THC NEW L E F T HISTORIANS
AND THE HISTORIOGRAPHY
OF THE COLD WAR
James V i g g o J e n s e n
B.A.,
U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1 9 6 9
A THESIS
SUBMITTED
IN
PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT
I .:
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
i n t h e Department
History
@ JAMES
V I G G O JENSEN 1 9 7 5
SIMON FRASER U N I V E R S I T Y
A p r i l 1975
A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . T h i s t h e s i s may
n o t be reproduced i n whole o r i n p a r t ,
by photocopy o r o t h e r means, without
permission of t h e author.
OF
APPROVAL
Name :
James Viggo Jensen
Degree:
Master of Arts
T i t l e of Thesis:
The New Left Historians and the
Historiography of the Cold War
Examining Comit t e e :
Chairman :
J.M. Bumsted
Ian M w i d g e
Senior Supervisor
C.G. Reed,
External Examiner
Department of Economics & Commerce
Simon Fraser University
Date Approved :
28 April 1975
PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICEhSE
I h e r e b y g r a n t t o Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o l e n d
my t h e s i s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n ( t h e t i t l e o f which i s shown below) t o u s e r s
o f t h e Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , and t o make p a r t i a l o r s i n g l e
c o p i e s o n l y f o r s u c h u s e r s o r i n r e s p o n s e t o a r e q u e s t from t h e l i b r a r y
o f a n y o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , on i t s -own
b e h a l f o r f o r one of i t s u s e r s .
I f u r t h e r agree t h a t permission f o r
m u l t i p l e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d
b y me o r t h e Dean of Graduate ::udies.
It i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g
o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be allowed
w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .
T i t l e o f Thes is / ~ i s s e r t a ito n :
The New L e f t Historians and t h e H i ~ t o r i o g r a p h y o f t h e Cold !Jar.
Author :
James V i g g o Jensen
(name)
April 28, 1975
(date)
.
CT
I binc. I
l? T ) C t " "
nud
Chapter I of t h i s t h e s i s attempts t o place t h e
New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s i n t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y
American h i s t o r i o g r a p h y .
I n doing t h i s , one f i n d s t h a t i n
precise historiographical terms a s t r a i g h t l i n e extends
from t h e Progressive s c h o o l o f h i s t o r i a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
C h a r l e s Austin Beard, h i s a n a l y s i s o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y and
h i s v i e w o f t h e h i s t o r i a n as a s t u d e n t o f h i s t o r y , t o
today's radical historians,
This r e l a t i o n s h i p between
Beard and t h e New L e f t historlians'
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e
o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War i s e s s e n t i a l t o a f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f New L e f t s c h o l a r s h i p ,
Hitherto, t h i s relationship
n a s b e e n g i o s s e d o v e r w i t h g l i b cornrrier1i.s o r i y i i ~ r e d7 i Z t i j qether,
T h o u g h t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s ' r a d i c a l s c h o l a r -
ship c o n s t i t u t e s t o a considerable degree a reaction against
t h e s t e r i l i t y and complacency t h a t they f i n d s o p e r v a s i v e
i n t h e i r predecessors'
work, t h e New L e f t ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f t h e C o l d War i s n o t s o m e t h i n g p u t t o g e t h e r i n p r o t e s t
a g a i n s t Vietnam.
I t i s a c t u a l l y t h e l a t e s t e x p r e s s i o n of
d i s s e n t w i t h i n American h i s t o r i o g r a p h y .
C h a p t e r I1 t r i o s t o a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e
N e w L e f t h i s t o r i a n s a s s t u d e n t s o f h i s t o r y h a v e made a n y
s u b s t a n t i a l contribution t o the historiography of the origins
iii
o f t h e C o l d War.
The N e w L e f t w r i t e r s h a v e made t w o m a j o r
c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o C o l d War h i s t o r i o g r a p h y .
F i r s t , t h e New
L e f t h i s t o r i a n s have q u e s t i o n e d t h e adequacy of t h e o r t h o dox v i e w w h i c h i n t e r p r e t s A m e r i c a n p o l i c y as p r i m a r i l y a
d e f e n s i v e r e s p o n s e t o an a g g r e s s i v e S o v i e t Union b e n t on
world domination.
I n view of t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e , t h i s
conclusion is no longer tenable.
Second, t h e r e v i s i o n i s t s
h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h e d e c i s i v e e f f e c t o f t h e a t o m i c bomb
p l a y e d i n t h e o r i g i n s of t h e C o l d War.
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s have emphasized
t h a t i t was W a s h i n g t o n , n o t Moscow, w h i c h h a d t h e c h o i c e o f
a l t e r n a t i v e s i n t h e i m m e d i a t e p o s t - w o r l d War 11 p e r i o d .
t h e i r judgement,
In
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was d e t e r m i n e d t o u s e
its predominant economic and atomic p o w e r - i n a v a i n e f f o r t
t o c o m p e l R u s s i a t o a c c e p t America's Open Door v i e w o f t h e
world.
Very s i m p l y s t a t e d , t h e Open Door v i e u ~h o l d s t h a t
American p o l i c y makers, a t l e a s t s i n c e t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f
t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , have d o g m a t i c a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t
American p r o s p e r i t y and democracy are dependent upon cont i n u o u s a n d e e v e r i n c r e a s i n g economic expansion.
The Open
Door t h e o r y h a s formed t h e v e r y b a s i s o f t h e N e w L e f t ' s
r a d i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e whole American diplomacy.
Althouqh it is t o o e a r l y t o g i v e a d e f i n i t i v e
answer concerning t h e v e r a c i t y of
nmm7.
U U U L
+ &-,-
-...., y
LIIGLJJ.
t
i t is . ; t i i d c n t
t h z t zn
t h e Ne~u L e f t ' s Opcn
i-tttrarctatisn c l c s 2 ~
t o t h e r e a l i t i e s of t h a t p e r i o d w i l l e v o l v e from a
s y n t h e s i s of t h e N ~ V L
J eft historians'
and t h e i r p r e -
d e c e s s o r s * a n a l y s e s of t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e Cold war.
S e v e r a l p e r s o n s h a v e a s s i s t e d me i n t h e p r e p a r a -
t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s .
supervisor, Dr.
S p e c i a l t h a n k s a r e d u e t o my t h e s i s
I a n M u q r i d g e , who m a i n t a i n e d c o n s i d e r a b l e
p a t i e n c e t h r o u ~ ht h e y e a r s t h i s p a p e r was u n d e r d e v e l o p ment.
He c o n t r i b u t e d t o i t s p r o g r e s s t h r o u g h c o n s t r u c -
t i v e criticism and i n v a l u a b l e s u g g e s t i o n s .
a s s i s t a n c e w a s Dr. R i c h a r d K .
Also of
D ~ b owho t o o k t i m e f r o m
h i s busy s c h e d u l c t o r e a d t h i s paper and o f f e r h e l p f u l
suggestions.
I am a l s o i n d e b t e d t o my w i f e , 8 a b e r t - a ,
a n d my d a u g h t e r , S a r a h , f o r t h e i r c o n t i n u e d s u p p o r t a n d
enccurageaent.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
APPROVAL PAGE
.
ABSTRACT
..................
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ii
.
iii-v
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
s
CHAPTER
I
II
111
.
.
NEW L E F T COLD WAR HISTORIOGRAPHY I N
PERSPECTIVE
*
w
s
.
THE NEW L E F T H I S T O R I A N S AND THE COLD
W A R . . . * . . . . . . . * . . r w . .
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
...............
..
.
vii
1
54
97
102
CHAPTER I
N E W LEFT C O L D WkR H I S T O R I O G R A P H Y I N P E R S P E C T I V E
I n t h e f i e l d of American h i s t o r i o g r a p h y t h e r e
have been two m a j o r g r o u p s of h i s t o r i a n s d u r i n g t h e l a s t
f i f t y years.
C h a r l e s A u s t i n Beard exemplified t h e
P r o g r e s s i v e h i s t o r i a n s who d o m i n a t e d t h e p r o f e s s i o n i n
t h e 1930s and e a r l y 1940s.l
S h o r t l y a f t e r t h e Second
W o r l d War, h o w e v e r , some h i s t o r i a n s r e j e c t e d t h e p r o g r e s s i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n OF A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y , w h i c h s t r e s s e d
c l a s s d i v i s i o n a n d c o n f l i c t , and r e p l a c e d i t w i t h a n
interpretatior
emphasizing homogeneity and consensus.
Though t h e p o s t - B e a r d i a n
2
consensus historians a r e still
well e n t r e n c h e d i n t h e d i s c i p l i n e , i t is e v i d e n t t h a t d u r i n g t h e 1950s
G
n3c.i r a d i c a l s c h o o l o f A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i a n s ,
commonly l a b e l l e d t h e N E W L e f t , e m e r g e d t o c h a l l e n g e t h e
c o n s e n s u s account of t h e American p a s t .
Barton J.
Bernstein
or
an e x c e l l e n t a n a l y s i s o f t h o t h r e e m a j o r
P r o g r e s s i v e h i s t o r i a n s , F r e d e r i c k J a c k s o n T u r n e r , Vernon
L. P a r r i n g t o n , a n d C h a r l e s A u s t i n B e a r d , r e f e r t o R i c h a r d
H o f s t a d t e r ' s T h e Progressive H i s t o r i a n s ( N E W Y o r k , 1 9 6 8 ) .
For t h e b e s t b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n O F t h e ~ r o a r e s s i v eh i s t o r i a n s ,
s e e J o h n Higham et a l . , ~ i s t a r y( ~ n ~ l e i o oCdl i f f s , N. J . ,
1 9 6 5 ) , p t . 111, C h a p . 111.
2 ~ o rt w o v a l u a b l e v i e w s o f t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s ,
s e e i b i d . , S k o t h e i m , e d . , The H i s t o r i a n a n d t h e C l i m a t e of
O p i n i o n ( R e a d i n g , M a s s . , 1 9 6 9 1 , p t . 11.
-
h a s rendered a u s e f u l d e f i n i t i o n o f t h i s group.
Though d e r y i n g p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n a n d lumping
t o g e t h e r t h o s e who b e l i e v e i n o b j e c t i v e h i s t o r y
w i t h t h o s e who d o n o t , t h e t e r m d o e s d e n o t e a
group of v a r i o u s ' l o f t ' views
whether they
be E a r x i s t , n e o - B e a r d i a n , r a d i c a l , o r l o f t liberal.3
-
A s an introduction t o t h e major concern of t h i s
t h e s i s , w h i c h u i l l b e t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s ' c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War,
t h i s chapter w i l l r e s t r i c t i t s e l f t o a b r i e f examination
of t h e historiographical r o o t s of these historians,
This
is undertaken i n t h e b e l i e f t h a t such a n a n a l y s i s w i l l
c o n t r i b u t e t o a m o r e t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e New
L e f t h i s t o r i a n s w h i c h i n t u r n will f e c i l i t a t e a b e t t e r
t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d Uar.
As W a l t e r L a F c b e r has n o t e d ;
" t h e y ( t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s ) a r e p e r h a p s b e t t e r s t u d i e d
through t h e i r
politics".4
vie^ o f h i s t o r y r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r c a l l t o
He c o n t e n d s t h a t t h i s i s t h e c a s e b e c a u s e o f
t h e i r "widely-varying
r e l a t i o n s h i p " t o t h e t e r m , New L e f t .
If o n e a c c e p t s L a F e b e r ' s c o n t e n t i o n , o n e f i n d s
3 t 3 a r t o n J. B e r n s t e i n , e d . , T o w a r d s A New P a s t t
D i s s e n t i n q E s s a y s i n A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y ( N e w Y o r k , .J' i691
4 ~ h o r n a sG . P a t e r s o n , n d . , T h e O r i g i n s o f t h e
C o l d War ( L e x i n g t o n , ~ a s s a c h u s e t t s ~ ? p~ , ) ,1 1 8 ,
3
t h a t , i n h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s , t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s '
view o f h i s t o r y is r c n a r k a b l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t of p e o p l e
l i k e C h a r l e s Austin Beard.
P o r h a p s t h e new r a d i c a l s '
conception of t h e r o l a of t h e h i s t o r i a n and h i s purposes
i n society similarly explains i n large p a r t t h e changes
t h e y have w r o u g h t i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
The f o l l o w i n g
writers, despite their difFerences i n interpretation,
m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e m a j o r N e w L e f t C o l d Was h i s t o r i a n s ;
B a r t o n J, B e r n s t e i n , D a v i d H o r a w i t z , Thomas G .
G a b r i e l K o l k o , L l o y d C.
Paterson,
G a r d n e r , W a l t e r C a F e b e r , Gar
A l p e r o v i t z a n d William f i p p l c n a r i Williams. 5
Before examining t h e ' h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l r o o t s of
t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i r n s ,
i t 5s h e l p f u l t o d e s c r i h e t h e
i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n of the dominant consensus h i s t o r i a n s t o
t h e new revisionist r e a d i n g o f t h e A m e r i c a n p a s t .
To a
r e m r k a b l e e x t e n t , t h e C G n s e n s i j s l z i d e n A m ~ r i c a iH~ i s t o r i c d l
A s s o c i a t i o n has b e e n s l o w t o r e c o g n i z e t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f
t h i s new s c h o o l o F r a d i c a l writers
especially i n such
S ~ h a u ~t hh e r e a r e many h i s t o r i a n s who m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d New L e f t , t h i s p a p e r is c o n c e r n e d s o l e l y w i t h t h o s e
r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s , who m a y now^ b e c o n s i d e r e d t h o F i r s t
g e n e r a t i o n of Neu L e F t C o l d War h i s t o r i a n s , T h o s e r a d i c a l
h i s t o r i a n s c o n s i d e r e d h e r e are s p e c i a l i s t s i n A m e r i c a n
f o r e i g n p o l i c y a n d s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War.
T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s made b e c a u s e o t h e r New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s
have somewhat d i F F c r e n t h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l r o o t s t h a n t h e
foreign policy writers.
I n t h i s r e g a r d s e e l l N e ~R a d i c a l H i s t o r i a n s i n t h e S i x t i e s : A S u r v e y 1 ' , R a d i c a l . A m e r i c a , IV,
No.
8-9 ( N O V . , l.970), 8 1 - 1 0 6 .
A l s o h e l p f u l is I r w i n
c o n t r o v e r s i a l a r e a s a s t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d W a r , u:hich
e l u s i v e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f l i c t OF m o d e r n t i m e s " .
Until
q u i t e r e c e n t l y , t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s seemed c o n t e n t
e i t h e r t o i g n o r e NEW L e f t h i s t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p o r t o
d i s m i s s i t wit.h d e r o g a t o r y r e m a r k s .
Thay a p p e a r e d t o be
f o l l o v ~ i n gt h e a d v i c e g i v e n by L o u i s H a r t z , a r e s p e c t e d
c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n , r e g a r d i n g C h a r l e s Board.
....
H i s t o r i a n s have openly a s s a i l e d Beard
B u t a f t e r a l l i s s a i d a n d d o n e B e a r d sol how
s t a y s a l i v e , a n d t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s is Lhat,
a s i n t h e case of Rarx, you m e r e l y d e m o n s t r a t e
y o u r s u b s e r v i e n c e t o a thinker when yau s p e n d
y o u r time a t t v n p t i n g t o d i s p r o v e h i n . 7
O s c a r H a n d l i n d i d n o t i g n o r e New L e f t w r i t i n g .
On
T h e C o n t o u r s o f A m o r i c a n H i s t c r y beczrne a l m o s t r e p r e s e n t a -
t i v e o f t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s 1 a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e New
L e f t ' s r e e x a m i n a t i o n o f ~ m e r i c a nh i s t o r y .
Handlin wrote
that
" T h e 'Neu~ L e f t ' a n d A m e r i c a n H i s t o r v r
Some R e c e n t
i n U n i t e d S t a t e s H i s t o r i c g r a p h y , " ~ m e r i c a nH i s t o r i c a l
R e v i e w , LXXII ( J U ~ Y ,1 9 6 7 ) , 1 2 3 7 - 1 2 6 3 ; Dan P o p e , ' "A R a d i c a l
m
i
c G u i d e It A m e r i c a n H i s t o r v . " L i b e r a t i o n . V o l . 1 5
( A u t u m n , 1 9 7 0 ) ' 49-54; Walter ~ a ~ u o d r" ~, c r n r i t i nH~i a t c r y , "
C o m m e n t z r y , V o l . 55, No. 3 ( m a r c h , 1 9 7 3 ) , 5 3 - 6 3 .
Unqer's,
rends
' ~ o r r n a n A . G r a e b n e r , " C o l d War O r i g i n s a n d t h e Cant i n u i n y Debater A Review of R e c e n t L i t e r a t u r e , " J o u r n a l of
C o n f l i c t R e s o l . u t i o n , X I 1 1 arch, l 9 6 9 ) , 1 2 3 .
-
? ~ o u i sH a r t z , T h e L i b e r a l T r a d i t i o n i n A m e r i c a ( ~ e w
Y o r k , 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 3.
i n e v a l u a t i n g t h i s book, one c a n n a t exclude
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i t was i n t e n d e d a s an
e l a b o r a t e hoax, t h a t i t s a u t h o r h a s heen
e n j o y i n g h i r - s c l f by i n e n i o u s l y p u l l i n g t h e
leg of h i s colleagues.
1
David Donald even o b j e c t e d t o " p u b l i s h i n g a m a n u s c r i p t
b y I r w i n U n g e r o n h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e Neu L e f t " .
He o b j e c t e d
"on t h e g r o u n d t h a t t h e h i s t o r i a n s whose work he d i s c u s s e d
were no?; @ f s u f f i c i ~ t n tc o n s c q t i e n c e t o m e r i t e x t e n d e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e pages of o u r major p r o f e s s i o n a l jourr ~ a l " . ~A r t h u r S c h l e s i n g e r , J r . , w e n t s o f a r a s t o " b l o w
t h e whistle" on h i s t o r i c a l revisionism concerning t h e
o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d Wa;
.lo
Evidently the consensus his-
t o r i a n s were s a t i s F i e d t o d i s m i s s t h e N ~ L UL e f t h i s t o r i a n s
a s u n w o r t h y OF e n g a g i n g i n s c h o l a r l y d e b a t e .
8 0 s c a r H a n d l i n , r e v i e w o f William A p p l e m e n William;,
, The M i s s i s s i p p i Valle
H i s t o r i c a l Review,
l 9 6 1 ~ I ~ r c h , m 3d 4
The C o n t o u r s o f A m e r i c a n H i s t o r
.
avid
D o n a l d a n d A i l e e n S. K r a d i t o r , r e v i e w o f
B e r n s t e i n , e d . , T o w a r d s A New P a s t , A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l
Hevietu, L X X I V ( k c . , i 9 r 5 3 1 .
' O ~ r t h u r M . S c h l a s i n g e r , J r . , T h e Nen Y o r k R e v i e m
I t s h o u l d be n o t e d thato f B o o k s , Oct. 2 0 , 1 9 6 6 , p . 37.
S c h l e s i n g e r withdrew h i s a t t a c k on r e v i s i o n i s m a yezr later
i n h i s a r t i c l e , " O r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War," F a r e i q n , , f f a i r s ,
XLVI ( ~ c t . , 1 9 6 7 ) , 22-52.
6
Donald's and Schlesinger's a t t i t u d e t o r a v i s i a n i s t hist o r i o g r a p h y is d i r a c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e i r v i 3 a o f h i s t o r v
and the historians'
role i n society,
Thus, t h e i r n e g a t i v e
r e a c t i o n t o New L e f t h i s t o r i o g r a p h y i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g uhen
one p e r c e i v e s t h e pessimism i n h e r e n t i n t h e consonsus
v i e w OF h i s t o r y .
L!arren S u s m a n , i n h i s e x c e l l e n t a r t i c l e
on American h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g , c o g e n t l y a n a l y z c d t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e consensus h i s t o r i a n s '
view of
h i s t o r y and its e f f e c t on t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g .
He
n o t e d t h a t i n 1940, t h e approxirnatc year t h o c o n s e n s u s
h i s t o r i a n s b e g z n t o e n e r g c a s a d i s t i n c t s c h o o l , "a s i n g u l a r l y a n t i h i s t o r i c a l s p i r i t " a p p ~ a r e d"crnong t h e l e a d i n g
f i g u r e s o f o u r i n t c l l e c t u a l l i f e " . 11
S u s n a n f u r t h e r com-
mented t h a t " t h e s t u d y o f h i s t o r y a s a d i s c i p l i n e h a s a g a i n
become m a j o r l i t e r a t u r e , F r e q u e n t l y s u p e r b l y w r i t t e n a n d
A l l a n Nevins, and Samuel E l i o t Morison.
He s p e c i f i c a l l y
q u o t e d S c h l e s i n g e r ' s v i e v ~o f h i s t o r y , w r i t t e n i n 1 9 4 9 .
ll.bJarren I . Susman. ' H i s t o r v a n d t h e American
I n t e l l e c t u a l t U s e s o f a ~ i a b l e ask." A m e r i c a n Q u a r t e r l y ,
X U 1 (Surnrnsr, 1 9 6 4 ) , 2 4 3 - 2 6 3 .
H i s t o r y is n o t a redeemer, p r o m i s i n g t o s o l v e
a l l human p r o b l e m s i n t i n e ; n o r i s man c a p a b l e
Z F t r a n n c z n d i n -Y t-2 lizita-icns cf his b e i n g ,
Man g e n e r a l l y i s e n t a n g l e d i n i n s o l u b l e p r o b lems; h i s t o r y is consequently a tragedy i n
w h i c h we a r e a l l i n v o l v e d , V J ~ O Sk ~e y n o t e i s
anxiety and f r u s t r a t i o n , n o t progress and fulfillment,l3
I t was S u s m a n ' s o p i n i o n t h a t , i n t h e w o r k s o f t h e
h i s t o r i a n s noted above and most h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g s i n c e
W o r l d War 11,
we l o o k i n v a i n F o r a v i s i o n o f t h e p a s t w h i c h
w i l l e n a b l e u s t o remake t h e p r e s e n t and t h e
future.
Here i d e o l o g y is s p e c i f i c a l l y r e j e c t e d .
