be destroyed some day.
All in all, J.R.R. Tolkien drew upon the Norse sources to create his heroes and epics and
assimilated them in his mythology by weaving hints of Norse mythology into his own
narratives.
20
4. The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún
In the early 1930s * , Tolkien wrote two long pieces of poetry retelling the legend of the
Völsungs and the legend of the Niflungs. His son Christopher Tolkien published these
works in 2009 as Völsungakviða en nýja, The New Lay of the Völsungs, and
Guðrúnarkviða en nýja, The New Lay of Gudrún. According to a letter written by
J.R.R. Tolkien, his poems were an attempt to organise the Edda songs dealing with the
topic of Sigurd and Gunnar. 52
Tolkien’s source was the Eddaic poem of the legend of Sigurd, but with original parts of
this poem missing he also drew on the Völsunga Saga. 53 Comparing the original texts to
Tolkien’s poems, similarities can be found as well as a few differences in regard to the
content of the stories. “The New Lay of the Völsungs” narrates the history of the
Völsung race, beginning with the reason of the Völsungs’ misery: The dragon Fáfnir
came to possess the treasure of Andvari by killing him and taking the gold the dwarf
once extorted from the malicious god Loki. As Andvari cursed the treasure, it is the
reason for murder and deceit among the people involved in the story. Sigurd, a
descendant of King Völsung, was raised by Regin, Fáfnir’s brother. By telling that
Fáfnir had illegally gained the treasure, he animates Sigurd to kill the dragon. And so he
does; but noticing that he has been betrayed by Regin, who blames him for the murder,
he kills him and rides away. On his way he passes a supernatural fire and, showing
himself as the chosen one who killed the dragon, is engaged to the Valkyrie Brynhild,
who has been waiting within the fire. Brynhild wants Sigurd to reign a kingdom before
they marry, so he fights with Gunnar and others to claim back his father’s realm.
Gunnar’s mother Grimhild wants Sigurd to marry her daughter Gudrún, and by giving a
potion to Sigurd, he forgets about Brynhild and agrees. Grimhild also wants Gunnar to
marry Brynhild, and through deceit and Sigurd’s help they do so. Finding out about
Sigurd’s betrayal, Brynhild has him killed and commits suicide afterwards. “The New
Lay of Gudrún” narrates the downfall of the Niflungs, who inherited the treasure after
Sigurd’s death. It causes them much trouble too, for Atli (Attila) is greedy for the
treasure and marries Gudrún. Gunnar and Högni (his brother) take over Atli’s castle but
*
It is not certain that the poems were written in this time, but Tolkien’s son dates them in the early 30s,
the time when his father was professor for Old Norse at Oxford. (The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún,
pp 4-5)
21
release him at Gudrún’s request. Coming back and conquering the castle with his
people, Atli arrests Gunnar and Högni; the price for their release is the treasure. Högni
is killed and Gunnar is tormented to death for not revealing the treasure’s position.
Gudrún kills her sons and Atli and drowns herself afterwards. 54
The content of both poems is similar to the original stories except for some minor
differences. In the New Lay of the Völsungs, for instance, Tolkien left out the history of
Helgi Hundingsbani, in which the names -- and maybe the women themselves -- of
Sigurd’s and Helgi’s mothers are interchanged. Not taking into account this story, the
names were not exchanged in Tolkien’s poems. In regard to the story of Andvari’s gold,
the Edda narrative differs from the Völsunga Saga. In this case, Tolkien followed the
Edda instead of the Saga. Furthermore, one reunion of Sigurd and Brynhild takes place
in the Saga after their first meeting, which was not adapted by Tolkien. 55 Still,
commenting on the New Lay of the Völsungs, Christopher Tolkien claimed there were
“no important differences between the Lay and the old narratives”. 56 The New Lay of
Gudrún is not very different from its sources either, but it differs in some ways. For
example, there is no connection between Brynhild and Atli in the New Lay, whereas
they are relatives in the Edda poems. Moreover the reasons for Gunnar’s and Högni’s
arrival at Atli’s fortress in Tolkien’s poem do not really fit into the Edda poems or the
Saga. Because of the two poems giving different reasons for the men’s arrival, Tolkien
drew on both sources, so that his poem combines the possibilities of both of the original
texts. 57
In formal matters both the Tolkien poems and the Norse poems have resembling
features. The size of Tolkien’s stanzas and verses fits in with the Eddaic poetry, where
the “norm of the strophe is four lines (eight half- lines) with a complete pause at the end,
and also a pause […] at the end of the fourth half- line.”58
Furthermore Tolkien’s poems fit into the Old Norse metre; he used the old eight- line
fornyrðislag stanza, that being the Norse alliterative stanzaic metre used in the Edda
poems. 59 It contains three metres and, being the metre mostly used in the Edda poems,
the fornyrðislag metre was the one utilised by Tolkien. It has the same rhythmical
structure as the Old English metre. 60 One other metre is the ljoðahattr, which has
strophes of two half- lines followed by one full line. The principles of alliteration
appearing in the Edda poems and Old English poetry were used by J.R.R. Tolkien, too:
Alliteration takes place in each pair of lines; mostly it does in each pair of half- lines.