Here we f i n d a h i s t o r y w h i c h o f f e r s a r e i n f o r c e ment o f c u r r e n t m o r a l v a l u e s a n d no e f f e c t i v e
c h a l l ~ n q et o t h e r i ~ r i . ? j n nr n ? k e r s i u F t h i n t h e
s o c i a l o r d e r u ~ h od e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y o p e c a t e i n
terms o f s o m e v i e w o f h i s t o r y , s o m , i d e r s l o g y , l 4
e l u c i d a t e d by S c h l e s i n g e r i n 1949 h a s changed v e r y l i t t l e .
For e x a m p l e , a s r e c e n t l y a s t h e A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n ' s 1 9 7 0 c o n v e n t i o n , Oscar ' H a n d l i n r e i t e r a t e d = h a t i n
1 3 b r t h u r S c h l c s i n g c r . J r . , "The C a u s e s o f t h e
A m e r i c a n C i v i l Wart A N o t e on H i s t o r i c a l S e n t i m e n t a l i s m , " i n E . C . R o z u e n c , e d , , T h e Causes o f t h e A m e r i c a nC i v i l War ( ~ o s t o n , 1 3 6 1 ) , p p . 1 8 9 - 1 9 0 ,
14~usrnan, " H i s t o r y and t h e American I n t e l l e c t u a l , "
261-262.
8
e f f e c t was s t i l l t h e c o n s e n s u s v:ew
decric$
r-.--
t h ~
n c d z r n "d~!---;:~
. ~ u * t g
o f h i s t o r y when he
,W
< a A
S ! -~. ?I r I. "A I I
z(.id i;siiti"l?2il;
a g a i n s t "making o u r s c l v o s u s e f u l i n t h e s o l u t i o n o f
s o c i e t y ' s everehanging problems".
Hic r e f e r e n c e t o
" d e c a y f r o m ~ t ~ i t h i nU~as
"
c l e a r l y d i r e c t e d a t t h e New L e f t
historians.
Handlin had e x p l i c i t l y d e c r e e d t h a t any
i n v o l v e m e n t i n p r e s e n t d a y i s s u e s was o u t o f bounds f o r
the legitimate historian.
D e s p i t e t h e a d d i t i o n of a s h i n y s c i e n t i f i c v e n e e r
i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s . c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r y was b u f f e t ~ db y s e r i o u s
c r i t i c i s m i n t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s . l6 much o f t h i s
criticism, which
cpme
fF
~
Vs c > r e ! ~ * ttv
u n c xI r 2 ~ c t c dz r e z s , L : J Z ~
d i r e c t e d z t t h e r i g i d i t y a n d 4 s t e r i l i t y t h a t h a d bacome t h e
main f e a t u r e s of consensus s c h o l a r s h i p ,
I n an a r t i c l e w r i t t e n i n 1359, " T h e C u l - t o f t h e
' A m e r i c a n Consensus'r
H o r n o g ~ n i z i n gCur H i s t o r y " ,
John
Higham w a r n e d o f t h e d a n g e r s o f " T h e conservative f r a m e o f
r e f e r e n c e " a n d how i t " c r e a t e s a p a r a l y z i n g i n c a p a c i t y t o
d e a l w i t h t h e e l e m e n t s o f s p o n t a n e i t y , e f f e r v e s c e n c e , and
lsOscar
H a n d l i n , Newsweok, J a n u e r y 1 1 , 1 9 7 1 , p .
58.
1 6 ~ o r r e s tN c D o n a l d h a s r e f e r r e d t o h i s f e l l o a h i s t o r i a n s ' i m p r o v e d m e t h o d s o f gathering . d a t a t h a t t o o k p L a c ~ ,
during the 1950s as a "Factual explosion."
9
v i o l c n c o i n Air~cricanh i s t o r y " . l7 While he c r i t i c i z e d
certai.n
asr>nct.s n f
t.hv h i s t c r i n??-.-.phy r?F + h n P ~ 2 2 r c c c i v c
h i s t o r i a n s V c r n o n P a r r i n g t o n a n d C h a r l e s A u s t i n B s a r d , hs
c o n c l u d e d t h a t "we p a y a c r u e l p r i c e i n d i s p e n s i n g w i t h
t h e i r deeper values;
an appreciation of tho cruszding
s p i r i t , a responsiveness t o indignation, a sense of inj u s t i c e w . 18
C.
Vann Woodward a l s o was c r i t i c a l sf t h e c o n s e n s u s
h i s t o r i a n s u h e n i n 1 9 6 0 , h e c o m m e n t e d on t h e e f f e c t o f c a n temporary events on h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
He w e n t s o
f a r as t o p r e d i c t t h a t t h e " a v a l a n c h e o f e v e n t s " w h i c h has
s o c o m p l e t ~ l yr e v o l u t . i o n i z e d o u r t v o s l d since 1 9 6 5 tllor.rlrf
i n s p i r e , e v e n n e c e s s i t a t e , e x ' t e n s i v e r e v i s i o n s i n t h e writi n g o f American h i s t o r y .
torians",
he a r g u e d ,
opportunity"
L
1.0
'The
p r c o c n t gcnerntion o f h i s -
"has a s p e c i a l obligation a n d a u n i q u e
ohal.lc~l[;u a c c e p t e d v e r s i o n s OF h l s t o r y f r o m
t h e i r u n i q u e p e r s p e c t i v e . 20
-
1 7 ~ o h nH i g h a m , " T h e C u l t o f t h e ' A m e r i c a n C o n s o n s u s 8 - - H o m o g e n i z i n g Our H i s t o r y , ' Commentary. J a n u a r y 27,
1 9 5 9 , p. LOO.
--
I 9 c . Yann W o o d w a r d , " T h e Age of R e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , "
A m e r i c a n I - l i s t o r .-i c a ? . H c v i e w , L X V I ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 5 0 ) , 13.
As t h i s t h e s i s w i l l a t t e m p t t o s u b s t a p t i a t e ,
it
is r e a d i l y a p p z r c n t t h a t kJoodwardfs plea f o r a r o i n t a r -
p r e t a t i o n o f Arnsrican h i s t o r y i n v i e w o f t h e c a t a c l y s m i c
e v e n t s s i n c e 1 9 4 5 w e n t l a r g e l y u n h e e d e d by a n y o t h e r s t h a n
t h e new r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s .
The c o n s e n s u s
h i s t o r i a n s h a v e i n d e e d a s s u m e d t h e r o l e a s s i g n e d t o them
b y Woodward.
" I f h i s t o r i a n s assume an i n t r a n s i g e n t a t t i -
tude toward r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
they w i l l deserve t o be
r e g a r d e d a s a n t i q u a r i a n s a n d t h e i r h i s t o r y a s i r r e l e v a n t . ,,?I
The s e r i o u s criticism c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r y e n c o u n t e r e d
f r o m Woodmard c o n t i n u e d when Migham r e n o u ~ e d h i s e a r l i e r
c r i t i c i s m i n a 19G2 a r t i c l e & t i t l e d
T h e H i s t o r i a n a s Moral C r i t i t " .
"Beyond C o n z a n s u s :
In t h i s stinging attzck,
he s t a t e d that
now t h a t s t a b i l i t y r a t h e r t h a n c h a n g s h a s t ~ c o m e
t h e n a t i o n a l objective, whsk v a l u e s can p a s s t h e
p r a g m a t i c t e s t ? Only what i s s n u g l y enmeshed i n
t h e t e x t u r e o f American e x p e r i e n c e h a s c l e a r l y
Deprived of a n
proved its p r a c t i c a l worth,
a c t i v e commitment t o p r o g r z s s , t h e p r a g m a t i c
approach tends t o endorse s h e e r succsss and survival.
Having l o s t its c r i t i c a l edgo, pra9matism h a s tended t o d e t e r i o r a t e i n t o r e t r o spective piety.22
2 2 ~ o h nH i g h a m , " B e y o n d C o n s e n s u s i T h e H i s t o r i a n a s
Moral Critic," American H i s t o r i c z Z Revicu, LXVII ( ~ p r i l ,
1 9 6 2 ) . 620.
t o r y t h a t s t r e s s e d h o m o g e n e i t y a n d consensus, a c k n o u j l e d g e d
-
t h e l i m i t a t i o n s OF c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r y i n h i s b o o k , T h e
Progressive H i s t o r-ians.
He a c c e p t e d t h a t c o n s e n s u s h i s t o z y
had met r u i t h s e r i o u s a n d s-!nd
c r i t i c i s m ~ ! ~ h ehne c o n c e d e d
t h a t among t h e c h a p t e r s o? t h e p a s t o f w h i c h t h e c o n s e n s u s
t h e s i s h a d f a i l e d t o make s e n s e w e r e t h e R e v o l u t i o n a n d
t h e C i v i l War. 23
I n a d d i t i o n , H o F s t a d t a r m i g h t have c i t e d
t h a C o l d War and, i n d e e d , t h e e n t i r e c o n s s n s u s a c c o u n t of
tu~entieth-century United States foreign policy.
To a l l i n t e n t s a n d p u r p o s e s , t h c m n j n s t s s a m h i s -
t o r i a n s remained d e a f t o t h e c r i t i c i s m h u r l e d a t t h e n by
Higham, Woodu~ard a n d H o f s t a d t e r ,
T h e i r f a i l u r e t o heed
tl-iis c r i t i c i s m c o m p e l l e d N o o d w i s d , i n h i s 1970 Preskdentia3.
A d d r e s s t o t h e American H i s t o r i c a l . A s s o c ; i o t i o n ,
t o repeat
h i s w a r n i n g , f i r s t made i n 1 9 6 0 , f o r h i s t o r i a n s t o l i s t e n
t o " c r i t i c i s m OF t h e g u i l d , w h e t h e r i t cnE:cs f r o m a r t i s t s ,
s c i e n t i s t s , o r p h i l o s o p h e r s , o r from o u r own s t u d e n t s " . 2 4
To d o o t h e r ~ u i s c , h e a r g u e d , " ~ o u l da p p e a r t o b e s i n g u l a r l y
2 3 ~ o f s t a d t c r , The P r o q r e s s i v e H i s t o r i a n s , p . 4 6 0 .
2 4 ~ . Vann M o o d w a r d , " T h e F u t u r e o f t h e P a s t ,"
A r n e r i c ~ ~H
n i s t c r i c a l R e v i r e , L X X V ( ~ e b r t i a r y , l 9 7 0 ) , 724.
-
p e r i l o u s a t t h i s time".
*'
I n h i s most b i t i n g barb,
Woodmard c r i t i c i z e d t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t a r i a n s f o r t h e i r
" e F f a r t s t o p l e a s e p o p u l a r t a s t e a n d c o u r t p o p u l a r esteemw.
This "tended t o encourage t h e q u a l i t i e s o f blandness and
b a n a l i t y c o m p l a i n e d o f b y t h e c r i t i c s of h i s t o r y " . 2 6
He
a l s o acknowlcdqed t h a t
o u r s i s ~ s s e n t i a l l ya n a g e o f d i s j u n c t u r e , n o t
of c o m m u n i t y .
Indifference t o these conditions
and i n s c n s i t i v i t y t o a n y l i g h t t h a t t h e w o r l d of
a r t o r s c i e n c e o r p h i l o s o p h y may t h r o w u p o n t h e m
w o u l d b e a d i s s e s v i c o t o t h e craFt.27
Yet the consensus h i s t o r i a n s ,
f o r t h o most p a r t ,
p e r s i s t e d i n i n t e r p r c t k n g t h e American c x p e r i e n c c i n a
tionate.
S i n c e Samucl E l i o t M o r i s o n ' s P r c u i d e n t i a l
A d d r e s s o f 1 9 5 0 , l i t t l e h a d c h a n ~ z di n @ h e c o n s e n s u s
of that year inaccurate.
Me n o t e d w i t h s a t i s f a c t i o n
a d e c i d e d change o f a t t i t u d e t o w a r d o u r p a s t , a
f r i e n d l y , a l m o s t a f f e c t i o n a t e a t t i t u d e , as c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e c y n i c a l , a l m o s t h a t c f u l one o f
young i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n e a r l i e r y a a r s . 2 8
205amuel E l i o t P l o r i s o n , ' F a i t h o ? a H i s t o r i a n , "
A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l t7aviatii, LVI ( ~ a n u ~ r y1951)e
,
272.
-
As n o t e d ,
Wood~vard q u e s t i o n e d t h e adequi3cy o f s u c h
which " r e g a r d s h i s t o r y as a n i n s t r u m e n t o f p o l i t i c a l o r
social action",
Moodward c l e a r l y a d v o c a t e d a r e e x a m i n a t i o n
o f t h e f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e c r a f t o f h i s t o r y . 29
The c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s '
c o n p l a e o n c y became s o
a p p a r e n t t h a t i t uJas e v e n d i s c u s s e d b y j o u r n a l i s t s who
w e r e l a r g e l y u n f a m i l i a r w i t h American h i s t o r i o g r a p h y ,
C l i f f o r d Solway o b s e r v e d t h x t t h e i r h i s t o r i o g r a p h y exudcd
p e r f e c t c e r t a i n t y a b o c i t how t h i n g s t m r e , a r c ,
a n d s h o u l d b n p n u t t o n r o n t i o n a g a l l i n q comp l a c e n c y a b o f ~ Ct h c o b j e c t i v i t y o f t h e i r o m
a c c o u n t o f r e c e n t evonts.30
N o w h e r e was t h i s n o r e u r i n i s t a k a b i c t h a n i n t h o
liberal-consensus
e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e C o l d Mar, s p e c i f i -
c a l l y t h e i r r e a c t i o n t o t h e c o n t a i n m e n t p o l i c y w h i c h Farmed
t h e c o r n e r s t o n e of l l k s h i n g t u n ' s p o s t - 1 9 4 5
291doodwerd, " F u t u r e o f t h e P e s t , "
foreign policy.
31
724.
3 0 ~ l i ~ f o rSdo l w a y , " T u r n i n g H i s t o r y U p s i d e D o ~ n , '
S a t u r d a y H e v ir i t ~ , June 2 0 , 1 9 7 0 , p , 1 4 .
3 1 ~ e o r g e Kennan d e l i n e a t e d t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y w h i c h
c a m e t o b e known a s c o n t a i n m e n t ,
T h e list o f C o l d War l i t e r a t u r e b y s u c h s c h o l a r s
a s D e x t e r P c r k i n s , H a r b e r t F e i s , John L u k a c s a n d J o h n
I n t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s area of American d i p l a -
m a t i c h i s t o r y , t i i o h n m ' s c o m m e n t s u h o u t t h e t e n d ~ n c vo f
c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s " t o e n d o r s e s h e e r s u c c ~ s sa n d s u r v i v a l " h a v e s p e c i a l r e l c v a n c c . 32
D u r i n g t h e 1950s, t h e i r i n t a r p r e t a t i o n cama t o b e
accepted as t h e orthodox i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
Very b r i e f l y ,
t h e h i s t o r i a n s o f t h a t p e r i o d " a c c e p t e d t h e n a t i o n oF
S o v i e t a g g r e s s i v e n ~ s sa s v a l i d a n d o f L e s t e r , ] F i r m n e s s a s
n e c e s s a r y " . 33
With t h i s frame o f r e f e r e n c e , it n a t u r s l l y
followed t h a t they considered Washington's containment
p o l i c y a s n e t o n l y n e c e s s a r y b u t t h e n a t i o n ' s m o s t succcssf u l postwar decision.
tierburt F e i s , F o r oxample,
justified
t h e Amcricnn a d o p t i o r r o f t h e c a n t s i n s e n t p o l i c y w i t h the
a g a i n s t b o t h S o v i e t e x p z n s i ~ a i s r rand
~
Conmunist social.
34
S p a n i e r Focusses o n t h e c o n t a i n m e n t p o l i c y a s t h e backbone
of p c s t 1 9 4 5 f o r e i g n p o l i c y ,
The m e m o i r s a n d p a p e r s of
s t a t e s m e n s u c h a s President H a r r y T r u m z n , S e c r e t a r i e s o f
S t a t e James B y r n a s a n d John F o s t e r Dulles a l s o a t t e s t t o
this.
3 2 ~ i g h a ~ n",B e y o n d C e n s e n s u s ,
3 3 ~ r a e b n e r , 'Cold
" 620.
War O r i g i n s , " 1 2 6 .
3 4 ~ e r b e r tF e i s . B e t m e n L!ar a n d P s a c e r Thc
Potsdam
Conf
--- rrencr? ( ~ r i n F c t o r 3 , N. J. , lTim-r%T.
I t should be emphasized here, as Graebner h a s
C o l d War o r t h o d o x y l a i d d o m b y U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d B r i t i s h
o f f i c i a l s i n spaeches,
w r i t i n g s , memoirs, communications,
a n d r e c o r d e d c o f i v e r s a t i o n s b e t w e e n 1 9 4 5 a n d 1950". 35
1n
e f f e c t , t h e s c h i s t o r i a n s were a b l e t o , a n d d i d , " d r a w
h e a v i l y on t h e r e s e a r c h u n d c r t . n k e n b y t h o s e p o l i t i c i a n s
who f e l t o b l i g a d t o d e f e n d t h e i r v i e ~ s " I6
.
T h i s c a s t s con-
s i d e r a b l e d o u b t o n t h e o b j e c t i v i t y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e OF t h e
orthodox a c c o u n t o f t h i s era of American h i s t o r y .
T h e c e r t a i n t y i n h a r e n t i n o r t h u d ~ xC o l d !Ajar h i s -
of such r e c a n t orthodox s c h o l a r s as Charles 8. marshall,
D e x t e r P c r k i n s , a n d D a v i d Z c c s a r e b r j . e f l y c o n s i d e r e d . 37
35
G r a e b n z r , " C o l d War O r i g i n s ," 175. G r a e b n e r
h a s g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w e d t h e o r t h o d o x p o s i t i o n on t h e C o l d
War. S e e a l s o B r i a n T h o m a s , " C o l d $Jar O r i g i n s , " 11,
J o u r n a l o f Conterilpc 9
History, SII ( A p r i l , I ~ S G ) ,
183-1.98s
~
3 6 ~ h o r n a s . 'Cold
War O r i g i n s ,' 1 8 3 .
-
3 7 ~ e e p a r t i c u l a r l y D e x t e r P e r k i n s . The Diolornacs
o f a KPL.J Aqe ( ~ l o o r n i n g t o n ; I n d . , 1 9 6 7 ) ; ~ h a r l e sB u r t o n
& a r s h z i > % i i ~ C o l d !'jar: A C o n z i s o t i i s t o 2 ( N ~ MY o r k ,
1 9 6 5 ) ; a n d D a v i d H e e s , --The Aqe o f C o ~ t 3 i n m c r - t : T h e -.-C o l d
Irlar, 1945-1955 ( L o n d o n , l ~ ? 6 7 ? .
_
_
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16
Thcy have,
;)nd
fhn
d e s p i t e t h e c h a n q e d perspective OF t h e 1 9 6 C s
2 ~ j12bk-Li*.:
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l, p e ~ ' b i ~ t ~ f 3
i n v i e w i n g " t h e S a v i e t U n l c n n s a n e x p a n s i v e F O ~ C Ea?n d
. . . S t a l i n as
t h e e x p o n e n t , not. o f R u s s i a n s e c u r i t y , h u t
o f t h e Cotzrnunist p r o q r s n " . 38
I n f a i r n e s s , Graebner has
q u a l i f i e d h i s s t a t e m a n t by n o t i n q t h a t t h e s c s c h o l a r s d i d
n o t " l a u d e v e r y American d e c i s i o n o r a c c e p t t h e r a t i n n a ! ~
of e v e r y o f f i c i a l utterance". 3 9
However, t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i z n s ' a l m o s t wholeh e a r t e d a c c e p t a n c ~ , t h r o u g h a u k t ~ doe c a d e s , o r !!Jashingtonls
a c c o u n t o f t h e C o l d 1Car h n d s t 2 r i o u s r e p e r c u s s i o n s f o r t h e i r
history.
" H a v i n q l o s t jts r r i t i t - 7 1
pdn-7
---AL--
( i t ~ l i c zz i n c ) " , 40
consensus C o l d ' l a ? s c h ~ l a r s h i pa l m o s t b c c ~ n ci n d i s t i n z u i s h a b l e from o f f i c i a l Ljnktod S t a t e r ;
C o l d P!ar
f o r e i q n policy,
N e i t h e r t h i s o c c u r r ~ n z cn o r 'ctre l o s s o ? t h e i r " c r i t i c a l
e d g e " was a c c i d s n t a l ,
.
S e v e r a l h i s t o r i a n s d u r i n g t h e 1950s,
among t h e m a p r e s i d e n t of t h e American H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i s t i o n ,
w e r e f o r t h r i g h t i n c a l l i r - l g on s c h o l a r s t o a b a n d o n t h o s t a n c c
of c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n ,
38
Thcy a d v o c a t e d i n s t u a d a k i n d
G r z c b n o r , "CoLd Uar O r i g i n s , " 1 2 7 .
4 0 ~ i g h n r n ," R c y o c d
C o n s e n s u s , " 620.
sf
17
h i s t o r y t h a t w q u l d s e r v e t h e 4 m s r i c ~ nn a t i o n a l i n t a r o s t
i n the
st.y.11nn7P trli t.h
H
hnc: t ? l ~S , n ~ i !~I r lti n n - n1
!t
ot!l-
tc-
m a i n s t r e a m h i : t o r i a ~ s' a c c c * p t a n c t ~o f t h i s r e c o m m e n r l a t i c n
t h a t s e v e r e l y u n d o r m i n c d o r t h o d o x C o l d War h i s t o r i o g r a p h y .
Having a s s o c i a t e d t h e m s e l v e s s o c L o s c l y m i t h \;Jashingtcn1s
p o s i t i o n , sny c r i t i c i s i z oP o f f i c i a l A m e r i c a n f o r o i 2 n p o l i c y
was n c c e s s a r i l : f
translated
intcl
irlwarranter? criticism of
their writings.
Dexter Perkins'
1354 a r t i c l e , " A m e r i c a n F o r e i g n
P o l i c y a n d i t s C r i t i c s " , is i l l u m i n a t i n g i n t h i s r ~ g a r d
b e c a u s e i t r e v c ; * l s t h e d r f c n s i v ~p e s t u r e u n d e r l y i n g t h e
o r t h o d o x a n z l y s i s of Amcriccn f o r ~ > i c n
pa! i c v s t s e t c h j n y
f r o m 1 6 9 8 t o 1954.
F a r e x a m p l e , wkile t h ? a u t h o r r i . , j c c t , c d
w h a t h c l a b c l l c d p z r t i s o n c r i t i c i ~ n ,h e l a r ~ d e dc r i t i c i s m
" w h i c h F l o w s From s p t . c i a 1 k r i o u ~ l e r f q n , a n d r e f l e c t i o n a n d
~ h i z hs t i i s i i l a t c s a d c e P e k u , r d ~ sr i a n d i n g : ' .
RS
exanpies
o f s u c h l o f t y c r i t i c i : ~ t n , h z m c n t i o n s d t h e u ~ o r ko f
M o r g e n t k a u i n h i s b o o k , I n D e f e ns e o f t h s P!atizn:l
-.".-------
Hans
Inkcrest.,
4 1 ~ n n y c r s R e a d , " T h e S o c i a l Responsibilities o f t h e
H i s t o r i a n , " American H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , LV ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 5 0 ) ,
283.
"2extte
P e r k i n s , "American F o r e i g n P o l i c y a n d I t s
C r i t i c s , " i n A l f r e d Ii. K e l l y , e d . , A n e r i c s n F o r c i ~ nP n l i c v
a n d Amr1rican D c n o c r a c y ( ~ a y n oS t o t o U i l i v . , 1 ! m 7 7 $ ~ d 6 3 z g 6 .
----
-
-
C
-
affairs.
I SF:? t h c l m s ' c serious f z u l t oT o u r p a s t p o l i c y
f o r m u l a t i o n t o l i e i n s o n t ~ t h i n gt h 3 t I n i g h t
c a l l t h z lc9alistj.c-nor;list,ic
a ~ p r o ~ ct oh
i n i c r n n t i c n a l problc3ms. T h i s approach r u n s
l i k e 3 rcC s k '-12 t h r a r i q h c r i r f o r e i g n p o l i c y
of t h e l a s t f i f ly y c a r s . 4 4
D e s p i t e P e r k i n s ' own umrm ti:el.come t o t h e r i g h t k i n d
o f c r i t i c i s m , a p p a r e n t l y even K c n n a n ' s
remarks, n o t a i t h -
s t a n d i n g h i s c r e d e n t i a l s , w r e t o a much F o r P o r k i n s . 4 5
He d e c i d e d t h a t h i s h s z r e r s v i o u l d c o n c l u d e t h a t " t h c y
43
G e o r g q Kennao a n d Hans F o r g c n t h z u a r c n e n b r r s n f
t h e so-czllcd r z n l i s t school,
For a survzy of t h e
r e a l i s t s s c e C h r i s t o p h s r L c s c h , " T ~ P Co!d War, R z u i s i t e d
and R e v i s i o n e d , " N, Y . T i r n o s L'laqazinc, J a n t ~ r r y 14, 1 9 6 8 ,
pp. 26-35.
--
4 5 ~ e cC h r i s t o p h ~ r L a a ~ h ' s excellent a r t i t l e on
George K e n n a n , " T h e H i s t o r i a n a s D i p l m z t , " Th? N a t ion,
November 2 4 , 1 9 6 2 , p p . 3 4 8 - 3 5 3 ,
d 6 ~ e r ! < i n s ,"American F o r e i g n P o l i c y ," p . D O .
CiiLiLiSj*,
,,,7.c1*3
,,lqt;,;ii3
ij"L
Si;Lj
.
?;,,ii.,iJ*
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'L
"i'ly
LBi,s"Lsd
American p o l i c y f o r b c i n g t o o l e g a l i s t i c a n d u n r e a l i s t i c .
Thauqh P e r k i n s a l o n e w r o t e t h e s a w o r d s ,
the atti-
t u d e t h e y r e v e a l e d came t o r e p r a s e n t t h o s t a n d O F a n
entire school of historians
C o l d War,
on America's conduct o f t h e
H i s Lack of c r i t i c a l i n s i g h t , as r u f l c c t c d i n
t h i s a r t i c l e , i s c h a r a c t o r i s t i c of c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y .
Racocj'nitinn
o f t h i s i s e s s e n t i a l i f one i s t o a c q u i r e a
m e a n i n g f u l p e r s p e c t i v e on New L e f t Cold War h i % . t o r y 47
.
Tho
New L e f t ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n must b e u n d c r s t a o d i n r c l a t i o n
Nel;!
L c f t r a d i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p , par%ictrlarEy t h - ; r
i n t e ~ p ~ ~ -
t a t i o n o f t h c o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d bjzr, c u n s t i t g t ~ st o a
c o n s i d e r a b l e d c g r c ~a r e a c t i o n a g : i i r ~ s t t h c s t 9 r i f i t y a n d
complacency t h c ; t t h e y f o u n d s o p c r v a s i v g i n t b o i r p r e d e c { = c -
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e o u t r a g e o u s c o n f i d e n c e o x h i b i t c d
b y t h e h i s t o r i a n s o f t h s 1950s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n o f t h e C o l d War, e v i d e n t l y t h e y a r e e q u a l l y
c o n v i n c e d of t h e c n r r e c t n e s s o f t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e
historian's function,
T h e f o l l o t u i n g e x c h s n g e between t h e
47~arry
Ho~li: Hansom's r e v i e . n F D a v i d H o r o v ~ i t z ,-Thc
F r e e Yo r l d C ~ ~ c s s t ~ A: ~ C: r i------.-t i q u e o--f -rPi~-if?rirzn
P
o
r
e
i
o
n
P
o
l
icy
- - -.
i-n t l i c [:old W : > r , 5 z i c t ~ r d ~t yi a v i r ! ! , Noitr,mLc!r Gti, 1 9 6 5 , p . 3 4 ,
a=
revezls t h i s cumplaccncp.
l
y
-
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r a d i c a l A r t h u r Waskow a n d hJoodurardvery s u c c i n c t ; l y i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s p o i n t a n d c a p t u r c s t h e d i f f e r s n c ~i n t h u i r
conception of the historian.48
t h i s tim2,
T h i s is s u f F i c i n n t a t
I n h i s condemnation of t h e r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s '
concern with "re?evance",
Woodward s t a t e d t h a t
.
h i s t o r y i s n o t a n i d ~ o l c g y,
, i t i s an i n t e f l n c t u a l p r o c e s s , a d i s c i p l i n e t h ~ i ti s s t i l l g o i n g .
I t s f u t u r e and i t s t r u e F u r t c t i u r i s a r e t o c l e a n s e
t h e story o f m a n k i n d f r o m t h e d e c 2 i v i n g v i s i o n s
of t h e p u r p o s e f u l p a s t . 4 9
Waskou~ r ~ s p o n d e dt h a t
...
e v e r y c o m w i t t c d h i s t o r i a n o u ~ h kt o b c a r a d i c a l
,
T h e r a d i c a l h i p t o r i k t n h;s t h e d r j t y t o
e x a m i n e t h e s e e d s of2 ch:>nga s o t t ~ c tt h e y do n u t
becomc d e f e a t e d n l t e r n a t . i v e s . 5 0
S c h l e s i n q e ? ' ~ v i e w o f h i s t o r y . a l r e z d y nuatsd,
s e p a r z t c s t h e t u ~ oviec.,s c v e n n a r c stark1y.
His o u t l o e k
i d e n t i f i e s a passive, s t a t i c r o l e for thb histori2.n.
4 8 ~ h i se x c h a n g e o c c u r r e d a t t h e 1970 m e e t i n ? oT t h e
A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n i n L l d a s h i n g t o n , D, C.
Sec
Cornrnantwal, X C I , J a n u a r y 1 6 , 1 9 7 0 , 469.
T h i s i s s o m e i l ~ h a t u n f a i r t o V J a a d ~ a r d b e c a u s c h~ i s
more a p r e g r o s s i v e t h a n a c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n ,
Howvcr, h i s
remarks a r e u s e f u l a t t h i s stage because t h e y n e a t l y crystall i z e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e Neu L e f t ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e h i s torian.
4 9 ~ o r i sGrurnbzch, " O u t o f t h s G r o o v c s o f Acadnrni?,"
- XCI , J a n u a r y 1 6 , 1 9 7 0 , 4.69.
Commonra.a?,
h i s f u n s t i o n i n sucizty.
T h e i r i d e a l wks t l , a t o f a
n e u t ~ < s l d, e t a c h e d c c k o l a r wkcse f i r s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n
objectivLty.
Samuel E l i o t
As Osccr H a n d l i p
~wbs
A r t h u r Mcier S c h l e s i n g e r ,
Marison, F r e d e r i c k M e r k , A r t h u r Meier
S c h l e s i n g ~ r ,J r , ,
arid P a u l Herman B u c k h a v e p o i n t e d o u t
History,
i n t h o tfaruard G u i d e t o flncr5can
--
T h i s c u n c u p t i a n o f h i s t o r y p r c c l u d s d z n y i n v a l - v t ~ : c n tb y
~ i c i p d i i o nwat~2.d c i c s r l y undermine t h c much a d n i r c d his--
A
tori-cal objectivity.
5 :!
O n s c a n r e a d i l y u n d e r s t a n d why t h e e s t s b f i s h m c n t
historians,
c a n v i n c e d i n b o t h t h e i r i n t e r p r ~ t a t i o no f t h e
A m e r i c a n p a s t a n d t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i a n , b!ere
r e l u c t a n t t o came t u g r i p s w i t h Nem L e F t s c h o l a r s h i p .
But
n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e i r d s t ~ r m i n c de f f o r t , t h e d o m i n a n t s c h o o ?
o f A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i a n s c a n n c L o n g e r d i s r o q a r d t h e work o f
- --
-
"0sc3r
Handlin, c t a l e . H a r v n r d 6 u i d i 2 l o Anorican
H i s t o r y ( N ~ L ~Y Jo r k , 1 9 6 7 ) . p , 2 0 .
5 2 ~ l a a r l y ,h i s t o r i a n s e c r o n u t t o makc t.hcrnsclvcs
d i r c c t l y u s o f u l i n t h e s o l u t i o r ~o f s c ) c i z t y t s p r n h l c m s ,
t h r 3 s n n n w r c v i s i o n i s t , ~ , B o t h e v e n t s a n d ttie N e w L ~ : f t ' s
v ~ i t h i nt h e p r o f n r ; ! i.crt u f t h e r a d i c a l l e f t ' s c r i t . i q u e o f
U n i t c d S t a t c s fareign p o l i c y i n p a r t i c u l c 7 s .53
However,
a l t h o u g h t h p~ r o ? e s s i o n i s i n c r e a s i n g l y e n g a g i n g t h o New
Lr.7t i n s c h n l a r l y d e b a t c , it has y e t t o o f f e r a n y t h i n g
more t h a n a c u r s o r y cxplznation o f iuky t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s emerged i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s .
I n s o d o i n g , t h e y h a v e r ~ l i e dupan o n e o f t w o
e x p l z n a t i o n s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h o N ~ S J L e f t .
e i t h ~ ra r c c h i l d i s h l y ~ c h c S l i n ga g a i n s t t h : : i r
~ L d s r so r a r e
5 3 ~ r eparticularly D a v i d S . P a t t e r s o n , ' R e c e n t
Literature 017 Cold Mar C r i q i n s : A i l E s s a y Revicw,"
was a p o r i o t j o f u x t r r : m u
Tradition:,l
s o c i a l and
politic^! u n r e s t .
socis? and p o l i t i c a l values
wErc
questioned
and r n j c c t c d b y s u c h t z i l i l z n t l e f t g r o u p s a s S t u d e n t s f o r
a Democratic S o c i ~ t ,
y t h e I33 a c k Panthers, S t ~ l d n c tP!on-
Committee, 5 4
D u r i n q t h i s " t i n e OF r a m ~ o n ts o c i a l
criti-
J e r o l d A u e r b r c h , " t h e p a s t no l e s s t h a n t h e p r e s e n t f a l l s
under s c r u t i n y " .
54
55
He continues L h z t
I n t h n i r efi?pkz;is
u p c n t h e t u r ! ~ i ! l ~ n It Y G O s , t h e
p r o f e s s i o n has o r t r n c o n f u s e d t h e rdcw L 5 r " t h i s t o r i a n s i i ~ i t h
t h e Yaif~L e f t mr,$~enentt h a t r c c k c d t h e l z s L d u c a d a .
For a
g o o d s u r v e y 07 t h c N c w L e f t m c v e n c n t , s e P~ a u l J a c o b s z n d
The New L e f t i n H i s t o r y , "
A u g u s t , 1 9 ' 7 2 1 , 11-4R.
R a d i c a l A r n o r--j c a , I U , No. 4 ( ~ u l ~ -
5 5 ~ h o u g hJ e r u l d 5 . A u e r b a c h v s "NI! D e a l , O l d D e a l ,
o r Rza 3231 8 Some T h ~ ~ ~ C 2 ho nt s New L e f t H i s t o r i o q r a p h y , "
T h e J o-----~ l r n a lo f ~-.s-----i ! b , h c-----r f i - ~ . i s t c ~ r( yF c . b r u : ? r . y , l 9 ~ 3 ) ,pp..
,
d-
i s c o f ~ c e ? n c d! i l i t h t h c ivew L c f t ' s t h ~ u a i - ~ ton
s the
N ~ G JD e a l i t i s h e l p f u l . b e c a u s a it r e v s a l - s t h e consencrtr;
a t e i t u d ~t o ~ i j a r d r a d i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p .
e A p f i s i t in h i s a n a l y s i s o y t h e nzLsi r a d i c a l h i s t o r i o n s i s
h i s bclieF
t h a t t h c y h a v e s u c i \irnbcd t o t h e p e r i l s OF
present-nindedness,
i n t h a t t h e y have a l l o g J p d i s s u e s s u c l ~
t h e f i r s t m a j o r ~ s s a yc;n t h e y o u n g c 3 i s s i . d : .-~th i s t o r i a n s GF'
t h e 1960s.
generation's
I n r e l a t i n g t h e i r e m e r g e n c e t o "a y o u n g e r
p r o t e s t a g 3 i n s t t h e s t a t u s quo", Unger c r i t i -
c i z e d t k c i r " e x p l o i t a t i 3 n c f t h e p a s t F o r p u r p r s ~ c so f p r e s e n t
.
r e F o r m W 50
He o 5 v i o u s l y h u l i e v c s t h a t t h e P!or; L e f t h i s t o r i a n s '
5 8 ~ r u ~ iU
nnasr.
"Comsentnrv
or, t h e Re.
Lnft H i s .
deep concern w i t h t h e i s s u e s t h a t convulsed t h e United
n e c e s s a r y f o r good h i s t o r i c a l s c h c l a r s h i p .
Lacking t h e
alleged p o l i t i c a l n e d t r a l i t y of t h e consensus h i s t o r i a n s ,
U n g e r v i g o r o u s l y c o n d e m n s t h e New L e f t ' s e x c e s s i v e p r e s e n t mindedness b e c a u s e "it s u g g o s t s a c o n t e m p t f o r p u r e h i s t o r y , t h a t has n o t e n l i s t e d i n t h e g o o d f i g h t " . 59
s i m p l y t h e n , t h e netu r a d i c a l s '
very
interpretation of the
o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War c a n be dismissed a s a d i s t o r t i o n
of t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d .
Conveniently, t h e orthodox
a c c o u n t o f t h e C o l d War r e m a i n s i n t a c t ,
Auerbach's and Unger's p o i n t o f
importance.
V ~ R N Ii
s of
SOM-
The r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s h a v a i n d e e d b e e n
g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e t u m u l t u o u s e v e n t s o f t h e l a s t
decade.
T h e V i e t n a m War i n p a r t i c u l a r has d s e p l y a f f e c L e d
their historical writing,
B a r t o n J. B o r n s t e i n has a d d r e s s e d himself t o t h i s
very point.
"During t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s , " h s n o t e s , " t h e
c o n s e r v a t i v e c o n s e n s u s b e g a n t o b r e a k down",
For hirnselF
bid., p , 155. The m y t h t h a t t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s were o b j e c t i v e i n t h e i r judgernt?nts i s s t i l l a l i v e .
F o r a u s e f u l c o r r e c t i v e , see t h e s t i l l r e l e v a n t a r t i c l e by
W i l l i a m L. Neurnan, " H i s t o r i a n s I n An Age o f A c q u i e s c e n c e , "
D i s s e n t , IV ( w i n t e r , 1 9 5 7 ) . 6 4 - 6 9 .
A l s o i n v a l u a b l e is
David E a k i n s , " O b j e c t i v i t y a n d Commitment," S t u d i e s on t h e
L e f t , I a all, 1 9 5 9 ) , 44-53.
-
-
and o t h e r young r a d i c a l s , " t h e r e d i s c o v e r y of p o v e r t y and
Vietnam" had f a r - r e a c h i n g r e s u l t s ,
I t " s h a t t e r e d many o f
t h e a s s u m p t i o n s of t h e f i f t i e s a n d c o m p e l l e d i n t e l l e c t u a l s
t o re-examine t h e American past".
From t h e s e e v e n t s , a n d
m a i n l y from the w r i t i n g s of younger h i s t o r i a n s , " t h e r e
began t o emerge a v i g o r o u s criticism o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l
consensus".
60
G a b r i e l Kolko has a l s o a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f t o t h i s
question.
FOR A G R O W I N G N U M Y E R OF A M E R I C A N S t h e war i n
V i e t n a m h a s become t h c t u ' r n i n c j p o i n t i n t h e i r
p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e of American f o r e i g n
p o l i c y , t h e t r a t ~ m a l i s i r r e~v; e~n t t h a t r e q u i r e s
t h e m t o l o o k a q a i n a t t h e v e r y r a a t s , assumpt i o n s , a n d s t r u c t u r a o f a p o l i c y t h a t 6s
p r o f o u n d l y d a s t r l t z t i v o a n d $8nqpfcus: 6 1
I t i s a l s o e v i d e n t t h a t t h e N ~ U JL e F i h i s t o r i a n s a r c
v e r y d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h b o t h "the h i s t o r i c a l judgement o f
t h e i r e l d e r s and w i t h the c u r r e n t s t a t e o f American c i v i l i z a t i o n " . 62
William A p p l a s a n Williams h a s s e r i o u s d o u b t s
6 0 ~ e r n s t e i n , New P a s t , p . i x .
b L ~ a b r i e lK o l k o , T h e R o o t s o f A m e r i c a n F a r e i s n
Policy ( ~ o s t o n ,1969), p , x i .
" ~ o h n A . G a r r a t y , "A T h e n F o r Now," r e v i e w o f
B e r n s t e i n , e d . , New p a s t , Tho New Y o r k Times Rook R e v i e w ,
May 1 2 , 19C.9, p . 4 4 ,
concerning t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e consensus approach t o history.
He a s s e r t s t h a t ,
d u r i n g t h e l a t e 194Gs a n d 1 ? 5 3 s ,
f e a r f u l Americans t u r n e d " t o h i s t o r y f o r a n e x p l a n a t i o n
of t h e i r predicament and a program ( i f n o t a panacea) f a r
t h e f u t u r e " . 63
In h i s c o n s i d e r e d judgement,
of t h a t period o n l y t o o w i l l i n g l y o b l i g e d .
the historians
Thus,
"Clio
b e c a m e i n v o l v e d i n a n o t h e r o f h e r many a f f a i r s w i t h a
s o c i e t y i n s e a r c h of r e a s s u r a n c e a n d s e c u r i t y " . 64
I t d o e s n o t f o l l o w , h o w e v e r , t h a t , b e c a u s e t h e Neu
L e f t s c h o l a r s are disenchanted with t h e h i s t o r i c a l f i n d i n g s
o f t h e i r e l d e r s , t h e y are engaged merely i n i n f a n t i l e
rebellion.
On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e i r r a d i c a l a n a 1 y : i s o f
American h i s t o r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e i r w r i t i n g s on t h e
o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War, i s o f r e a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n
American h i s t o r i o g r a p h y ,
H o p e f u l l y i t w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d
i n a n o t h e r p a r t o f t h i s p a p e r t h a t t h i s now r a d i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is i n p a r t t h e r e s u l t o f newly a v a i l e b l e a r c h i v a l
m a t e r i a l a n d a new p e r s p e c t i v e .
H o w e v e r , e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t i s t h e New L e f t ' s conc e p t i o n o f t h e r o l e of t h e h i s t o r i a n and h i s p u r p o s e s i n
28
society.
T h e i r c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i a n ' s r o l e is
s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f C h z r l c s n u s t i n !card,
He s a z h i m s e l f
as a s t u d e n t of h i s t o r y and n o t as a h i s t o r i a n ,
The
f o r m e r is i n t e r e s t e d i n u s i n g h i s t o r y zs a means t o a n
e n d w h i l e t h e l a t t e r is i n t e r e s t e d i n h i s t o r y as a n e n d
i n i t s e l f . 65
F o r t h e most p a r t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t h i s t o r i a n s
h a v e o v e r l o o k e d t h i s f a c t o r i n t h e i r a p p r a i s a l s o f New
I f t h i s i s n o t r e m e d i e d , i t is impos-
Left scholarship.
s i b l e t o p l a c e t h e New L s F t h i s t o r i a n s a c c u r a t e l y i n h i s t o r i c a l perspective, because a l l of t h e i r writing has b ~ e n
i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r v i e w o f t h e historian.
Because o f
t h e i r shortcomings i n t h i s area, the consensus h i s t o r i a n s
h a v e m i s s e d t h e c h a l l e n g e t h a t t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s
h a v e made t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e o f t h e h i s t o r j a n .
t h a n examining whether o r n o t t h e New L c F t ' s
Rather
idea o f the
h i s t o r i a n i s o f a n y v ~ ~ r t thht e m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e h i s t o r i a n s
have mcrely concluded t h a t t h e r a d i c a l s are g u i l t y o f being
t o o p r e s e n t - m i n d e d . 66
I n so doing t h s y have c o n v e n i e n t l y
d i s r e g a r d e d t h e e x c i t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e New
6 5 ~ e eWillinms' , ' C h a r l e s A u s t i n B e a r d l T h e
I n t e l l e c t u a l as Tary-Radical" i n Harvsy Goldberq, ed.,
Arncrican R a d i c a l s - - Sane P r o b l e m s a n d b e r s o n a l i t i e s (Nel:~
----York, f Y 5 8 ) , pp. 2 9 i ~ - 3 0 7 .