There are two stressed syllables in one line and “one full lift in each half- line must
22
alliterate.”61 As the fornyrðislag might have more than two stressed syllables, the first
lift in the second half, bearing the alliteration, is called head-stave. Then the first two
lifts serve as props or supports. The fourth stressed syllable never takes place in the
alliteration. 62
As an example, given here is one stanza of the Fafnismal in the Edda and one stanza of
the chapter Regin of Tolkien’s New Lay of the Völsungs, dealing with Regin blaming
Sigurd for fratricide. The stressed syllables are bearing accents, the alliterations are
underlined and the head-staves are highlighted in bold letters.
Regin spake:
Regin
“Glád art thou, Sígurth,
“Yet glád is Sígurd,
of battle gaíned,
of góld thínking,
As Grám with gráss though cléanest;
as Grám on the gréy
My bróther fíerce
gráss he wípeth!
in fíght hast sláin,
‘Twas blóod of my bróther
And sómewhat I did mysélf.”63
that bláde did spíll,
though sómewhat the sláying
I mysélf must sháre.”64
As for the formal matters, Tolkien stuck by the old Norse principles of eight- lined
stanzas involving a pause after every four half- lines. Although the Edda song of Fáfnir
is written in the ljoðahattr metre, it has the same alliteration principles as the strophe of
Tolkien’s poem written in the fornyrðislag metre. While the Edda strophe does not have
any head-staves, it still alliterates on the stressed syllables in both the half- lines and the
full lines (“glad” and “gained”, “Gram” and “grass” etc.). In Tolkien’s stanza, which
alliterates perfectly well too, there are two head-staves (“grass” and “blade”), being the
third lift in a pair of half- lines.
To conclude, J.R.R. Tolkien rewrote the poems dealing with the Niflungs and Völsungs
well, organising the confused material of the original poems and mastering the Old
Norse metre.
23
5. Epilogue
To summarise the influence of Norse mythology on J.R.R. Tolkien’s works, one can say
that many analogies can be found and that traces of Norse mythology can be discovered
in Tolkien’s complex universe. Professor Tolkien, being one of the few people who can
see the vestiges of the magical Norse era, included the noble Norse spirit into his own
world and brought it to life again in this way.
Concluding working on the Jahresarbeit, I can say that I enjoyed it and found it very
interesting. The topic was interesting and working on it was revealing, for I knew some
similarities between J.R.R. Tolkien’s works, but I also learned some new ones. Yet I
found more examples for the influence of Norse mythology on J.R.R. Tolkien’s works;
I could have written much more. For instance, I wanted to analyse “The Legend of
Sigurd and Gudrún” more in detail and I wanted to work more on the Norse influence
on “The Lord of the Rings”.