-"
6 6 ~ e eU n g e r ' s
p o i n t of v i e u ~ .
" C o m m e n t a r y o n t h e New L e f t " f o r t h i s
29
L e f t idea of t h e h i s t o r i a n a s a student o f h i s t ~ r y . They
T h z t t h e p o s t - 1 9 4 5 h i s t o r i a n s s h o u l d diuell u p o n t b z
e v e n t s o f t h e 1 9 5 3 s 2 n d i t s c h ~ n g e dc l i m a t e o f o p i n i c n , i n
t h e i r ~ x p l z n a t i o no f t h s e m e r g e n c e o f t h e N e u L e f t h i s -
t o r i a n s , is n o t s u r p r i s i n g ,
Rost rsdern h i s t o r i a n s a c c e s t
t h a t t h e r e is an i n t i m e t e r e l a t i o n s h i p bettceen a h i s t o r i ' n ' s
w o r k a n d t h e c l i m a t e o f o p i n i o n i n u ~ h i c hh e d o e s h i s w o r k ,
A s B e n c d e t t o Crnce o b s e r v e d , " e v e r y t r u e h i s t o r y is cont e ~ p o r a r yh i s t o r y t ' . 6 7
T h i s s t a t e m e n t h a s s p e c i a l rele-
v ~ n c et o t h e z r i t i n g o f A m k . i c a n h i s t ; c ! r y , f o r e v e r y c c n c - 2 -
t i ~ no f A m e r i c a n s c h o l a z s h k s r e e x a m i n e d a n d r e i n t e r p r e t s d
t h e p a s t i n t e r n s o f i t s own t i n e .
H o ~ e v e r , d o s p i t e i t s s t r e n q t h s , t h i s e ~ p h a s i so n
t h e !tz::;
L e f t z s a p r o d ~ c to m t h e i r a y e f a i l s t o e x p i a i n
how t h e e v e n t s o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s c o u l d p o s s i b l y h a v e i n f l u e n c e ?
t h e x r i t i n g done b y W i l l i a m A p p l e m a n W i l l i a m s in t h e 1 9 5 3 s .
T h i s i s m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e W i l l i a m s , who m i g h t a p t l y
ke c e l l e d t h s d s a n o f t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s , w r o t e b o c k s
a n d a r t i c l e s i n t h e 1 9 5 9 s w h i c h l a t e r came t o f o r m t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e ~ o r ko f t h e r a d i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p o f t h e
5 7 3 e n e d e t t o C r e c e , " H i s t o r y and C h r o n i c l e , ' i n
e d . , T h e P h i l o s o o h y o f H i s t o r y i n Our
1959).
Hans T e y e r h o f f ,
T i ~ e(;.ea Y o r k ,
-
Tha i n F i u e n c e o f Williams o n h i s s t u d e n t s a n d
o t h e r s is e a s i l y d i s c e r n i b l e .
obvious.
The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s are
In Williams' i n t o r p r c t a t i o n , they found a
c o h e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n o f how t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o u n d i t s e l f
in t h e t r a g i c s f t u a t i o n o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s .
6 8 ~ e ee s p e c i a l l y t h e f o l l o w i n g s o r k s by William
A p p l e m a n Williams, A m e r i c a n - R u s s i a n R e l a t i o n s , 1781.194'1 (Neu~Y o r k , 195'27-;I-The
T r a q z d y of A m e r i c a n D i p l o m a c r
l=York,
1 9 5 9 ) ; The U. S., Cuba a n d C a s.-t r o?--(N E W Y o r k
1 9 6 2 ) t " T h e I r o n y o f C o n t a i n m e n t , " The N a t i o n , Nay 5, 1 9 5 6 ,
p p . 376-379; a n d " T h e A m e r i c a n C e n t u r y : - m - 1 9 5 7 , " T h e
N a t i o n , November 2 , 1 9 5 7 , pp, 2 9 7 - 3 0 1 .
-
69Llnyd C. G a r d n e r , Gar A * q o r o v i t z , a n d W a l t e r
L a F e b e r wera s t u d e n t s o f W i l l . i a m s .
A l p e r o v i t z was an
u n d e r g r a d u a t e i n Williams' c o u r s e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
W i s c o n s i n ; L a F c b o r , uha w r o t e h i s t h e s i s t h e r e u n d e r
F r e d Harvey Warrington, d i d n o t t a k c a f o r m a l c o u r s e
with Williams b u t assisted i n h i s course and a c k f l o ~ ~ l edges h i s i n f l u e n c e , C i t e d i n Barton J. Elernstein, ed.,
P o l i t i c s a n d P o l i c i e s o f t h e T r u ~ . 3 nA d m i n i s t r a t i o n
? c h i c a g o , 1 9 7 0 ) , p , 5.
David Horowitz h a s r e c o g n i z e d t h e p i o n e e r i n g
w o r k o f P r o f e s s o r Williams o n p. 1 6 o f C o r p o r a t i o n s a n d
t h e C o l d War ( ~ e wY o r k , 1 9 6 9 ) .
I n t h i s r e s p e c t s e e a l s o t a s c h ' s "The C o l d
War, R e v i s i t e d a n d R E - v i s i o n e d , " a n d R o n a l d Radosh
"Making t h e World S a f e f o r A m e r i c a , " r e v i e w o f G a b r i e l
K o l k o ' s The P o l i t i c s o f War 1 9 4 3 - 1 9 4 5 ( N ~ LYUe r k , 1968),
a n d The H o o t s o f Arn:?rican f a r e i q n P o l i c y , The N a t i o n ,
O c t o b e r 6 , 1969, pp, 3 5 ~ - 3 5 1 .
I n t h e s e r e v i e u ~ st i a d o s h
c r i t i c i z e d Kolko b e c a u s e he d i d n o t a c k n o a l e d g e h i s cons i d e r a b l e d e b t t o William Applernan W i l l i a m s ,
-
-
T h e i r acceptance o f k t i l l i a m s ' s c h o l a r s h i p h a d
t h a t decade cane t o reject t h e l i b e r a l consensus i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f American h i s t o r y , n o t m e r e l y b e c a u s e i t was
t h e s c h o l . a r s h i p o f a more c o n s e r v a t i v e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n
which r s p r c s e n t e d t h e s t a t u s quo, b u t because bJilliarns*
-
two books, American-Russian
R e l a t i o n s , 17s1-1947 (1952)
a n d The T r a q e d y o f A m e r i c a n D i p l o m a c y ( 1 9 5 9 ) ,
offered a
m o r e r e a l i s t i c , p l a u s i b l e a c c o u n t o f how t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
became i n v o l v e d s o e x t e n s i v e l y a r o u n d t h e w o r l d ,
The
l a t t c r s t u d y i n p a r t i c u l a r was a l u c i d b o o k w h i c h a c c o u n t e d
f o r American q l o b a l i s m a n d t h e Hmerican empire.
A young
Nem L e f t w r i t e r has w r i t t e n t h a t Williams' a n a l y s i s ,
p r i n c i p a l l y h i s r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l r o l s o f exparis i o n i s m i n American h i s t o r y
h a s made i t p o s s i b l e f o r r a d i c a l s t o a r g u e
p e r s u a s i v e l y t h a t American involvement i n
V i e t n a m was n o t a n a b e r r a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r a
l o g i c a l c u l m i n a t i o n o f America's h i s t ~ r ~ . ~ O
C o n t r a s t t h i s v i e w w i t h t h a t e x p r o s s e d by t h e o r t h o d o x E r n e s t R.
May i n I m p e r i a l D c m o c r a c y t
A m e r i c a -a-s-a G r e a t P o w e r . 71
-
The Ernerqence OF
Though i t is a s t u d y o f
7 0 ~ i t e di n "New R a d i c a l H i s t o r i a n s i n t h e S i x t i e s , "
92 *
7 1 ~ ~
W icl l i a m s * i l l u m i n a t i n g " T h e A c q u i t t i n q J u d g e , "
r e u i e ~ uo f E r n e s t R , May,
Derocracyr
t h e frnerqenre
o
f
America
a
s
a
Great
York,
19611,
~
t u 3 i e son
t h e L e f t , I I I ( W i n t e r , 1 9 6 3 ) , 94-99.
A m e r i c a n f o r e i q n p o l i c y d u r i n g t h e l R 9 0 s , i t advancad a
v i e w t h a t t h e I\vi+.nc! 5 t - ? ? s
h35
~ ~ Z Z ~ G L tShSr
~ s t3 p o r 1 i t ,
w h i c h i s r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l e r t o t h a t p u t f o r r r ~ a r d by t h e
o r t h o d o x s c h o o l . i n t h e i r e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e C o l d War.
American l e a d e r s "werc a t m o s t o n l y i n c i d e n t a l l y concerned
a b o u t r e a l o r i m a g i n e d i n t e r e s t s a b r o a d " . 72
t h i s , Williams'
Cornpsrcd t o
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s p e r i o d and United
S t a t e s t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y f o r e i g n p o l i c y was more s a t i s f a c t o r y t o t h e e m e r g i n g r a d i c a l s i n e x p l a i n i n g haw t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s a c q u i r e d t h e e m p i r e t h z t was a l l t o o v i s i b l e
e m p h a s i z e d t h a t ! ; ! i l l i a ~ r s ' r e j l i s v wzis i n f i n i t e l y s u p p r i o r
t o t h c o r t h o d o x a c c o u n t o f hot%?t h U
~ n i t ~ dS t a t e s a c c i d e n t a l l y
came t o p r e s i d e a v o r a v a s t
more t r u e o f t h e p ! r i n d a f t e r 1 9 4 5 .
P e r h a p s t h i s is o v e n
A c c o r d i n g t o thr?
orthodox scenario, a r e l u c t a n t Washington, i n n o c e n t o f t h e
i n t r i c a c i e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l . power p o l i t i c s , had world
7 3 ~ a v i d Horotuitz h a s a c c e p t e d W i l l i a m s ' i n n l y s i s
o f t h e Y a l t a a c c o r d s b e c a u s e it i s more f i p m l y based o n
T h i s i s o n e small e x a m p l e
t h e a c t u a l c o u r s e OF e v e n t s .
o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Williams.
See H o r o w i t z , " R e v i s i o n i s t Tales o f N e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e Communists," N a m p a r t s ,
June 2 9 , 1 9 5 8 , p p , 4 9 - 5 4 .
l e a d e r s h i p t h r u s t u p o n i t u n ~ ~ ! i l . l . i n g l ya f t e r W o r l d War
IT. 7 4
G c o r q o K e n n a n . t h s c e l e b r a t e d r e a l i s t , has d j ~ r e r t - n d
h i m s e l f t o t h e q u c s t i o n o f America's a l l e g e d i n n o c e n c e i n
t h e diplomatic arena.
Washington's
He f o u n d t h a t t h e a n s w e r l a y i n
l e g a l i s t i c - m o r a l i s t i c approach t o i n t e r -
n a t i o n a l problems.
Konnan h a s s l a b o r a t e d t h a t
t o t h o American m i n d , i t i s i n p l z u 5 i b l e t h a t
people should have p o s i t i v e a s p i r a t i o n s , and
o n e s t h a t t h e y r e g a r d a s l e g i t i m a t e , more
i m p o r t a n t t o them t h a n t h e p e a c e f u l n e s s a n d
orderliness of international life.75
T h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t c s was a n i n n o c e n t ,
e s s e n t i a l l y i s o l a t i o n i s t n a t i l n has l o n g T o m i n d t h e b a s i s
o P C o l d War o r t h o d o x y .
,
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h i s a x p l n n a t i o n , \ijilliams has
a d v a n c e d t h e v i e w t h a t Wnshingtnn c a g e r i y s o u g h t t o a s s u m e
vmrld l e a d e r s h i p i n t h i s period.
soms l e n g t h .
He i s w o r t h q u o t i n g a t
He c o n t e n d s
t h a t t h e United S t a t c s h a d From 1 9 4 4 t o a t l e a s t
1966 a v a s t p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f a c t u a l a s w e l l a s
p o t e n t i a l power v i s - 3 - v i s t h e S o v i e t ~ n i o n . 7 6
An a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e
7 4 ~ h i sc o n t e n t i o n i s c e n t r a l t o C o l d lCar u r t h o d n x y .
i t i s F o u n d i n t h e works o f s u c h w r i t e r s
a s J o h n S p a n i e r , J o h r , Lukacs, D e x t e r P e r k i n s a n d H e r b e r t
Feis.
As a l r e a d y n o t e d ,
7 5 ~ c n n a n . A m e r i c a n D i p l o m a c y-, p . 83.
7 6 ~ i l l i a r n s ,T r a q s d y
,
p . 200.
...
r e l a t i v e weakness o f t h e R u s s i a n s
does
c o n f r o n t a l l students of t h e c o l d Imr, be t h e y
a c a d e m i c i a n s o r p o l i t i c i a n s o r hn!~.;et:!<fi:.lr?s, t i l i t k
v e r y c l e a r a n d f i r n l i m i t s on h o v ~ t h e y c a n make
sense o u t of t h e c o l d war i f t h e y a r c a t t h e
sane time t o o b s o r v o t h e e s s e n t i a l s t a n d a r d s o f
i n t e l l e c t u a l honesty. F o r polcuar a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y go t o g e t h e r i n a d i r e c t and i n t i m a t e
r e l a t i o n s h i p .77
Williams continuos t h a t
a n a t i o n w i t h t h e g r e a t r e l a t i v e supremacy e n j o y e d
by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e t w e e n 1 9 4 4 a n d 1 9 6 2 c a n n o t
w i t h any r e a l w a r r a n t o r meaning c l a i m t h a t it
h a s b e e n FORCED t o f o L l o u ~a c e r t a i n a p p r o a c h o r
policy.
Y e t t h a t i s t h e A m e p i c a n clairn.78
The c o n s e n s u s v i e , * [o f U n i t e d S t a t e s d a r n e s i i c h i s t o r y
l c n t Fu; L11t.r i m p e i ; u s t o t h e n r i t i n g s O F ' J f i l l i a n s .
The c o n -
I
s e n s u s image of Rrnerica p i r t u r c d a u n l ' q u o denocra'ic
n a t i o n , d e v o i d o f c l a s s c o n F l i c t , ~ n free
d
frsz inpzrial-
ism, u n i t e d i n a b r o a d d o m e s t ' c
sus.
and fcreicjn p o l i c y consen-
The n a t i o n , a s c e l e b r a t e d b y s u c h c o n s e n s u s h i s -
t o r i a n s a s L o u i s H a r t z a n d D a n i e l B o o r s t i n , someho~v s e e n o d
a t o d d s w i t h t h e America t h e young r a d i c a l s c o n F r o n t e d i n
t h e l a t e 1950s a n d 1960s. 757
or
Skotheim, ed.,
a n e x c e l l e n t rovietu o f t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e s e e
Climate of Opinion.
a n d i t s e c ~ n c m i cd e p r n d c n c e on s u c h e x p a n s i o n e x e r t e d
g r e a t i n f l u e n c e on h i s s t u d ~ n t s . T h a t i t d i d c a n b e s e e n
i n t h e r e c e p t i o n a c c o r d e d h i s s e m i n a l s t u d y , The T r a q e d y
o f A m n r i c a n D i p L--o ~ a z- y . T h a t s t u d y p r o v i d e d t h e f r a m e w o r k
o n w h i c h t h e y o u n g r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e 1969- b u i l t
t h a i r c o n t r o v e r s i a l a n a l y s i s of Amarican diplomacy.
I n t h i s r e g a r d a y o u n g revisionist h a s w r i t t e n
-
t h a t " h i s ( ~ i l l i n r n s ' ) b o o k s , rnest n o t a b l y T h e T r a g e d y o f
American DipJ-o~:acy, h a v e o f f c r e d a w o z l t h o f i n s i g h t s and
s u a q e s t i o n s f o r f u r t h c ? ~r o r 2 a a r c h " . 80
Thvs,
his
and o t h e r s as w e l l , hava s u i G e d upon W i l l i a m s '
C ~ U ~ ~ C R ~ S ,
interprn-
t a t i o n a s a b a s i s o f e n q u i r y a n d expanded upon i t i n t h e i r
own s t u d i e s ,
One n c c d o n l y e x a m i n e t h e h i s t a z - i c s l s c h o l n r -
s h i p o f G a r d n e r , A l p e r u v i t z , a e r r . ~ s t ; c i n , Kalico, F a t e r s o n ,
and Hnrowitz t o confirm t h i s .
I n v i e w o f LbJilliams'
c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on h i s
s t u d e n t s , a n y e x p l a n a t i o n OF t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s a s
mcrely a r e F l e c t i o n o f t h e i r c l i m a t e o f o p i n i o n i s i n a d e quate b e c a u s e i t i g n o r e s t h e f a c t t h a t he w r o t e i m p o r t a n t
s t u d i e s d u r i n g the 1950s t h a t e v e n t u a l l y formed t h e c o r e
o f r e v i s i o n i s t C o l d War h i s t o r i c g r a p h y .
" ~ a d i c a l America,
"A
S u r v e y , " 92.
To d o s o i s a l s o t o i g n o r e t h e F a c t t h a t i n p r e c i s
h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l terms a s t r a i g h t l i n e o x t e n d s F r o m t . h ~
so-called Progressive school of historians, particularly
C h a r l e s A u s t i n Board a n d h i s a n a l y s i s o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y
and h i s view o f t h 9 h i s t o r i a n , t o t o d a y ' s r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s ,
T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p b o t ~ u z e n B e a r d a n d t h e New L e f t ' s
c r i t i q u e of t~tientieth-century American for'nign p o l i c y is
e s s a n t i a l t o a f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Ncu L e f t s c h o l a r s h i p .
Hitherto t h i s relationship has been glossed over with g l i b
c o m m e n t s o r i g n o r e d altogether.
The New L o f t h i s t o r i a n s '
i n t a r p r o t a t i o n o f t h e C o l d War i s n o t , t h e r o f a r c , s o m e t h i n g
put together i n p r o t e s t agzinSt Victnsn.
I t is actuaLly t h e
l a t e s t e x p r r e s s E o n o f d i s s e n t w i t h i n American h i s t o r i a g r a p h y ,
T h o u g h t h e naw d i s s e n t e r s h a v a gonc b e y n n d B ~ a r d , t h e i r w o r k
' l ~ c c e r d i n c j t o I r z i n U n g c r , t h c Ncw L e ' t h i s t o r i ; n ; ,
i n p a r t i c u l a r William Applenzn Willizrns, ome w r y l i t t l e t o
Beard.
Unger does q u a l i f y t h i s by n o t i n g t h a t
t h e y a r e o b l i g a t e d t o Beard i n t h e a r e a a f " r e c e n t A r n e r i c z n
foreign policy."
In Unger's opinion Williams has only a c k n o ~ l c d g e d
t h e f o l l o w i n g d e b t t o Beard b e c a u s e i t b e f i t s h i s b e l l i cose style.
U n g e r " C o m m e n t a r y o n t h e Naw L e f t , " p . 1 3 2 .
"It
seems a p p r o p r i a t e i n v i e w o f a 3 1 t h e b i g o t a d a n d
c a r e e r b u i l d i n g a t t a c k s * acts o f p u r i f i c a t i o n i n t h e form
o f m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , a n d e v c n smart a l e c c r i t i c i s m b y s u p p a s e d a r i s t o c r a t s , t o a c k n o w l e d g e f o r m e l l y my r e s p e c t f o r
a n d i n d e b t e d n e s s t o C h a r l e s A u s t i n Beard."
Williams,
C o n t o u r s o f A n e r l c a n his tor^, p . 490.
Walter L a F e b ~ rh a s
a l s o p r a i s e d t h e t r a d i t i o n o f C h a r l e s Beard i n A m e r i c a n
diplomatic history.
In s o doing he has a s s a u l t e d thosa
h i s t o r i a n s who " s i n c e 1 9 4 5
have b e e n p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h
k n i f i n g Beard w i t h onc hand and u s i n g t h e o t h e r hand t o
p e n c a r i c a t u r e s of a u n i q u e u n b l e m i s h e d R e p u b l i c which
b e c a m e a world e m p i r e w i t h l i t t l e c o n s c i o u s human i n t e r vention."
L a F e b e r , "The C o n s c i o u s C r e a t i o n o f a ' W o r l d
...
...
i s g r e a t l y i n f u s e d t ~ r i t hb o t h h i s v i e w o f t h e h i s t o r i a n ' s
Tho k e y c o n t c r n p o r a r y f i g u r e i n t h i s h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l c h a i n i s i n d i s p u t ~ 5 l yWilliam R p p l c r n a n W i l l i a m s ,
He i s t h e l i n k c o n n e c t i n g t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s a n d
C h a r l e s Austin Beard.
Fin a p p r e c i a t i o n of t h e i r r e l a t i o n -
s h i p l a r q e l y e x p l a i n s t h e New L e f t s c h o l a r s ' c o n c e p t i o n
o f t h e h i s t . o r i a n a n d t h e i r general a p p r o a c h t o foreic=,n
policy.
P r o f e s s o r Williams f u l f i l l e d much t h e sems r o l e
of g r e a t t e a c h e r f o r t h e r a d i c a l l e f t as Beard, t o a l ~ s s e r
e x t e n t , d i d f o r him.
--
p e e t s , b.!illisms i s w r i t i n g ~ k o m3 B e a ~ t f i z np o r s p o c t i v e ,
especially i n t h e a r e a o F f o r e i g n p o l i c y .
He has r e c o g -
nized t h i s debt i n a personal article e n t i t l e d "Charlas
Austin Beard:
judycment,
The I n t e l b e e t u a l a s T o r y - R a d i c a l " .
"There are fow s h o r t a n a l y s e s ,
t h e q u a l i t y o f Beard's
..
In his
which match
treatment of foraign a f f a i r s in
The Rise o f A m e r i c a n C i v i l i z a t i o n " a n d " I t i s e v e n m o r e
Wide' E m p i r e , " re vie^ o f R i c h a r d Van A l s t y n e , -The
-- R i s j n q .
A m e r i c a n E ~ p l r o , ( O x f o r d , 1 9 6 0 ) i n S t u d i e s on t i ! e L e f t p 11,
m
2
7 103.
Solway i n h i s a r t i c l e , "Turning H i s t o r y Upside
Down," r e c o g n i z e d t h e l i n k b e t w e o n Beard a n d t h e New L e f t
histarians.
he
Now L s f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v e "gone b e y o n d " R e a r d
i n t h a t t h e y a r e m o r e h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d t o Karl Mzrx. When
t h e new r e v i s i o n i s t s h a v e msde much c f Marx, i t i s more
o f t e n t h e e a r l y " s o f t " M a r x , who s p e a k s o f " a l i e n a t i c n , "
r a t h e r t h a n t h e " h a r d " M a r x OF Das K a p i t a -l , w i t h i t s c l a s s
s t r u g g l e a n d p r o q r e s s i v e " i m r n i s e r i z a t i o n nT t h e p r o l e t a r i a t . "
d i f f i c u l t t o name a v o l u m o t h a t i s more r e w a r d i n g i n i n -
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e a n o f t h e New L e F t h i s t o r i a n s ,
t h s P r o g r e s s i v e Goard s t r e s s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e p o i n t s
i n h i s analysis o f Foreign policy.
(1)
i t i s i r i t i l n a t e J - y connected w i t h d o i n e s t i c
( 2 ) e m p i r e s are n o t b u i l t i n F i t s
affairs,
of a b s e n t ndr:dn.;ss,
and
( 3 ) expansion d o e s
n o t i n a n c ~f i t s e l f s o l v e p r o b l e m s , a n d o f t e n
c o m p l i c a t e s a n d deepens them.84
Tho New L e f t d i ! ) l o m a t i c h i s t o r i a n s '
t h i s r e s p e c t is c u n s i d o r z b l e .
o b l i g a t i o n t o Beard i n
Thzy t o o havc ~ m p h a s i z s d ,
i n v a r y i n g d c g r c e s , t h e s e samh t h r e e f a c t o r s i n t h e i r
radical counter-intcrpretaticn
policy,
o f United Statcs forelqn
Though t h e y h a v e s t r e s s e d much m o r e t h a n Beard
t h e demands o f capitali:>rn i n t h e making o f American r o r o i ~ n
AS
p o l i c y , t h e y a r c s t i l l w r i t i n g ~ u i t h i nh i s s h a d o ~ u .
I n t h i s r r g a r d s e e E u g e n e D. G e n o v c s e , "William
A p p l e m a n Williams o n ftlarx a n d America, " rcvieth~ o f N i l l i a n
A , W i l l i a m s , The G r e a t E v a s i o n .
An E s s a y o n - t h e C o n t e m p o r a r y R e l e v a n--c a o f Ka5.l
I
h
s
x
a
n
d
on t h e N i s d o n o f
---A d m i t t i n g t h s H e r e t i c i n t oC-----'--t-.--d-----.----the D i a l o o u n a b o u t America's
F u t u r n , Studies o n t h e L e f t , V I (January-February, 1 9 6 6 )
-
70-86.
8 3 ~ i l l i a r n s ,"Intellectual A s T o r y - R a d i c a l
his
,lo
p.
305.
is a n a l y z e d i n H o r o w i t , ~ ,e d . , C o r p o r a t i o n s
a n d t h e C o l d IJar a n d K o l k o , T h e L i m i t s o f P a ~ ~ c r .
I t was B e a r d ~ h fo i r s t f u l l y e x p o s e d t h e d e g r e e
i n g : ' e a t u r e of A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y . a6
I n s o d o i n g h e eas
p e r c e p t i v e e n o u g h n o t t o l i m i t h i s s t u d y o f Amc!rican
e x p a n s i o n t o t e r r i t o r i a l s ~ ~ a n s i o n I .n ~The
~ Idea of
N a t i o n a l I n t e r a st , Beard a s t a b l i s h s d t h z t a n a t i o n a l
i n t e r e s t , a s i n t ~ r p r e t e db y m o s t A m e r i c a n s t a t e s m e n , i s a
material i n t e r e s t .
Beard's
judgement,
Unfortunately f a r t h e Republic, i n
t h e Hamiltonian conception of national
i n t e r e s t triumphed t o o often.
B e a r d d e f i n e d t h i s a s mean-
ing the
c o n s o l i d z t i o n o f c o m ~ i c r c i ~ ln,a n u f a c t u r i n q ,
f inancia?. and a g r i c u l t u r t l i n t e r e s t s a t honc,
t h e promotion o f trade i n a l l psrts o f thc
w o r l d b y t h e e n g i n ~ su f d i p l o n z c y , t h e deSensc
o f tha",e,rr:d:.
b y zi ~ ~ L : , ; ? ? f i j : n a u y , b i-t e suprerildcy
of t h e Unitei States i n t h e Western H e z t i ~ p h e r ~ ? ,
and @he u s e o f m i l i t a r y and n a v a l s t r n n g t h i n
t h e r i v a l r y o f n a t i o n s t o sccurc economic
a d v a n t a g e s f o r c i t i z c n s of the U n i t e d ~ t a t e s . 0 8
I-
I
-
8 6 ~ e a r d f o c u s s e d on e x p a n s i o n i s m i n h i s T h e I d e a.--. c f
N a t i n r t a l I n t e r e s t ( N ~ U JY o r k , 1 9 3 4 ) . H i s f e a r o f e x p a n s i o n i s m i n s p i r e d h i s The Open Dazs a t Home ( ~ e wYork, 1 9 3 4 ) .
8 7 ~ e n r yW a l l a c e , ' B e a r d :
The P l a n n e r , " T h e New
R e p u b l i c , J a n u z r y 2 , 1 9 3 5 , p . 225.
This article succixctly
s h o v ~ s t h a t E e a r d was c o n s c i o u s o f rriore t h a n j u s t t e r r i t o r i a l expansion. As ! d a l l a c e has n o t e d , B e a r d tins a w a r e
He d e f i n e d i t a s " a n e f f o r t o n t h e p a r t
of i m p e r i a l i s m .
of t h e dcminant i n d u s t r i a l and f i n a n c i a l forcss o f a n a t i o n
t o s e n d i t s s u r p l u s c a p i t a l and commodities zbroad i n prcF e r e n c e t o r a i s i n g t h e s t a n c ! 3 r d o f l i v i n g o f i t s peop1.e a t
home."
" ~ e a r d , Notinnal I n t e r e s t , p p . 48-69.
I n C h a r l c s 8 c : ? r d ' s j u d g ~ r n e n t , as l o n q a s t h e
Washington's
f o r e i g n p o l i c y makers, t h e 3 e p u b l i c would be
committed t o a
d i p l o m a c y w h i c ' . ostensibly s e e k s t h e t x e l f a r c o f
t h e U n i t e d S t z t e s by p u s h i n q a n d h o l d i n g d o o r s
open i n a l l p a r t s of t h e world w i t h a l l e n g i n e s
o f g o v e r n m e n t , r a n n i n q f r o m p o l i t e c o ~ r c i o nt o
t h c u s e o f arms.Bg-'
T h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v e come t o a similar,
t h o u g h more r s d i c a l c o n c l u s i o n .
tory.
T h e new r e v i s i o n i s t s h a v e
S t a r t i n g From t h i s perspective, t h c !?cc: L e f t h a s
n e c e s s a r i l y a r r i v e d a t a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ~f k r n ~ r i c z r l f u r e i y n
p o l i c y t h a t d i f f e r s r c r , ; a r k z b l y f r c j L i t h ~ i rpredecessors,
l i k e Heard, h a v e also d s m o n s t r a t e d , i n a
T h e New L e F t ,
m o r e sophisticated m a n n e r , t h e considsrable e x t e n t t o u ~ h i c h
Washington's
f o r e i g n p o l i c y h a s d e l i b a r a t e l y l o n g flolued
from domestic requiremants,
S o p h i s t i c a t e d o r n o t , i t was B e a r d aha o b s e r v e d
t h a t "domestic affairs and foreign r e l a t i o n s a r e intimately
a s s o c i a t e d u ~ i t ke a c h o t h a r .
a s p e c t s of t h e same t h i n g .
This view s i g n i r i c a n t l y
Open D oor,
''bard,
National
Often both are but dif'fercnt
vii.
Interest,
a f f e c t o d Beard's a n a l y s i s o f American diplomacy.
it
e n a b l e d him t o g r a s p t h e d s n c s t i c p r e s s u r e s u n d e r l y i n g
t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of American f o r e i g n 7 o l i c y .
I t played
an equally important r o l e i n t h e New Left diplomatic
writings.
They have f o c u s s e d upon t h e i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n -
s h i p b e t w e e n A m e r i c a n d i p l o r a a t i c and d o m e s t i c p o l i c i e s .
Thus t d i l l i a n s h z s concludzd t h a t
a re-examination of t h e h i s t o r y of twentiethc e n t u r y American f o r e i g n r c l a t i o r l s (and t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n f o r e i q n p o l i c y and t h e
d o m e s t i c economy) o f f e r s t h e most prornisinq
a p p r o a c h t o such a r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f o u r
a s s u m p t i o n s , 91
?
his a p p r o n c h has p r o v e d t r i ~ i t P u if o r N i i l i s - ; s a n 3
I
t h o a n t i r e s c h o 3 1 o f Nsx~ L e F t d i p l o m a t i c h i s t o r i a n s ,
T h e i r e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h c r c ? c i p r o s a l r c 3 a t i n n s h i r j betixeen
f o r e i g n and d o m e s t i c p o l i c y h a s l e d t a t h e i r c o n t r a v e r s i a l
Open D o o r t h e o r y o f H m s r i c a n d i p l o m a c y ,
This theory, as
p r o m u l g a t s d b y Willirms, h o l d s t h a t s i n c e
t h e Crisis o f t h e 1.C9O1s, v ~ h e n A m e r i c a n s T H O U G H T
t h a t t h e c o n t i n e n t a l f r o n t i e r was g o n e , t h e y
a d v a n s e d and a c c e p t e d t h e a r g c r n e n t t h a t c o n t i n u e d
expansion i n t h e f o r n of o v e r s e a s economic (and
e v e n t e r r i t o r i a l ) empire p r o v i d e d t h o b e s t , i f
n o t t h e o n 1 way t o s u s t a i n t h e i r f r e e d o m a n d
prosperity. 5 2
9 1 ~ i l l i a m s , T r a q e d y , p.
9.
T h e Noiu L e F t w r i t e r s ,
aq
a g r o u p , a r e cor, f i r i c e d t h a t
A m e r i c a n d i p l o m s c v c i f i t i s t o b~ r e n l i c t ; - - ? l l y trnd-rs t o o d , m u s t b e v i e t ~ ~ cEn
d t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i r Opcn Door
tbeory,
I n t h i s r e g a r d , Williams h a s a r g u e d p e r s u a s i v e l y
t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f Americsn diplomacy thrcughout t h e
twentieth-century
h a s b e e n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e Open D o o r
"To s t a b i l i z e t h o w o r l d i n a p r o - A m s r i c a n
p c licy,
equi-
l i b r i u m " h a s b e e n t h e minimum o b j e c t i v e OF U n i t e d S t a t e s
policy;
" t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e American expansiaiiisnw its
o p t i m u m g o a l . 9 3 T h e C o l d !!Jar, i n W i l l i a n s ' v i e u ~ , n u s t b e
i n t e r p r e t e d as tho latest phasc of a c o n t i n u i n g aFFort t o
mako t h e w , r l d s z r e Tor ~ n z r i c a ncapitalisn. 9 4
was c o n s c i o t i s l y a n d d c l i b i : r a i r ; l y c n h s r k e d upr
,i
This policy
bcczusc?
A m e r i c a n s t a t c s r n e r ~ ts, l i e v c d t h r i t A n s r i c a n c n p i t a l i s r n n c e d c d
e v e r - e x p s n d i n g f o r e i g n m a r k s t s i n o r d c s tr) s u r v i v e ,
A similar e x p l ~ ! f ~ a i i o wss
n
p r c v i o u s i y c x p o l ~ n d e d by
Beard.
He
ices
s o c o n v i n c e d o f t h e v a r z c i t y oF t h e Opan
D o o r t h e s i s t h a t he w r o t s T h e Open D n n ~a t Hone i n an
a t t e m p t t o e n d j u s t s u c h A m e r i c a n d e p o n d e n c o upon everexpanding xarkets.
F o r t h i s r e a s o n Bzard a s k e d t h e follcw-
ing questiont
" s e e Lasch, ' C o l d W a r , R c v i s i t c d and R e - v i s i o n e d , "
f o r a n e x c e l l e n t a n a l y s i s o f L I J i l f i a m s ' Open D o o r
i n t e r p r a t a t ion.
p p . 29-32
Was it r c a l l y p n ; s i b l e ,
by a n y p o l i c y and a c t i o n ,
t o f i n d cvcr-exp,,ndinq f c r a i g n o u t l e t s f o r t h o
ever-increasiny "surplusesw of a g r i c u l t u r a l
produce, manuf3ctures, and c a p i t a l , e s p e c i a l l y
i n view o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o m p e t i t i o n o f o t h e r
g r o a t p o w r s f n r t h e same m a y k e t s ? 9 5
B o a r d ' s d e f i n i t i v e a n s w e r uJas "no".
Consequently,
-
i n The O p e n D a a r o t H o ~ che r n z i n t a i n c d t h e v i e w t h a t
t h e o n l y wcy t o assure? p e a c e a n d p r o s p e r i t y was
t o d e v e l o p t s c h n o l o g i c a l and consumer f r u n t i e r s
a t home a n d F o r g a t a b o u t t h e w o r l d f r o n t i a r . 9 6
B e a r d ' s n r i t i n g s on t h e misdom o f c r e a t i n g a n o p e n d o o r
a t home a r e e l o q u e n t t e s t i m o n y t o h i s b c - l i e ' t h a t t h e
UniLcd
St2tes a n d i t s l e a d e r s w e r e e r r o n e o u s l y a n d d a n g e r -
o u s l y c o n v i n c e d t h z t t h e n s i i ~ n ' cs c o n c m y d e n a n d e d expzndi n g f o r e i g n mzrkats,
Beard's o b s e r v z i i o n t h a t e : , : p i r e s a r e n o t b u i l t i n
f i t s of a b s e n t - m i n d c d n c s s a l s o o c c u p i e s a c e n t r a l p l a c e
t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h o N e w L ~ f td i p l o m a t i c h i s t o r i a n s .
Though W i l l i a m s w r o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g , h e is e c h o i n g a b e l i e f
h e l d b y h i s New L e f t colleaguss a s w e l l a s B e a r d :
n e i t h e r contingency nor madness is a b s e n t from
history, but the vast majority or siqnifieant
f i g u r e s on t h e s t a g e o f h i s t o r y a c t c o n s c i o u s l y
and p u r p o s e f u l l y ( i f u s u a l l y r o u t i n e l y ) w i t h i n
9 5 ~ e a r d , I n t e r e s -t , p .
552.
9 6 ~ l o y dGardner, "From M E X Deal t o New Frontiers:
1 9 3 7 - 1 9 4 1 , " S t u d i e s o n -t .- h ~L e f t , T ( F a l l , 1 9 5 9 ) , 30.
t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d , 97
T h e Keut L e f t w r i t z r s '
e n t i r e body of s c h o l a r s h i p
irrefutably supports t h i s outlook.
Walter LaFeber h a s
stated that
i t i s o d d t h a t h i s t o r i a n s who w o r r y m o s t a b o u t
k e e p i n g t h e A n e r i c e n s t o r y c l e a n f o r C o l d War
purposes and f r e e from t h e Beardian i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e reluctant t o g i v o t h e i r ancestors
credit for the b r i l l i a n t debates, detailed
blueprint:;, and t h e sound s t r u c t u r i n g which
c r e a t e d one o f t h e l a r g e s t , and most s u c c e s s f u l
empires i n world history.98
I n c r e d i t i n g t h e i r ancestors w i t h c o n s c i o u s l y c r e s t i n g a
t h c s a n o p a t h a s C h a r 1 . c ~Bcard.
T h e d i s s e n t i n g I t i s t o r i a n s 0 4 t h e 1959s a n d 1 3 7 0 s
a r e even more f i r m l y i n t h e B e a r d i a n t r a d i t i a n uhen i t
and h i s rol-e i n s o c i e t y .
F i r s t , consider Beard's view o f h i s t o r y and t h c
h i s t o r i a n t h r o u g h t h e e y e s s f P r o f e s s o r Williams, i n w h o s e
e s t i m e t i o n , a s e a r l i e r indicated, B e a r d p i c t u r e d h i m s e l f a
s t u d ~ n to f h i s t o r y a n d n o t a h i s t o r i a n .
T h i s is n o t o n l y
~ i l l i a r n s 'o p i n i o n b u t t h a t o f t h e American h i s t o r i c a l
9 7 1 ~ ~ i l l i a m sC,o n t o u r s , p .
Empire"',
21.
" ~ a ~ s b o r . "Conscious C r e a t i o n o f o
104.
' World-Mi
'e
p r o f e s s i o n as wellc
The d i n s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m i s o f
t h e stu-
d e n t ' s e m p h a s i s i s "on h i s s t u d y t s a m e a n s " ,
unlike the
h i s t o r i a n , u ~ h oconsiders "his w o r k a s a n e n d i t s e l f " . 9 9
Accordingly Beard,
t h e words o f Williams,
s t u d i e d h i s t o r y t o e q u i p h i m s e l f t o comprehend
and change h i s o w s o c i e t y 8 t o understand t h e
d i r e c t i o n a n d t e n p a o f i t s m o v e m e n t , and t o p i n p o i n t t h e p l a c e s a t which t o apply h i s energy
and i n f l u e n c e i n an e f f o r t t o modify both
a s p e c t s o f its development. 100
Now c o n s i d e r 1jJilliams' own v i e w o f h i s t o r y a n d ti,:.!
h i s t o r i a n zs e n u n c i a t e d i n t h e c h a p t e r on " H i s t o r y a s a
Tha p u r p o s e o f h i s t ~ ~isy n o t t o e x p l a i n o u r
~ i t z ~ s ct ti h~~ ~Gt C C Z E ~ ~ k ~ Gi ~ J lI , ~ u i 3 ~ x i
C . W r i q h t Mills h a s c a l l e d C h e a r f u l R c b o t s i n
T h i s Bee'. P o s s i b l e o f A l l b ! o r l d s . l O l
I n Williams' considered opinion,
h i s t o r y ' s g r e a t t r a d i t i o n is t o h e l p u s unders t a n d o u r s e l v e s and o u r w o r l d s o t h a t e a c h o f
us, individually, and i n conjunction with our
f e l l c m m c n , can f o r m u l a t e r e l e v a n t a n d r e a s o n e d
a l t e r n a t i v e s a n d became m e a n i n g f u l a c t o r s i n
making h i s t o r y . 102
9 9 ~ i l l i a r n s , "Tory-Radical,'
p.
1 0 1 ~ i l l i a r n s , Contours, p . 1 9 .
303.
C o n t r a s t t h e above viow of t h e h i s t o r i a n w i t h
t h ~ et x F r e s c e d b y Q c c z r H a n d l i p , i n 15?1 ~
h h~
c c znu t i o n z d
h i s t o r i a n s a g a i n s t " m a k i n g ourselves u s e f u l i n t h e s o l u t i o n o f s o c i e t y ' s e v c r c h a n g i n g p r o b l e m s " . lo3 O b v i o u s l y
t h e t r u e h i s t o r i a n @as n o t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e making o f
history,
Such i n v o l v e m e n t would undermine h i s o b j e c t i v i t y .
The NEW L e f t h i s t o r i a n s c o u l d n o t a c c e p t t h i s
i m a g e o f t h e h i s t o r i ~ l na n d h i s r o l e i n s o c i e t y a n y m u r e
t h a n Beard.
The s i g n i f i c a n c a o f t h i s i s c o n s i d e r a b l e .
For
v i e u ~ , h i s t o r y t h u s f r e e d c o u l d becorne
a way o f l e a r n i n g , o f b r e a k i n g t h e c h a i n s o f t h e p a s t . 1 0 4
e x a n p l e , in Williams'
" W r i t t e n H i s t o r y a s e n A c t a f F a i t h " p r o v i d c d what was,
in
e f f e c t , a defense f o r the usa o f h i s t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p i n
t h e c a u s e o f r e f o r m . 1 05
i
-
l h i s vjew o f t h e h i s t o r i a n i n c o n j u n c t i c n w i t h
t h e i r foreign policy assumptions created severiil r e l a t e d
problems f o r t h e r a d i c a l s , as it hzd For Beard.
"Charles Beard;
IUJ
104
Williams'
t h e I n t e l l e c t u a l as Tory-Radical"
H a n d l i n , Neust!!eek,
p.
is
58,
See t h e p r e f a c e a n d c o n c l u s i o n i n W i l l i a m s ' ,
Contours.
lo5see S k o t h s i m ' s C l i m a t e of O p i n i o n a n d B e a r d ' s
bwn a r t i c l e " M r i t t e n H i s t o r y a s an H c t o f F a i t h . " A r ~ c r i c s n
H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , X X X I X ( . l i n u a r y . 1 9 3 4 ) . 219-229.
----^I-y
-
extremely v a l u a b l e i n t h i s r e s p e c t .
problems.
The
Nevi
L e f t ' s a n d Beard's
!/Jilliams* thoughts
view of t h a h i s t o r i a n
and f o r e i g n p o l i c y f o r c e d t h e m t o d e v e l o p a c o n c e p t o f
kleltanschauung.
Lltillinrns h z s d e f i n e d i t a s a " d e f i n i t i o n
o f t h e w o r l d c o m b i n e d u ~ i t ha n e x p l a n a t i o n o f how i t
w o r k s " , lo'
W i l l i a m s * a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h i s was n e c e s s a r y
f o r Beard a g a i n acts as a mirror-image o f why i t was a l s o
necessary f o r himself and t h e New Left.