24
6. List of references
1
Tolkien, J.R.R.: On Fairy-Stories, in : Tree and Lea f; edited by Tolkien, Ch ristopher;
HarperCollinsPublishers, 2008; p. 3
2
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Der_Herr_der_Ringe#Hintergr.C3.BCnde, 25.12.2010, 11:46
3
Das Tolkien Lesebuch; hrsg. von Killer, Ulrike; dtv Gmb H & Co. KG, 2004; p. 186
4
Das Tolkien Lesebuch; hrsg. von: Killer, Ulrike; p. 425
5
http://liturgiae-causa.blogspot.com/2010/10/crist-of-cynewulf.ht ml, 25.12.2010, 12:37
6
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; edited by Tolkien, Christopher;
HarperCollinsPublishers, London 2009; p. 17
7
Hávamál 139-164, in: Die Edda; hrsg. von Stange, Manfred; Marix Verlag GmbH, Wiesbaden 2004; pp
65-68
8
“Eg il Saga”, a song retelling the saga; by Faun, in: Licht; published in 2003
9
Graha m-Campbell, James: The Viking World; Club As sociates, by arrangement with Frances Lincoln
Publishers Limited, 1980; pp 156-158
10
http://www.geschichte-skandinavien.de/futhark.html 27.12.2010, 11:32
11
Das Tolkien Lesebuch; hrsg. von: Killer, Ulrike; pp 423-424
12
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Der Herr der Ringe Band 3; Klett-Cotta Verlag, 17. Auflage 2008; pp 451-454
13
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Elder_Futhark 26.12.2010, 16:26
14
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Der Herr der Ringe Band 3; p. 451 and p. 454
15
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Der kleine Hobbit; dtv Gmb H & Co. KG, München; Neuauflage 2006; pp 14-17
16
Völus pá 11-13, 15, in: The Poetic Edda, or: Elder Edda; republished by: Forgotten Books, Charleston,
South Carolina; 2008; p. 17
17
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Das Silmarillion; hrsg. von Tolkien, Ch ristopher; Klett-Cotta Verlag; 19. Auflage
2007; p. 55
18
Völus pá 10 and Gylfaginning 14, in: Die Edda; p. 14 and pp 270-271
19
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Nachrichten aus Mittelerde; hrsg. von Tolkien, Christopher; dtv Gmb H & Co. KG,
München; Neuausgabe 2006; p. 519
20
Die Wikinger, Kultur und Mythen; Evergreen / Taschen GmbH, 2008; pp 74-75
21
Peterich/ Grimal: Götter und Helden; dtv Gmb H & Co. KG, München, 1978; pp 185-187
22
Tolkien : Nachrichten aus Mittelerde; pp 509-517
23
Tolkien : Der kleine Hobbit, p. 10
24
http://www.jok-des ign.de/rk/ mytologie/sonst/draupnir.htm, 10.02.2011, 17:49
25
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Quenta Silmarillion, in : Das Silmarillion; p. 39 ff
26
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Das Silmarillion; pp 27-28
27
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Das Silmarillion; pp 27-28
28
Die Wikinger, Kultur und Mythen; pp 61-62
29
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Das Silmarillion; p. 37
30
Die Wikinger, Kultur und Mythen; pp 67-72
25
31
http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/ Yavanna, 23.03.2011, 19:36
32
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Das Silmarillion; p. 30
33
Die Wikinger, Kultur und Mythen; pp 65-66
34
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Das Silmarillion; pp 31-32
35
Die Edda; pp 424-425
36
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Von Túrin Turambar, in: Das Silmarillion; p. 267 ff
37
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; p. 184
38
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Children of Húrin; edited by Tolkien, Christopher; HarperCollins Publishers,
2008; p. 64
39
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Children of Húrin; p. 64
40
Sigurdarkvida Fafnisbana önnur 5, in: Die Edda; p. 181
41
Sin fiötlalok, in: Die Edda; p. 171
42
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Children of Húrin; pp 236-237
43
Fafnis mal, in: Die Edda; p. 186
44
Die Wikinger, Kultur und Mythen; p. 105
45
http://ardapedia.herr-der-ringe-film.de/index.php/T%C3%BArin_Turambar, 22.04.2011, 11:27
46
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; p. 65
47
Mudrak, Ed mund: Nordische Götter- und Heldensagen; Arena Verlag GmbH, Würzburg 2009; pp 102-
104
48
http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/ Letter_257, 13.04.2011, 21:10
49
http://warviking.tripod.co m/realweapons andarmor.html, 25.04.2011, 12:47
50
Tolkien, J.R.R.: Von Sonne und Mond und der Verhüllung Valinors, in : Das Silmarillion; p. 129 ff
51
Gylfaginning 11-12, in: Die Edda; pp 268-269
52
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; pp 4-6
53
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; p. 38
54
http://ardapedia.herr-der-ringe-film.de/index.php/The_Legend_of_Sigurd_and_Gudr%C3%BAn,
07.03.2011, 17:46
55
Tolkien, Ch ristopher: Co mmentary on Völsungakviða en njýa, in: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; p.