W i l l i a m s suggests
that
b o t h as a studont of h i s t o r y and as an a c t i n g
c i t i z e n i t mas v i t a l f o r him ( ~ e a r d )t o romp r e h c n d t h e systbn of ideas c h i c h f i r s t
r a t i n n a l i z e , a n d i n tern f u r t h e r m o t i v a t e ,
impcr i a l e x p a n s i o n , 107
I t n a t u r z l l y f o l L o r ; s t . h a t t h e nevi r e v i s i o n i s t s
were eornpcllea t o d e v e l o p a c a n c c p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d .
W i l l i a m s ' e x p l a n a t i o n of why t h i s was v i t a l f o r Beard
r e v s a l s ~ h yi t was a l s o n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e Neu L e f t .
T h i s s t u d y was o f key i m p o r t a n c e t o B e a r d , f o r
i f h e c o u l d cnme t o g r i p s u ~ i t ht h e g e n e r a l v i e w
of t h e w o r l d t h a t was h e l d by t h e e x p a n s i o n i s t s ,
t h e n h e c o u l d a t t : ? c k i t more d i r e c t l y a n d
effectively.108
106tqiI.liarns,
Contours,
1 0 7 ~ 4 ~ i l l i a n s ", T o r y - R a d i c a l , "
p.
305.
The N e w L e f t h i s t o r i c n s '
American h i s t o r y .
n o t i o n of Weltanschauung
Very s i m p l y s t a t e d , t h e Open D o o r
v i e u h o l d s t h a t American p o l i c y makers, a t l e a s t s i n c o
the l a t t e r p a r t of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
have d o g m a t i -
c a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t American p r o s p e r i t y a n d democracy a r e
d e p e n d z n t upon c o n t i n u o u s and e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g
expansion.lU9
economic
The Open D o o r t h e o r y h a s f o r m e d t h e v c r y
b a s i s of t h e New L e f t ' s
r a d i c a l interpretation of t h e
whole o f American diplomacy.
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e NEW i e f t is c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h i s
Open D o n r view o f
t h e wortd h a s l a u n c h ( * d t h U
~ n i t e d S+.2f=q
o n i t s imperialistic c u u r s e .
T h e o b j e c t i v e o f New L e f t
s c l ~ c l l e r s h i p , i n t h e words o f Car A l p e r o v i t z , i s
t o g o t t o t h r~c o t o f t h o i n t c r v e n t i c r ~ i s t t r a d i t i o n s o t l i a t , t h e i d e a or^ e x p a n s i o n , OF i n t e r a n d tlre i d e a t h a t " F r e e d o r ; t ' b e q u i r e s
vention
both
n o l o n g c r weaves c o n f o r t a b l y i n t o t h c
b a s i c f a b r i c of our s o c i e t y
so that ordinary
p e o p l e a r c f r e e t o s c e t h a t t h e i r i n t e r ~ s t sa r e
not t h e same a s t t ) o s e o f t h e b u s i n e s s and g o v e r n m e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s t i ~ h i c h now s u s t a j n t h e o l d
i d e o l o g y . lliJ
-
-
-
Beard a l s o aktemptcd t o g e t t o t h e r o o t of American
interventionism a n d e x p a n s i o n i s m i n h i s much m a l i q n e r i Open
1 0 9 ~ e ol i l l i a m s , T;aqr?%,
-pp. 5 7 - 8 3 a n d p p . 2 2 9 - 2 4 3
f o r a d e t a i l e d o x a m i ~ s t i o no f t h e Open Door t h e n r y ,
C o l d !!Jar E s s a y s (New Y o r k , 1 9 7 0 ) ,
l l O ~ l p e r u v i t z , --
p , 120.
D o o r a t Honlc.
I n t h i s b o n k , Heard o f f e r e d a n z l t e r n a -
t i v e program f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ,
I t providcd for
most e f f i c i e n t usa of t h e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and
i n d u s t r i a l a r t s o f t h e n a t i o n a t horn9 i n a q u e s t
for s e c u r i t y and a high standard o f l i v i n g . l l l
B e a r d ' s a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i e t y was
t i v i s t democracy.
tb
be a collec-
He uas c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h i s wzs t h e
d i r e c t i a n i n w h i c h h i s t o r y was m o v i n g .
I t was t o t h i s
e n d t h a t he d i r e c t e d s u c h s c h c l a r s h i p .
In t h i s regard,
Beard tuould n o d o u b t h a v e a g r t l c d i r ~ i t hA l . p e r o v i t t l s
d e t e r r n i r ~ a t i n nt h z t t h e " o n l y ' p c i n t o f i n v e e : . . i q a t i n g t h t ?
p a s t i s t o l c a = . n hov: 'ia cIz:~llu i t h .the future". 1. I.7
I n t h e v i e w of A l . p e r o v i t z a n d t h e h!cv: L e f t , t h e
i f an a l t e r n a t i v e i s p r o v i d z d
f u t u r e c a n b e s t be d o a l t ~ i t h
t h a t w i l l f r e e America f r o ? i t s r n l i s n c z on t h e OpEn D o u r .
I f t h i s is t o be done,
m u s t b e f o u n d t o slleak i n t e l l i g e n t l y t o t h c
great m a j o r i t y o f A m e r i c a n s , and, w i t h p a t i e n c e
ways
and c o m m i t t r n e n t t o t h e l o n g h a u l , t o o f f e r a
c r e a t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e t o i d e a s w h i c h s o many h a v e
held For s o lonq.113
'"~eard,
Open D o o r , p .
ll'blperovitz,
ll31bid
., p p .
vii.
501-d War E s s a y s . p. 113.
120-121,
New L e f t C o l d War h i s t o r i o g r a p h y i s w r i t t o n n i t h t h i s
al+..rn-,tivc
i~ - i n d .
is
E ~ v i s i ~ n i s,,b3:-"'4-:"
t
ULJIsIp
$, , ,
-L1
L1i5
f i r s t s t e p i n c r e z t i n g a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o w h a t t h y cons t r u e as American imparialism.
T h i s r a t i o n a l e a n i n a t s s t h e work of G a b r i e l Kolko.
He s t a t e s t h a t
by u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f t h a t p o r i o d ( 1 3 4 3 1 9 0 9 ) we c o m p r e h e n d o u r own d e c a d e i n m i c r o c n s r n
and t h . 3 c h a l l e n g e s we F a c e i n b r e o k i n q t h e p a r ~ l y z ing g r i p o f a t h i r t y - y ~ a r - o l d crisis i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s o v c r t h e f u t u r e o f a l l mankind. 114
Kolko is o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t " i n vieicing t h e g e n c : . i s o f
t h e c h a l l e n g e oS o u r t i m e wa h o l d a mirror t o c u r s e l v e s ,
t h e problems
LUZ
i n the future.
c u n f r o n t , z n d t+tc s a u r c c CF u u r m 3 l a i s c " .
" E v e r y war g e n e r a t e s m y t h s t h a t s e r v e t o
j u s t i f y a n d perpetuate i t , a n d t h e c o l d war h a s b a e n n o
e x c e p t i o n , "11'
The d i s t o r t i o n o f r e a l i t y by t h e s e m y t h s
h a s c r e a t e d a p u 5 l i c consensus t h a t i m p o s e s s e r i o u s
r e s t r a i n t s on f u t u r e f l e x i b i l i t y ,
The myth o f A m e r i c a n
i n n o c e n c e i n t h e C o l d War m u s t b e s c t s t r a i g h t .
Unless
T h e P o l i t i c s o f Mar,
1 1 6 ~ o r o w i t z , From Y a l t a t o V i-e- t n a m ( m i d d l o s o x ,
1 9 6 7 ) , p . 11. A l s o p ' & l i s h e d a s The F r s e W o r l d C o l o s s u s .
115
'
t h n m y t h s o f t w o d ~ c a d s so f c o l d \liar c a n
b e r e p l a c e d w i t h premisc:s more f i r n l y
rootpd i n r ~ a l i t y
t h e pros; ycts for
pcaco w i l l grow d i r n . i l 5
.
T h i s x~ovld s e v e r e l y i n h i b i t t h e New L e f t ' s c r e a t i o n o f a n
a l t ~ r n a t i v eAmcrican s o c i a t y .
A similar motivation h2s s u b t l y undcrlincd t h e
w r i t i n q s o f W a l t e r LaFektor.
--
I n A r n ~ r i r - n , Rrcr:si?, and t h p
C o l d War, 1945-1966, LaFebcr h a s d e p l o r e d t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s ' p o s t - 1 9 a 5 f o r e i g n policy b e c a u s e of i t s p r e a c c u p a t i o n w i t h anti-communisn.
He has a l s c w a r n e d o f t h e
p o w s r c o u l d m o s t p r o f i t a b l y b e t ~ s c d " ,118
~t a l m o s t g o e s
w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t s u c h a n analysis ~ot.,iLd c o n t r i b u t s
i m m e a s u r a b l y t o t h e c r c a t i o n o f a nevj A m e r i c z .
h a s n o t e d t h a t t h i s "would be a Promethean
effort".
-
LaFeber
or S i s y p h e z n
119
T h o u g h t h e New L e f t dipl.omztic h i s t o r i a n s a r e
v i t z l l y i n t - e r e s t o d i n creating a nev; s o c i e t y i n A m e r i c a ,
they a r e q u i t e vague a b o u t i t s s h a p e ,
UnFortunately, e v e n
Williams, u h o is t h e m o s t h e l p f u l i n t h i s r e g a r d , has
l l ' ~ a ~ e b e r ,C o l d Wac, p . 2 5 9 .
t h e m a j o r i t y o f Americans must be p r e s c r l t e d w i t h
s o m e t h i n g nnu t a 13ok a t s o t h e i r c h o i c e s w i l l
no l o n g c r b e c i r c u m s c r i b e d ~ ~ i at hhu n d r e d y s ~ r s
o f i m p e r i a l consciousness. 1 2 1
I f t h e A m e r i c a n s a r e presentee! w i t h a n e u c o n c c p . t ; i n n o f
freedom, " t h e y have t h e chance t o c r e a t e t h e f i r s t t r u l y
democratic socialism in t h e umrldw.
This is t h e tzsk a t
w h i c h t h e N e w L e f t C o l d P13r h b s t o r i z n s , a s a g r o u p , h a v e
directed t h z i r ef'fnrts.
f o r e i g n a f f a i r s 113s l c d t h e m i n t h i s direction.
it h a s r a i s e d s e v e r z l q u a s t i a n s .
Tn s o d o i n g
F o r o x a r p l c , i s t h e Open
Door W e l t a n s c h a u u n g t h a t t h e y a t t r i h u t c t o fimcrican p o l i c y
makers s i n c e a t l e a s t t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h -
century a c c u r a t e ?
IF n o t , what i s o n e t o makc of t h e i r
1 2 0 ~ e e Milliarns, The Great ---Ev3sion ( ~ h i c p r j o , l g f ~ d ) ,
167-176, a n d t h e l a s t two page:, o f h i s T h e R o o t s o f
t h o Mndern Ameriran E m p i- r e ( N E W York, 1 9 6 9 ) .
*-
-
pp.
graphy,"
12'~lichacl m e e r o p o l ,
Radical A
- aerica, I U ,
OW.
--
KO.
1221dilliarns, Contours, p .
A.
Williams' Historio-
6 (Aug.,
480.
1 ~ 7 0 ) ,2 9 - 5 3 .
1s it p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e i r i t ~ F ? i t a n s c h a u ! ~ nhqa s r e s u i t f ~ d
f r o m t h e i r r a d i c a l d e s i r e t o changz Amzrica i n t h e d i r e c -
t i o n o f soci-alism?
3ill.ii2rnu h a s s t a t e d t h a t
...
i f we c a n u n d e r s t a n d
history as a prelude
t o a c c e p t i n g i t , a n d a c c e p t i t a s a p r e l u d ~t o
c h s r i g i r r g t h o s e i c . a s and F j o l . i c i e s , t h c n
America c a n g i v e t h e o t h e r ,
peoples o f t h e
w o r l d a c h a n c e t o make t h e i r nvm h i s t o r y b y
a c t i n g o n o u r ovJn r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o make o u r own
h i s t o r y . 123
..
...
An a t t e m p t w i l l b e made t o d e a l w i t h t h e s c q u e s t i o n s
1 2 3 ! ~ i l l i a m s , VuLinrn A n p r i c i i n --C ~ i r a ,F . x x i v .
THE NEW L E F T HISTOHIAMS AND THE COLD W k H
T h i s c h a p t e r will t r y t o a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n ,
w h e t h e r t h e New L o f t h i s t o r i a n s , a s s t u d e n t s o f h i s t c r y
h a v e made a n y s u b s t a n t i a l c a n t r i h u t i o n t o t h e h i s t a r i n g r a p h y o f t h e o r i g i n s a f t h e C o l d War?
I t is i m p o r t a n t t o
r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e N e u ~L e f t w r i t e r s a r e w r i t i n g a s s t u d e n t s
o f h i s t c ~ r y . T h i s awarEness t h a n allu:.ils one t o f a c u s on
t h e i r a n a l y s i s r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h ~ t h e ror
more s e r i o u s v i o l a t i o n s a f h i s t u r i c a l s c h o l ~ r - s h i p1,
H o w e v e r , i t i s f i r s t n e c e s s z r y t o o u t l i n e briefly
t h e i r immediate prec~ecessars' i n t e r p r s t n t i n n a s s t i l l
a c c e p t e d i n such w i d e l y u s e d t e x t b o o k s a s J o h n Spnnler's
American F o r e i q n Policy S i n c e LtJorld lllar I 1 ( 1 9 6 7 ) a n d J o h n
Lukacs' -A H i s t o r y of
-
t h o C o l d War ( 1 9 6 1 ) .
This interpse-
t a t i o n h a s b e ~ ns u c c i n c t l y a n d s o m e w h a t c r u d e l y p r e s e n t e d
he
a s s e s s m s n t o f Nea L e f t C o l d War h i s t o r i o graphy u n d e r t a k e n in t h i s c h a p t e r i s o f a l i m i t e d n a t u r e .
I t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h w h a t may b e c o n s i d e r r t d t h e New
L e f t h i s t o r i a n s ' most i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o C o l d lhr
literature.
b y Henry P a c h t c r a s f o l l n r . i : . ; t
A f t e r k ' o r l d Lhr 11 t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t r i e d t o
e x p a n ? i t s power t h r o u g h m i l i t a r y c o n q u c s t
a n d C n n r ~ u n j s t u p r i s i n g s i n a s many c o u n t r i a s
as p o s s i b l e .
But i t was r e s t r a i n n d b y v i g o r o u s c o u n t e r a c t i o n
o f t h e L.'t?:tern p o ~ c r sw h i c h " c o n t a i n e d " t h e
S o v i e t a d v z n c e b y n e a s u r c s o f m u t u a l assistance
s h o r t o f v:ar.
F o r t u n a t e l y , U n i t e d S t z t e s * o p i n i o n had abandoned
i s o l a t i o n i s m a n d America now !.as r e a d y t o a s s u m e
i t s r e s p o n s i k i l i l i a s as a g r e a t w o r l d power
d e d i c a t e d t o t h e p r i n c i p l g o f c u i l c c t i v e sccurity.2
Formulated during t h e l a t e 1940s and e a r l y 1950s,
an e r a o f r a p i d l y deteriorating S n v i e L - A m e r i c a n
t h e nrthodnx
relations,
i n t o r p r ~ t ~ k i r ~ ct l r l ~ rP zm ~ r f r i - npn?Fi*;t r n n r p ?
d o f e n s i u t ? a n d C i l m ~ s tpsssjvd in t h c f a c e o f s c r \ n r s s l e s s
S c v i e t expansion, 3
C o n s s q u a n t l y , t h e y acccpCed as p r o p e r
t h e A m e r i c z n r e j e c t i o r - , n f a n y a g r ~ c r c n to n ~ p h z r c so f
i n f l u e n c e a n d ths d c v c i o p r ~ c n to f a c o u n t e r s t r a t e g y , c o n tainment.
4
I n g e n e r a l , it i s a g a i n s t t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w
t h a t t h e Ncw L e f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v ~s t r u g g l e d ,
Perhaps svcn
' ~ n n r P~a c h t c r , ' R c v i s i o n i s t H l s t u r i a n s and t h s
C o l d War," D i s s e n t ( N O V . - D e c . , 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 505.
3 ~ e m h e r s o f t h e o r t h o d o x s c h o o l now o f t k n c o n t c n d
t h a t t h e C o l d N a r r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e fzilure o f b o t h s i d e s .
L o u i s J . H a l l e , ---------T h e C o l d Mar a s H i s t o r y ( L o n d o n , 1 9 6 7 )
emphasizes h i s t o r i c a l determinants.
' ~ o r r n a n A . G r a e b n e r . " C o l d War O r i...~ i n sa n d t h o Cont i n ~ ~ i nDqe b a t e r A Review o f R c c e n t L i t e r a i u r e , " J o u r n a I
o f C o n f l i c t R e s n l u t i o n , X I 1 1 arch, 1 9 6 9 ) , 1 2 5 - 7 .
more i m p o r t a n t , t h e r a d i c z l h i s t o r i a n s have a l s o s t r u g g l e d a q a i n s t t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s ' d s t a c h ~ dc o n c e p t i o n
the historian.
oF
In the former's opinion, the latter's
view of t h e h i s t o r i a n has n o t s e r v e d thcm n o r t h e p r o f e s s i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y well.
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e neLv r e v i s i o n -
i s t s , i t a l l o w e d t h e o r t h o d o x h i s t o r i z n s to u n c r i t i c a l l y
a c c e p t t h o c o n t a i n r n u n t d o c ~ r i n a . ~T h i s i s s i g n i f i c a n t
b e c a u s e t h e Now L e f t ' s
vieiu o f t h e h i s t o r i a n ( a s c r i t i c )
i s s i m i l a r l y i n t e r t w i n e d ~ ~ i tt h he i r a n a l y s i s o f t h e C o l d
War.
Any m e a n i n g f u l a s s e s s m e n t 0 7 t h e New L e f t his-
o f t h e C o l d Kar n c s t F i r s t c a n s i d c z t h z~0 r 4 o f t h e e a r l y
C a r r , I k ~ L t c sL i p p c ~ n n , a n d H e n r y Wsl. l a c e . 6
i s neccssa.;y
This assassr-ent
t o d , , t i . , r n i n c t h e e x t e n t . or" t h e idew L z f t h i s -
t o r i a n s ' c o n t r i b u t i o n , w h e t h e r t h e nem r e v i s i o n i s t s h a v e
' ~ h r i s t o ~ h s Casch,
r
" T h e C u l t u r a l C o l d War: A
S h o r t H i s t o r y o f t h e C o n g r e s s f o r C u l t u r a l Freedom," i n
B a r t o n J . B e r n s t e i n , e d . * To~
scnL'----e ~ a r dAs N ~ L YP n s t : D i s-----..E s s a v s i n A m e r i c a n ~ i s t o r y 7 i d c wYork, 1~6'/'J-2:!-35~.
T h i s excellent $ t i c l a analyzes t h e social. corfditions
u n d e r w h i c h h i s t o r i a n s OF t h e 1 9 5 0 s w o r k e d .
" J I
--A
m e r e l y r e c a s t o l d v i e w s i n a new w a y .
Yet t h e y a r e n o t i n cnm-
a s p e c t s o f Co1.d !f!ar o r t h o d o x y .
p l e t e agraencnt.
Carr, t h e n a n a s s i s t a n t e d i t o r o f The
Times, turotg a n e d i t o r i a l o n iiovernber 5 , 1 9 4 4 , v ~ h i c h
p r o d u c e d t h e f i r s t i n d i c a t i o n of s u p p o r t f o r cjhat l a t e r
bccame t h e NEB L e f t ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s .
This
e d i t o r i a l i s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e v a l u e to t h e Neuj L e f t h i s t o r i a n s because i t d e f e n d e d R u s s i a n p r e d o n i n z n c e i n
E a s t e r n Europe b e f o r e t h c C h u r c h i l l - S t a l i n
i n F l u c n c c a g r e e m e n t wzs made p u b l i c .
p r c v i o t r s west.clrn z c t ,
spheres of
Tho new r e v i s i o n i s t s
t h e G e r n a ~ ii n v a s i o n o f l 9 h l .
R u s s i a , l i k e Great O r i t a i n , h a s n o a q q r c s s i v e
o r e x p u n s i v e d o s i q n s i n E u r e p e . ;ghat s h e w a n t s
What
o n h e r Western f r ~ n t i e ri s s e c u r i t y .
she a s k s fsnn h e r t l l e s t e r n n e i g h b o r s is a g u a r a n t e e ,
t h e e x t e n t a n d f o r m o f w h i c h u ~ i l lb e d e t - . r r n i n e d
mainly by t h e experience a f t h e p a s t t ~ e n t y - f i v e
years, t h a t h e r s e c u r i t y s h a l l n o t b e e x p o s e d t o
a n y t h r e a t from o r a c r o s s t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s .
A d m i t t e d l y she i s u n l i k e l y t o r e g a r d w i t h f a v o u r
i n t e r v o i i t i o n b y o t h e r Grc2at Powers i n t h e s e
countries.
But G r e a t Dritain h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y r s s i s t o d
s u c h i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h r Coru Countries o r i n
t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e Suez C a n a l , s n d t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s i n C e n t r a l America
r e a i o n s which these
t w o pottjers h a v e p r o p e r l y a d j u d g e d v i t a l t o t h s j r
security.
I t vjould b e i n c o n q r u o u s t o a s k R u s s i a
t o renounc-r?
s i m i l a r r i g h t o f reassurrncs; and
i t w o u l d b e f o o l i s h a s u o l l as somewhi
-
Carr's
a c c e p t a n c e a n d d s f ~ n s eo f t h e i d e a t h a t a
p o s t w ? , r S o v i c t s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e was
wa.2
f u l l y cjevclupt:cj b y M a l t e r L i p p r n a n n in The C o l d Mar
(1947).
Lipprnann p e r c e i v e d t h e e x i . s t e n c s o f a R u s s i a n
problem b u t he r e j e c t e d t h e o f f i c i a l Arerican p l a n f o r
solving it.
P e r c e p t i v e a,
a d \ ~ a f 1 ~ 5 !t rh!e nlo!;.k
C ~ r r ' sa,nd Lippn3nn's
p2;c;l:isive
si;.tcn:t..::t
aiialysis of
of t h e revizionis'c
q u e s t i o n s t o w h i c h t h e Nea L e f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v e r s t u r n e d .
Haw do 4 m o r i c a n a c t i e f i s s i n c e V-J C a y a p p e E r t o
o t h e r n a t i o n s ? I mean b y a c t i o n s t h e c o n c r e t e
t h i n g l i k e $13 h i l l i o n f o r t h e Liar & N a v y
D e p a r t m e n t s , t h e B i k i n i t e s t s o f t h e a t o v t i c bomb
a n d c o n t i n u e d p r o d g c t i o n o f bombs, t h e p l a n t o
a r m L a t i n A m e r i c a w i t h o u r w e z i p + - r ~ s ,p r o d u c t i o n
o f 0 - 2 9 ' s a n d p l z n n c d p r o d u c t i o n o f B-36's a n d
t h e e f f o r t t o secure a i r bascs spre:ld o v e r h a l f
t h ? g l o b e from w h i c h t h e c t h c r h a i f C C t h e q ? c b e
can be bombed.
I cannot but f e e l that these
a c t i o n s m u s t make i t l o o k t o t h g r e s t o f t h e
w o r l d a s i f we Luerc o n l y p a y i n q l i p s e r v i c e t o
-
7 ~ d i t o r i a l ,-Tho
Times ( L o n d c n ) ,
Nu".
6.
1944, 7.
8.
p e a c e a t t h e conference table.
T h c s c f n c t s r a t h e r sskc it a p p c z r c i t ! - i ~(1)
~
bi
CI
we a r c p r e p a r i n g o u r s e l v e s t o w i n t h e w a r w h i c h
we r e g a r d a s i n e v i t a b l n o r ( 2 ) t h a t we a r e t r y i n g
t o b u i l d u p a p r e d o m i n a n c e o f force t o i n t i m i d a t e
t h e rest o f m m k i n d .
How w o u l d i t look t o u s if
Hussia h a d t h e a t o m i c bomb a n d we d i d n o t , i f
R u s s i a h a d 1 0 , 0 0 0 - m i l e b o m b e r s . n d a i r bases
w i t h i n 1,Of10 m i l e s of o u r c o a s C - ines, a n d iw d l d
IU
not?e
L o n g b e f o r e t h e n e w r e v i s i o n i s t s e m e r y c d , !Cal;cce
a s s e r t e d , i n h i s l e t t e r L o Truman,
t h a t United States
R u s s i a n r s l a t i o n s b r c k e d n a n F o r t v ~ or e a s o n s r
-
first,
because t h e D e F e n c e D e p a r t m e n t a c q u i r e d a i r b a s e s c l o s e
t a t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , a n d , s e c o n d , b e c a u s e o f t , h ~U n i t e d
S t a t e s m o n o p o l y of
thc atom b n ~ h , Kallacn's cnntentiocs
\]:ere l z t c r t o o c c u p y a e s n t r n l p 3 3 c c i n t h e v o r k s o f
The a s s c r t i a n s m a d e b y Waflaca a l s o f o u n d a c e n -
t r a l p l a c e i n 8 l a c l : ~ t t ' s F e a r , Nar a n d t h e Banb,
- written
i n 1948.
Written before t k c p u b l i c a t i o n o f l a t e r d o c u -
m e n t s , s o m e o f w h i c h v i n d i c a t e its c o n c 1 , u s i o n s t o a
r e m a r k a b l e d e g r e e , B l a c k n t t c o g e n t l y d e v e l o p e d F o u r major
c o n t e n t i o n s u p o n ~ h i c ht h e Now L e f t a o u l d l a t e r e x t e n s i v e l y
r e l y i n i t s a n a l y s i s o f t h z o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War.
' c i t e d i n Denna F r a n k F l a m i n g , Ths--------Cold Car a n d
Its O r i n i n s , Vol. I ( L o n d o n , 1 9 6 1 ) , pp. 4 2 0 - 2 1 .
GO
First, since the casualty fiqurcs
S
O
V
tJh ~a t ~ m o s t o f t h o
g s d ?,r;;,y
f i g b k i r ? c ; i~ t,+c s z r ~ 4 d
~on
se b y
e a s t e r n f r o n t . , Eussia's
~
~L I 1I C-
s n n s i t i v i t y about her viestern l a n d
f r o n t i e r s m u s t b e appreciated.
S e c o n d , a s J a p a n was a l r e a d y
t h i n k i n g i n t e r m s o f s u r r e r i d o r by J u l y 1945, a n d t h e
A m e r i c a n s d i d n o t i n t o n d t o i n v a d e b e f o r e November, t h e
h a s t e t o d r o p t h e f i r s t a t o m bomb on A u g u s t 6 becomes comp r e h e n s i b l e o n l y i n v i c w o f Stalin's
d e t e r m i n a t i o n to
b r i n g t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n t o t h e war o n A u g u s t 6
-
with,
p r e s u m a b l y , t h e i n t e n t i e n o f m a k i n g t h e same g a i n s i n
R u s s i a noLu i n p r o g r o s s .
"
T h i r d , t h e American ( B a r u c h )
P l a n f o r c o n t r o l l i n g atomic w a p o n s e n s u r e d t h e w c a k c n i n g
of
Russia's m i l i t a r y and economic p o s i t i c ! ~ . F i n a l l y , t h e
o b v i o u s S o v i e t s o l u t i o n b o t h t o America's a t o m i c bomb
m o n o p o l y a n d t o t h e d o c t r i n e oP " i n s t n n t a n d c o n d i g n p u n i s h -
m e n t " c o n t a i n e d i n t h e R a r u c k P l a n must b e t o a d v a n c e h e r
61
fi
p
k t I
-
* 4.
--
, . .-
?* c. *..
r z b t . . i ~ ~ . .t
.-
L.
. .. -
-
?&c -7r~ifif i u s s i a as p u s s i b l e . IF!
LLJI~L.,GL:.>
I m p l i c i t i n Olbckott's
a n a l y s i s were t w o a r g u m e n t s
w h i c h h a v e p r o v e d i n v a l u a b l e t o t h e New L e f t ' s
tation.
interpre-
F i r s t , if R u l ; s i a 1 s p o s i t i o n i n E u r o p e i n 1945
c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e l i ~ h OF
t
h e r e x p e r i e n c e of
r e p e a t e d i n v a s i o n s f r o m t h e ~ ! ~ e s th,c r c o n s o l i d z t i o n o f
t h a t p o s i t i o n a f t e r 1 9 4 5 shou1.d b c e q u a l l y u n d e r s t o o d
'1
t h e l i g h t o f H i r o s h i m a , o f A m e r i c a ' s new a n d a p p a r L n t l y
p e r n i a n c n t a i r bases, a n d o f thr? Baruch P l a n .
Truman a d i i i n i s t r a t i o n ' s
Second, t h e
d e c i s i o n z f t e r R o c s ~ v ~ L ~ ;d*s sa t h
,
E a s t e r n E u r o p e %as t h e r ~ s u l in o t o f arty ncc: S o v i e t z c t s
d u r i n g t h e c r u c i a l p e r i r ? d I+.:il.
a n American i.evc.:.sol
of p o l i c y .
1 9 4 5 - J z n b ~ r y 2 9 4 5 br;t
of
I n c f f o c t , !uhnt; hctd ci-ranqe4.!
was n o t S o v i e t p o l i c y b u t t h o v ~ o s t o r n v i e w o f i t , d u e p e s -
sibly t o pressure excrtnd by t h e S t a t e Department a n d t h e
new m e n b c r s O F t h e T r u m e n c ~ b i n e t , who werG m i l i t a n t anti-
c e . : ~ u n i s t sand h a d r e j e c t e d R o a s ~ v @ l t ' wartirm
s
attempts t o
. 11
aa~a.
c o n c i l i a t e Rue-P
1 0B l a c k s t t d e v e l o p e d t h o s c p o i n t s i n h i s b o o k ,
A t o m i c Neanons
- - a--n--d F ? ~ t - ! ~ ' ? sRt e l a t i o n s ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 5 6 ) .
C i t e d i n G r i a n T h o m a s , " C o l d War O r i g i n s , " 11, J o u r n a l o f
C o n t c m p ~ r a r y H i s t o r y , I 1 1 ( ~ ~ r i . 11,9 6 8 ) , 1 0 7 - 1 8 8 .
-
-
l l ~ s v i dH o r o x i t . 7 i n h i s b o c k , F r n n Y a-l t s t o Vietnern
( ~ i d d l c s e x , 1 9 ~ 7 )h a s e m p h a s i z e d t h e e f f e c t of I ~ m a n ' s
changes i n h i s c a b i n e t on Amnrican f o r e i g n p o l i c y .
See
pp. 51-62.
W a l t e r LaFeP n r , f o r e x a m p l e , has d e m o n s t r a t e d
a n x i e t i e s a n d o f A r n c r i c a ' s r e s p o n s e s urnpa dus n o t t o R u s s i a n
a c t i o n s b u t t o America's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e m . l2
New
L e f t a r i t e r s l i k e !iJilliarns, A l p s r o v i t z , H o r o w i t z and L a F e b e r
also c o n c u r w i t h Blackett's
c o n t e n t i o n t h a t United Statos
p o l i c y toward t h e S o v i e t Union d r a m a t i c a l l y s h i f t e d a f t e r
Truman became P r e s i d e n t .
T h i s change i n p o l i c y b e g a n u ~ i t h
T r u m e n ' s " g e t tough" s p e e c h t o Molotov c o n c e r n i n g Russia's
attempt t o l o w e r an i r o n f e n c e a r o u n d P o l a n d .
A surprised
M o l o t o v , P c n p l c ' s Commissar f o r F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , r e p l i e d ,
" 1 have n e v e r b e e n t a l k e d t o l i k e t h a t i n ~y
life."
"Car?y
o u t your agscer::cnt.s, " t h e P r % ~ i d i . i i ts s i d , " a r l d yc:~~tv ~ c n t'
get talked to likz that.
,, 13
I t is c v i r i c n t from t h i s brit:f
a c c o u n t t h h t t h e n c u r e v L s i u n i s t s have r e l i e d t o a g r ~ a t
major f l r u .
I f B l a c k e t t was c o r r e c t , and i f i t was t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d n u t t h e men i n t h e K r e m l i n ~ h roc f u s e d
t o c o o p e r a t e , t h e r e a s o n s FOP t h i s d e c i s i o n a r e n o t mad2
i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t by B l a c k e t t ,
1tJhat v~oul-d c a u s e t h e
A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t t o reCxch s v c h a f a t e f u l d e c i s i o n ?
1 2 % l t e r L a F e b e r . America. R u s s i a . a n d t h e C o l d
1 3 ~ a r r yS. Truncn,
Decisjons (Garden C i t y , N.
Plecoirs, P o l .
I , Yeor o f
Fear a n d d i s l i k e o f d i c t a t o r i a l govarnmsnts m i g h t b e o n e
r e a s o n l b u t a s t h e New L e f t h i s t u r i a n s h a v e e m p h a s i 7 e d e
t h e s e e x i s t e d o u t s i d e t h e c o m m u n i s t czrnp, a n d t h e i r
n u m b e r was l i k e l y t o i n c r c a s e i n p l a c e s l i k e S p a i n a n d
Greece,
A secnnd possibil.jty, Fear of a Russian invasion
of W e s t e r n Europe,
ivhich
U J ~ S
prominent i n orthodox i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n s o f C o l d War, was n o t t a k e n
s e r i o u s l y by t h e Truman a d m i n i s t r n l i o n .
G e o r g e Kennan,
s r c h i t e c L OF t h e c o n t a i n m e n t t h e o r y , h a s s u b s t a n t i a t e d
t h i s vieupoint.
I n May 1 9 6 5 ,
the Graduate I n s t i t u t e of
2.t
a lecture delivered a t
International Studics a t Genev~,
Kennan s t a t e d t h a t
S u c h a p r o c e d u r e , he p o i n t e d g u t ,
f i t t e d n e i t h e r w i t h t h e r e q u i r c r n c n t s of t h c
Marxist doctrine, nor with Russia's o m urgent
n e e d f o r r e c o v e r y Fronr t h c d e v ~ s t z ~ t i na rf ~ a l o n g
a n d e x h a u s t i n g w a r , n o r w i t h w h a t was k n o m n
a b c u t t h e temperarnzr.tt o f t h e S o v i e t d i c t a t c r
himself. l4
1 4 ~ o o r g 2F, K e n n a n . " P h i l o s o p l ~ y a n d S t r a t e g y i n
A n ~ o r i c a ' s P o s t w a r P o l i c y , " a l o c t u r c d e l i v s r e d a t Lha
G r a d u a t e I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i ~ n a lS t u d i e s , G€?nel~a,
flay 11, 1965,
Y e t , o r t h o d o x h i s t o r i a n s havs m a i n t a i n e d t h a t o n l y r e s o l u t e
A n c r i c a n a c t i n n b y means o f t h e c o n t a i n m e n t d o c t r i n e s a v c d
W e s t e r n f u r o i ~ cr r o m S o v i e t a g g r e s s i o n .
15
Anothsr reasan f o r Mashington's r e f u s a l t o cooperate
w i t h Russia i n the i m e d i a t ' s p o s t w a r p e r i o d m i g h t have b e e n
A m e r i c a n f e a r of c o n m u n i s n ~ . However, a s Isaac D e u t s c h c r ,
a t c a c h z r o f t h e Naw L e f t g e n e r a t i o n , h a s s h o w n i n h i s
biagrzphy, S t alinr
A P o l i t i c a l Biocjrsphy ( 1 5 4 9 ) ,
the
S O V ~ l Ee a~d e r p r o v e r ' h i m s c l f t o b e o n e o f t h c m o s t c o n s a r v a t i v s leaders i n t h e world,
S t a l i r t ' s record o f non-eo-
o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e c a m ~ u n i s tl e a d e r s o f C h i n a a n d Y u g o s l a v i a ,
Mao a n d T i t o , s u p p o r t s D o u k s c h c , r ?
ccontsnti.c.;.i.
Tho i d e a
t h n t t k e S o v i e t s t a t e s m e n v ~ a s3 p r o m o t e r o f c o i i i n u n i s t
e x p a n s i o n o u t s i d e Russia, n t t h z t t i m e , is n o t s u g p a r t a d
b y t h e a v a i l a b l e evidence.
16
1 5 1 n t h e o r t h o d o x interpretation, t l l c N z r s h s l l
P l a n a n d t h e Truman D o c t r i n e f o r n t h e ba;.::Dana o f t h e
untainrnent dcctrine".
If(
1 6 ~ 0 1 k ohas w r i t t e n n x t e n s i c n l y a b o u t S t a l i n ' s c o n servatism.
I n r e g a r d t o E a s t e r n Europe, For example,
K o l k o c o n t e n d s t h a t tht? c o m n t ~ n i z a t i c no f t h a t r e g i o n
c o n s t i t u t e d R u s s i a ' s r e a c t i o n t o h o s t i l e Western p o l i c i e s
r a t h e r than the unfolding of S t a l i n ' s design.
" I n f a c t L ~ J G no$!
know," K o l k o w r i t e s i n h i s T-h-e-- P o l l i i c s o f War ( N ~ L u Y o r ! ~ ,
1960) t h a t the Russians
, had no i n t e n t i o n o f B o l s h e v i z i n g E a s t e r n E u r o p e i f - - b u t o n l y i f - - t h e y CCtiJld f i n d a l t e r n a t i v e s " (p, 619).
I n a b r a a d e r c c n t r x t , Kolko n o t e s t h a t
" T h e Americans a n d B r i t i s h salt] t h e c m e r q r n c e a? t h e L e f t z s
r r l a t o d j n s o n p v i t a l way t o R u s s i a r a t h z r t h a n t o t h e c o l l z p s e o f c a p i t a l i s m znd c a l u n i a l i s r r ! t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d . "
According t o Galko, i t is i r o n i c t h a t "the t w o gent~inr>ly
p o p u l a r C o m m u n i s t p a r t i e s t o t a k e p o ~ l ~ e r - - i nY u g o s l a v i . : ~ a n d
C h i n a - - d i d s o a v c r S o v i e t o b J e c t . i o n s a n d a d v i c e , a n d were
..
7
The Neu: L o f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e
R u m a n i a , a c o u n t r y whose t r o o p s h a d a c t u a l l y i n v a d e d
Russia i n s u p p o r t o f H i t l e r ,
the S o v i e t s first attempted
t o g o v e r n u ~ i t ht h e C o m m u n i s t s i n a m i n o r i t y .
Two weeks
a f t e r Y a l t n , h o ~ ? v e r ,S t a l i n b r u t a l l y demanded t h a t t h e
C o r n n r ~ n i s tp a r t y o b t a i n powar w i t h i n two h o u r s t o r e s t o r e
o r d e r o r Russia w o u l d " n o t b e r e s p o n s i b l e F o r t h e c o n t i n u a n c e o f Rumania a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e " .
On t h e o t h e r
h s n d , t h o S o v i e t s supervised e l e c t i o n s w h i c h a l l o t d a nonC o m m u n i s t q o v e r n m e n t t o g a i n paivnr i n H u n g a r y , s u f f e r e d
a n o v e r t v h c l m i n a d c f e a t i n election;
in t h e R!tcqi:>n-cnn-
t r o l L c d z o n e s o r A u s t r i a , h e l d c l c c t i a n s i n R u l c % r i a , it:hich
s a t i s f i ~ Bd r i t i s h i f n o t American s f f i c : k . ~ l s , an[; a c q u i c s c c d
q o v e r n m e n t i n F i n l a n d , a n a t i o n a g a i n s t which t h e R u s s i a n s
h a d F o u g h t a b l o o d y war i n 1 9 3 9 - 1 9 4 0 ,
i f t h a t government
iuould f o l l o t u a f o r e i g n p o l i c y f r i e n d l y t o Russia.
Historical
e v e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e two German i n v a s i o n s , l e d S t a l i n
t o p l s c e P o l a n d i n t h e s a n e c a t e g o r y a s Ruc.!ania, n o t F i n l a n d .
17
t h e f i r s t t a brcal.: t h e hegemony a f t h e w o r l d movement"
-P o l . i t i c 3 o f War, p . 3 6 .
I n From -Y a L t--.---.-----.
a t o V i e t n a m I l o r n v ~ i t zd e v e l o p s D e ~ ~ t v c h c r ' s
t h e s i s t h a t t h e 5 t a l i n i z a t i o n o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e was e s t z h l i s h s d c n l y a f t e r t h e T r u m a n D o c t r i n e i n 1 9 4 7 ' (pp. 9 6 - 9 0 ) .
T h a o r t h o d o x interpretation h a s aktri.bt.!tc?r: t o
Rr.:
,,,,sis
3
l;Llicp
of iii"xorebla
p ~ ~ , t i ~ l ~ ~1
~ii , -5 ,i!
u LI -ii.: LI
,
t h e y h a v c t o o o f t o n o t . ~ e r ? c i n k e r it h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e
i r n m ~ d i a t a p o s t , n a r p e r i o d w h i c h i s e s s e n t i a l 'co z m e a n i n g f u l
a n a l y s i s of t h e Go1
r
In addition, nnn-rnvisionist
h i s t o r i a n s h a v o s i m n l y c l i u m i . s s ~ d t h i s c r i j c i a l 1945-1.945
p e r i o d a s t h e p r c ? l t t d a , a s h r e ~ i ~Sdo v i e t p l a n t o a11sy
A m a r i c a n s u s p i c i o n s u n t i l t h e American Army e v a c u a t e d
Eu~ope,t o
ttle
l a t e r consolidation and expansion of Hussian
poucr i n e a s t - c e n t r a l Europz,
B c r n s t e i n h a s commented
t h z i t , "from t h i s p e r s p n c t i v e , ho::;ever,
an a r e a o f
" f r i e n d l y g o v c r i ~ r i i e n t s , " u;I-iy,
mu h of S t a l i n ' s
9eukschcr a s k s , d i d
h c " s o s t u b b o r n l y r c ~ f u s et o m a k e any c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h z
P o l e s o v e r t h c i r c a s t e r n frontiers?" 1 9
S i m i l a r l y , i t is
d i f f i c u l t t o u n d ~ r s t a n dS t a l i n ' s d e m s n d P a r r e p a r a t i o n s
f r o m B u l g a r i a , H u n g a r y , a n d R u m z n i a i f h e eventually p l a n n e d
t o s e i z e c o n t r o l o f t h z s e n ~ t i c n s , I t l o g i c a l l y fo?.log:s
t h a t , i f S t a l i n had decided t o t u r n Eastarn Europa i n t o a
"iiartun
J . R e r n s t s i n , c d . , k f i t t--c s- -a n- d- .P .o -l i c i e so
f
t
h
?
T
r
u
m
a
n
A
d
m
i n j s t r a t i o n ( ~ h i c a q o , f3'lO1, p . 3 8 ,
-
67
satellite o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , h e n o u l d n o t h a v e t o c o n c e r n h i ; r i s e l i " r;;ith
e i t h c i ; r z p : 2 l a t i 2 n s o r t h e P z l i r - h issir?,
! d i t h t/hese n a t i o n s a s s a t e l l i t e s o f f C o s c o ~ ~S, t a l i n v ~ o u l d
have a f r e e hand,
I f A ? u r i c ~ i nf e a r o f communism i n 1 9 4 5 , d i s l i k e oF
p o l i c e s t a t e ; : , n D r f e a r e c a S G V ~ ; ? z~t t a c k a n w;?stern
Europ-3 d c t e r m i n ~ ! dA ~ c r i c a np o l i c y t u ~ ~ a rMoscow,
d
what d i d ?
T h u s t h e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s , why d i d t h e Truman a d n i n i s t r a t i o n , i n 1 9 6 5 o r 1 9 4 5 , d e c i d e n o t t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h Russia
b u t r a t h e r s e e k t o c o ~ p s lt h e S o v i e t U n i n n t o abandan
E a s t e r n E u r o p e o s t h e Neu L e f t historians h a v e c h a r g e d ?