181 ff
56
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; p. 199
57
Tolkien, Ch ristopher: Co mmentary on Guðrúnarkviða en njýa, in: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún;
p. 309 ff
58
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; p. 48
59
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; p. 6
60
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; p. 45
61
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; p. 49
62
http://www.skergard.org/U2eddic.htm, 10.03.2011, 20:22
63
Fafnis mol, in: The Poetic Edda, or: Elder Edda; p. 228
64
Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; p. 111
26
List of bibliography
 Das Tolkien Lesebuch; hrsg. von Killer, Ulrike; dtv GmbH & Co. KG, München;
4. Auflage 2003
 Die Edda; hrsg. Von Manfred Stange; Marix Verlag GmbH, Wiesbaden 2004
 Die Wikinger, Kultur und Mythen; Evergreen / Taschen GmbH, Köln 2008
 Götter und Helden; hrsg. von Peterich, Eckard / Grimal, Pierre; dtv GmbH & Co. KG,
München 1978
 Graham-Campbell, James: The Viking World; Book Club Associates, by arrangement
with Frances Lincoln Publishers Limited, 1980
 Nordische Götter- und Heldensagen; hrsg. von: Mudrak, Edmund; Arena Verlag
GmbH, Würzburg; 29. Auflage 2009
 The Poetic Edda, or: Elder Edda; republished by: Forgotten Books, Charleston, South
Carolina 2008
 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Das Silmarillion; hrsg. von Tolkien, Christopher; Klett-Cotta Verlag,
Stuttgart; 19. Auflage 2007
 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Der Herr der Ringe Band 3; Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 17. Auflage
2008
 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Der kleine Hobbit; dtv GmbH & Co. KG, München; Neuauflage 2006
 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Nachrichten aus Mittelerde; hrsg. von Tolkien, Christopher; dtv
GmbH & Co. KG, München; Neuausgabe 2006
 Tolkien, J.R.R.: On Fairy-stories, in: Tree and Leaf; edited by Tolkien, Christopher;
HarperCollinsPublishers, London 2001
 Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Children of Húrin; edited by Tolkien, Christopher;
HarperCollinsPublishers, London 2008
 Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; edited by Tolkien, Christopher;
HarperCollinsPublishers, London 2009
27
List of figures
Fig. 1, p.1: Norse mythology
http://brainleakage.deviantart.com/art/norse-mythology-48448970
Fig. 2, p. 4: Professor J.R.R. Tolkien
http://www.valinor.com.br/files/2010/05/tolkien11.jpg, 27.04.2011
Fig. 3, p. 6: The Elder Futhark
http://www.albertburger.com/thiot5.jpg 26.12.2010, 16:04
Fig. 4, p. 6: The Angerthas
http://lsdtolkien.altervista.org/img/Angerthas.jpg 26.12.2010, 14:07
Fig. 5, p. 11: Odin the Wanderer
http://www.albertburger.com/woden.jpg 10.02.2011, 17:14
Fig. 6, p. 11: Gandalf the Pilgrim
A picture taken from the film “The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the
Ring”; New Line Cinema, 2001
Fig. 7, p. 12: “The Fairy Coast”, a drawing of Valinor, by J.R.R. Tolkien
Hammond, W.G./Scull, G.: J.R.R. Tolkien, Der Künstler; p. 48
Fig. 8, p. 16: Turin Túrambar, by Alan Lee
http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/File:Alan_Lee_-_T%C3%BArin_Turambar.jpg,
27.04.2011, 21:38
28
7. Appendix
Copies of used internet pages
1.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Herr
_der_Ringe#Hintergr.C3.BCnde, 25.12.2010, 11:46
2.
http://liturgiaecausa.blogspot.com/2010/10/crist-of-cynewulf.html, 25.12.2010, 12:37
3.
http://www.geschichteskandinavien.de/futhark.html , 26.12.2010, 11:32
4.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elder_Fu
thark, 26.12.2010, 16:26
5.
http://www.jokdesign.de/rk/mytologie/sonst/draupnir.htm, 10.02.2011, 17:49
6.
http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Yavan
na, 23.03.2011
7.
http://ardapedia.herr-der-ringefilm.de/index.php/T%C3%BArin_Turambar, 22.04.2011, 11:27
8.
http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Letter_
257, 13.04.2011, 21:10
9.
http://warviking.tripod.com/realweap
onsandarmor.html, 25.04.2011, 12:47
29
10.
http://ardapedia.herr-der-ringefilm.de/index.php/The_Legend_of_Sigurd_and_Gudr%C3%BAn, 07.03.2011,
17:46
11.
http://www.skergard.org/U2eddic.htm
, 10.03.2011, 20:22
30