,
.
To make t h e i r c h z E 2 e n ~ ~taa t h e o r ' i t ~ c d o x i n t r : r i : r e i ; : ~ ~ . c : i ~ :
crc?df b l a
,
t h c F.'cv: L c f t !-i:i.
r;i;ori.:ins
nv.apiniknf:e
y..uu4,..
necrl a n o i i v c ? F a r s ~ j c h
f i r n ~ r i c 2 n ~ r t ? a n . T h a t m o t i v e i s t \ ~ ci d 2 2 o f
t h e o ? ~ nD o u r a s d ~ v f : I c ? ~hdy t h 8
l i l ~ j c rN
c ?L
~ e f t U.!"~.iter~~.
I t i s h e r e t h a t t h o New L e f t h i s t o ~ i ~ i - hi sa v e made t h a i r
m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y OF t h e o r i g i n s
o f t h e C o l d War,
The i n f l u ~ n t i a lNew L c f t h i s t o r i a n ~ ~ hh a so d a n e
m o s t t o d e v e l o p a n d p r o m o t e t h e i d e a o f t h e Open Dao:- a n d
a r e v i s i o n i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e bcginninqs o f thc Cold
War i s O i l l i a m A p p l e m a n \ ~ J i l l i z i m s , He h a s a r g u e d p e r s u a s i v e l y
t h a t t h e h i s t o r y OF A m e r i c a n d i p l o m a c y t h r o u g h o u t t h e
t v ~ e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y h a s b e c n t h e h i s t o r y oP t h e Open Coor
policy.
" l o s t z b i l i z e t h e w o r l d i n a pro-Ameiican o q ~ i i -
l i b r i u r n " h a s b e c n t h e nininum a b j e c t r i v e o f
United States
po1.icy;
and " t o i n s t i t u t i a n a l i z n American e x p a n s i o n w
,<.- =;
its cp t i:.;~;::
&-,.
?
.L
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. -*:I
C ~ ,
m u s t bc i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h c l a t e s t phase oF a c o i ~ t i n u i n g
e f f o r t t n maka t h e w n r l d s a f e f o r A m ~ r i c a n d e m o c r a c y a n d
American c a p i t a l i s m , a p h a s e i n w h i c h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
fc
~d i t s e l f i n c r e a s i n g l y c a s t a s t h e l e a d e r o f a w o r l d -
wide c o u n t e r - r e u c j l u t i o n .
21
T h i s p o l i c y was c o n s c i o u s l y
and d e l i b e r s t e l y embarked u p o n , u J i l l i a r n s a r g u e d , b e c a u s e
A m e r i c a n statesmen bslievsd t h a t Amcrican c a p i t a l i s m
n e e d e d e v ;:-expanding
fareign markets i n o r d e r t o s u r v i v e .
E a s t e r n E u r o p e =as o b v i c u s l y a p r i m e a s c a F o r A w e r i c a n
'lsee C h r i o t o p h o r Lasch, "The C o l d $Jar, R e v i s i t a d
a n d 3 c v i s i o n e d , " N. Y . T i n o c M z a a z i n ~ , Jan., 1 4 , 1 9 6 8 ,
p p . 26-35 F o r an e x c r ? l l e n t a n a l y s i s n f l l ! i l . l i r m s ' Opcn Dqs:
-zLr.p
interpretation,
2 2 ~ n
t h e o p i n i o n o t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s , t h j
c e n t r a l . d y n a m i c o f A m a r i c a n d i p l o m a c y s i n c s t h c 1.090s h a s
b e e n a n e v e r i n c r e a s i n g d o m e s t i c e c o n o m y "Lha ddei?isndcd 3
c o n t i n u a ? . s e a r c h F o r f ' o r c i q n m a r k e t s en:fibin:?d w:;i t h a 1 - o m r i n g o f f o r e i g n t a r i f f ' s ( t h e O p ~ nD o o r ) .
T h e C o l d $Jar was
t h n a p a t h e 0 s i . s oC t h i s i n e v i t a b l e d e v c l c p m e n t .
Though t h c N E W L c f t s c h o o l o f h i s t o r i a n s a r e i n
a g r o e n c n t on t h e a b o v e , t h e y c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o a t l e a s t
trun q r o u p s .
T h e dct.rsrrni17ir.t n ~ m b e r ss i i c h a s G a b r i e l Kolko
and David Horawitz z r a cnnvinccd t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l strcct u r a l r c q u i r ~ r r ! e n t so f a rnstura c c ~ ~ . i . t a l j . s t ; iAc r n ~ r i c a , more
than the deFccts o f pr?rsonelity, arc resporisibln for
9:ashington1s e x p a n s i o n i s t f o r e i g n p o l i c y .
Holuevcr , o t h e r s , s u c h 2s !4ill.i.arn A p p l o n t a n B?ilLi'ams,
69
d e t e r m i n e d t o e x p a n d t h e Open Door p r i n c i p l e o f t r a d e a n d
i n v e s t m e n t i n t n a r e a s u n d e r Souin+, r n n t r o l
.7 3
W i l l i a m s maintzir-,ed t h a t , d u r i n g t h e e a r l y years
o f t h e C o l d 'I!ar,
t h e U n i t e d S t a t c s h z d "a v a s t p r o p o r t i o n
o f a c t u a l a s w e l l a s p o t e n t i a l p o w e r vis-5-vis t h e Soviet
Union".
T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s " c z n n s t ~ i t ah n y r e a l w a r r a n t
o r m e a n i n g c:a.fn
that
it has been
FO3CCD t o F o l l o w a c e r t a i n
approach o r p o l i c y " . 24
G a r d n c r a n d : k l t s r L c F e b e r , havc g i v c n mora
emphasis t o t h e importance t h a t s i m p l i s t i c a n d rnisquidcd
i d e a s o r i d e a l s rnzy b~ u n r e l a t e d t o t h e n a t u r e o f Ancrica's
o c a n o r n i c s y s t e m , lf.!h?;tei,-~r t . h e i r p : * r t . i c u l a r c r n p h a s i s , t h o
?Jnl*! !.?TC. h.icf,t?ri??:- l r c i:: ::i;r:z:::r;t
t!-,l;_b
A,:.;-ric;n
_
i-'a;rr;l.ui;
p o l i c y h a s d?fc:cdcd t h e cnpi:alist o l r j o r d e r 2 n d a p p o s c 3
l e f t i s t f ~ o v e m c n t sa r o u r l d t h e m n r l d .
L l o y d C.
2 4 ~ i l l i n r n s ,TrL
a q o d v * p. 2 0 8 .
8 s L a s c h has p o i n t e d
o u t , i t is h e l p f u l t o conpara t h i s w i t h a s t a t e m r n t by
S c h l c s i n q e r , a defendcr o f C o l d :'Jar o r t h o d o x y :
"The
C o l d War c o u l d h a v e b e e n a v o i d e d o n l y i f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n
had n o t been possessrd by c o n v i c t i o n s b o t h o f t h e i n f a f f i i l i t y o f t h e C o ~ m u n i s tu ~ @ r darid of t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y
of a Conrnunist r:urld."
A r t h u r S c h l e s i n 3 ~ r ,J r . , " O r i g i n s
o f t h e C o l d !#Jar," F o r e i a n A f f a i r s-, XLVI ( ~ c t o b e r ,1 9 6 7 ) ,
- - - - - . 4
52.
In questioning t h e orthodnx vies
S t h i e s postti:a:
that Unitcd
p a l i c y icss o r i r n a r i l y a r ~ s p o n ~ -t~
P rrmnrzr-
less S o v i e t e x p a n s j c n , t h e blew L e f t h i s t o r i a n s , l ~ by
d
W i l l i a m s , h a v e nnde z majnr c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r y
o f t h n C o l d \Car.
T h i s q u e s t i a n i n ~h a s g i v e n t h e r e v i s i o n -
i s t s nem p c r s p c c t i v ~ s . I t h a s e n a b l e d t h e n , in p a r t , t o
return t h e c o n t r o v e r s y s u r r o u r ? d i n g t h e o r i c j i n s OF t h e C o l d
tijar
t o t h e dipfon?ai;ic arena.
I t h a s r e m a i n e d For t h e Neiv
L e f t h i s t o r i a n s t o emphzzizc t h a t , i n 1945 and a f t o r , t h o
U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d n o t t h o S o v i e t Uninn h a d t h e l u x u r y o f
alternatives,
F a r ex-ample, t h e U n i t a d S t '.c:s h e l d v a s t
mad^ in I1!ashingtun t o p r e s c r v s a n d e x p a n d t h e @en
Door i n
t h e c r i t i c a l p e r i o d a f t e r t h e war, n o t Masco~v, w e r e l a r g e l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e breakdown of t h a w a r t i m e c e a l i t i o n , 26
2 5 ~ naddition t o t l ~ ~ R
s en ~ r i c a np o w c r a d v i l n t i l g e s ,
R u s s i a tiad b e e n d c v z s t a t o d b y l i l o ~ l d'!far I I .
See I s a z c
D e u t s e l i c r , " i J y t h s o f t h e Cold Mar," i n D a v i d H o r o u ~ i t z , e d , ,
C o n t a i n n c n t a n d E c ~ o ~ u t i o( L
n o n d o n , l96i'), p p . 1 3 - 1 4 .
2 6 ~ os c e t h e C o l d War a c c o r d i n g t o G a r d n e r s i m p l y
a s p a r t "of an ackicn--reaction s y n d r o m e in w h i c h o n e s i d e
o r t h e o t b c ? r was t o t a l l y j u s t i f i e d , o r f o r w h i c h n e i t h e r
s i d e was r e s p o n s i t ~ l o , o v e r s i m p L i f i e s m a t t e r s , "
Gardner
r a t h e r s u q g e s t s , g i v e n o u r ignorance o f much o f S o v i e t
p o l i c y , t h a t N a s h i n q t o n was m o r e r e s p o n s i b l e " f o r t h way
~
P c r h ~ p sa ~ ~ o rP rdo m Do3n I c h c s o n ,
America's
pest.
a major a r c h i t e c t o f
C o l d LCzr p o l i c y s is i l l \ l r n i n s i : i n q i n t h i s rgs-
"As l o n g a s t h c r e i s a g r e a t d i s p a r i t y o f p o m r
w h j c h makes n e g o t i a t i o n s seem t o b e u n n e c e s s a r y t o o n e
side, t h a t c a u s z s t h e m t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y c a n a c c o m p l i s h t h e i r p u r p o s e s i t ~ i t h 0 ~i tt " . 2 7
i n t e r a c t i o n amenq pc::crs,
Granted diplomacy is
but i n c o r t a i n situntions such
a s t h c i r n i n u d i a t ~ l l j o r l d M a r I 1 p e r i o d a s A c h e s o n has p o i n t e d
o u t u n ~ i t t i n g l y ,t h e pre:domin%nt pouJer,in t h i s cas6 t h o
United States,
i s a p t L o f o r e ~ og e n u i n e n e g o t i a t i o n b e c a u s e
i t i s c o n v i n c e d t h a t it c a n a c c o m p l i s h i t s o b j e c t i v e s w i t h out i t .
Such cjsre t h e c i r c u r n s t a n c z s it) t h e i r n c d i a t a p o s t -
war p e r i o d .
P ~ s s i b l yt h i s i s v ~ h y L l p p z a n n "
S o v i e t ccinduct a n d p u r p o s e .
t e s t t o dc.crnlne
T h i s a c t i o n uiould d r z s t , i c a l l y
a l t e r t h e b a l a n c e of p u w r , t h e K r e m l i n w c u l d a p p r e c i a t e
t h i s , and t h e United States t h e r e F o r e
..
f i e c a u s e 7 i t h. d
i n w h i c h t h e C o l d Kar d o v e l o p e d ,
much g r e a t e r o p p o r t u n i t y a n d f a r more o p t i o n s t o i n f l u e n c e
t h e c o u r s e of e v e n t s t h a n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , ichcsc s i t u z t i o n i n v i c t o r y m s R o r s e i n some ways t h a n t h a t o f t h o
defcatod countriesw Archi tncts of I l l u s i n
n :--_.-- Men a n d Idc:as
i n A m o ~ i c a nF o r c i o n P o l i c y , 1911.-3 Y 4 9 v i l i c a r j o , 1 9 7 0 7 , p .
317.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-*--
-
I
-
-
-
U n f o r t u n z t e l y , as t h e N e r d L e f t h i s t o r i a n s , a i d c d b y
L i p p m a n n t s p c r c c p t i v e criticism oF c o n t a i n s :nt,
e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e Unitr?d States,
have
d e a l i n g f r o m a pnsi-tion
o f unassailable s u p e r i o r i t y , tms i n n o m o d t o c o ~ p r o r n i s e ~
I n s t e a d o f t h e c o u r s e advocated b y L i p p n a n n , Amcrican
o f f i c i . a l s l z u n c k t ? d a d i p l c ~ a t i c .o f f e n s i v e t o p r e v e n t R u s s i z
f r o m c a n s c l i d a t i n g or e x p a n d i n g h e r s p k a r - ( 2 n f i n f f u c n c e in
t a c r p l o y i t s v z s t e c a n n m i c s u p r t m a c y t a f'orca 9 u ~ s i at o
a c c e d e t o A m e r i c a ! , cfernznd~ f o r an o p e n w o r l d , 30
L U
Acccrdinq
Lippmann,
2 9 ~ L
~ i peo r n a n n l s C a l d Uar f ~ ar b r i l l i a n t c r i t i c u r
t h e c o n t a i . n n o n t d o c t r i n e tind h o w t h a t p o l . i e y ums d o o m ~ d
fram i t s i n c e p t i o n .
*--
of
" " ~ o l k o , i n h f s ---------Th? L i m i t s o f Fou.ar, is io a g r a u merit w i t h L a F e t ~ n r . I n K c l k o ' s j t ~ r l r ; m a n i tilt: U n i t c u S t a t ~ ~
" e x c r q e d F r n m t h e c a r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s o f i t s nciu strsngth
a n d c o n f i d e n t of i t s a b i l i t y t u d i r e c t world rccons!ruction a l o n g lines compztibla w i t h i t s goa?s."
The o b j e c t i v e s c f ! l ! a u h i n g t o n ' s po! i c y m z k c r s vdcre " t o restructure
73
t o LaFeScr's b r i l l i a n t a r t d l y s i s , t h e U n i t c r l States b u i S t
i t s i n i t i a l p o s t - N c r l r i ? a r 11 f o r c i 2 n p o l i c y unon four
m a j o r assumptions.
W 2 s h i n q t o n o f f i c i ~ l sf i r s t a s s c v n d
t h a t f o r e i g n p o l i c y qrcm d i r e c t l y f r a m d o m c s t j c policy
and not p r i m z r i l y f r a n c u t s j . d e p r e s s u r e s ,
The s ~ e c t r e
o f a n o t ' :r d e p r ~ s s i o nh < i l ! n t c d i i m e r i c a n o f f i c i a l s .
l c d t o a s c c o n r j a s s l r m ; ~ i i o :L~h a t t h c pclr,i;-1929
This
quagmire
h a d b e e n L e n g t h e n e d a n d p a r t l y caused b y h i g h t z r i f f wzl1.s
and r c g i o n a l t r a d i n g b3f3ci:s a h i c h h a d p r e v e r ~ t e d t h c n e t g r a l
f l o w of
f o r e i y n tradp.
F r e e f l o v ~o f e x p o r t s a n d i m p o r t a s
Statos would not sit cn t h c s i d e l i n e s f o r
a r f o r d t o do s o .
31
A week a f t e r
James
F.
it c c ~ u l dn o t
J a p a n was d s f e a t c d ,
Secretary of S t a t e
E y r n e s a F f i r m n 3 t h a t i n i t i a l A m e r i c ~ np o s t w a r
p o l i c y wns b a s s d u p o n t h c s ~f o u r 3 s s u n p t i o n s .
Noting khst
t h e o m r l d s o t h a t I\r;.aric::n buslncss c o u l d t r a d o , a p c r n t e ,
a n d p r o f i t i ~ ~ i t h o ur te s e r i c t i o n ~ c v a r y ~ ~ h e r eL" i m i t s c -f
P O L L ! ~ ~p, . 2.
o u r i n t e r n ~ i t i o n a lp o l i c i e s a n d o u r dornest.ic p o l i - c l e s
#I
7
LA A
,..,
-
- .- ' , " '
it;
~ t ~ ; i i r ; t ~ ; i i i
d t h ~ "OLIJ?
t
r o r e i c ~ nr c i a -
t i o n s inevitably a f f c c t e n p l o y m e r i t i n t h e U n i t c d S t a t e s ,
Prosperity ~ n d n p r a s s i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s j u s t a s
i n r f v j t a b l y z f f u c t o u r relztions w j t h t h e o t h e r n a t i o n s o f
t h s world."
The S e c r z t a r y s t a t e d h i s " f i r m c n n v i c t i n n
t h z t a d u r a h l ~p e a - e
c a n n o t b e b u i l t o n a n e c o n o m i c faun-
d a t i o n of e x c l u s i v e b l o c s
. , . and e c o n o m i c
u~arfare, (A
l i b s r a l t r a d i n g system) i m p o s e s s p e c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
u p o n t h o s e ~ ~ ohc cou p y a d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n i n w o r l d t r a d e .
Such i s t h c p o s i t i o n o f
t h e United States,"
U!ith h i s
o u r p a l i t i z a l a n d ccnriclrnic c r e c d i s in c o n f l i c t ~ i t ihd o o l o q i e s w h i c h r e j e c t . b o t h OF t h e s e p r i - n c i p l e s .
e x t e n t t h a t vJe a r s
a h l ~ . t n mansgo nilr d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s
s u c c e s s f u l l y , uJe s h a l l % i n c a n v c r t s t o o u r c r e r
l a n d , "32
To t h e
i n every
The U n i t e d S t a t ~ si m p l e m e n t e d t h i s g o a l w i t h
resolve.
American o f f i c i a l s hoped t h a t t h e y coul
achieve t h e
3 2 ~ a y r n o n d D e n n e t t a n % !R o b e r t K . T u r n c r . e- d- .- .
D o c u m e-.------n t s o n A r n ~ r i c n nF o r e i q n R c l n t i . n n s , Val. ~ I I I , '
I
'
-
19/15-1045
-
L---
(Princeton), 1 9 4 0 , 6Lll-6132,
3
f : ? o ntary
~
Fund,
Thesc agcncies would,
i f successful,
g u a r a n t e e t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h t : Op n D o o r .
American
o f f i c i a l s uorc crjnfider-lt-, t h s t Jchsac? a g r : n c i s s " u ~ o u l d m i n i -
mize c x c l u s i v ? a n d e x p l o s i v e nationalism a n d m a x i m i z e
e c o n o n r i c ~ n pdo l j t i c a l i n t e r c h a n q e .
,,3 4
I t wzis n o t w i t h o u t
s i g n i f i c z n c e f o r S o v i e t s e c u r i t y i n Eastern Europe that
American econoinic p o w e r a u t o m a t i i c a i X y a s s u r e d t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s c o n t r o l of t h e s e s r , p p o s e d l y
i n t e r n a t i o n a l agencies.
I t ~ o u l da p p e e r t h a t t h e New Lcft historians'
tariff w a l l s a t hon!a a n d abroad,
d i s t u r h z d Amarican o f f i c i a l s :
H o w e v e r , one major d o u b t
w o u l d a11 t h e f o r n c r A l l i e s ,
p r i m a r i l y B r i t a i n , F r a n c e a n d R u s s i a , p l z y t h s game a c c o r d -
i n g t o Amcriczn rulcs?
B y 1 9 4 6 , Great B r i t a i n and F r a n c e
h a d f o r t h e most p a r t g i v e n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e answers,
d c v o F C i ~ ~ sp oe i n t s
---
in d e t a i l .
34~a~ebeC
r ,o l d ?Jar, 1 9 4 5 - 3 4 5 6 ,
Tho
p.
17.
r e f u s e d t n p l a y t h z game a c c o r d i n g t o American r u l e s .
was largely
It
for t h i s ruzson t h a t t h e United S t a t e s c o u l d
n o t d e v c l n p i t s n;tjltil.ateral a p p r e a c h f o r t h e w o r l d t h r o u g h
policy
XIS
i t s d s t e r n i n a t i o n t o r e t a i n z n e x c l u s i v e American
s p h c r c of infltlensc i n t h e Mestern H c ~ i s p h c r c , A S t a t e
D e p a r t m e n t mern~sandum o f
l a t e Juna 1 9 4 5 i n F a s n e d Truman
t h a t a l t h o u g h s p h s r c s of i n t e r e s t d ? d i n f a c t e x i s t i n
3 5 ! ~ ! a s h i ~ n g t o n ' s Open Door v i s i o n o f t h c w o r l d h a d
o t h e r Far r c a c h i n n r a m i f i c a t i o n s f o r L!nitrr3 S t a t e s f o r c i g ?
policy.
As Kolkn h z s n o t e d , t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n c l u s i o n o f
t h i s v i s i o n "was t h e b e l i e f t l ~ a ts o c i a l i s m , s t a t e o m e r r i ~ i p , a n d T h i r d ? n r l d e c a n o m i c d ~ v e l a p m e n twsre f u n d a m u n t 2 l l y i n i m i c n l t o American g 1 o b ? I objectives" L ; m i t s
-o---f P O L ~ J F ~p ,* 13.
--
U. S . , D e p s r t f l e n t o f stat^, P a n o r s-------..R e l a t i n nto
t-----.
h e F o-r e i n n R L - l n t i a : . i s n f t h c 1;niti.d q t - t e : . :
f h e I : c_
r n i ~ r e n r . cHerlFr7
( f J a--t s d S 3 ( W a s t . i n g i ~ ~l ~9, ~ 0 ) , 1, 262-2brt.
--- -..-----_-*-
77
T h i s p o l i c y statement r e v e a l . a d t h e contrzdictory n a t u r e
r:f
Amerf c a n dipl~rnncy,
s t r o s s ~ dt h i s d i l o n n s .
T h e r t ? v t s i n n i r t s h a v n nraL3erly
Though t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ~ v a s
opposed t o s p h z r o s o f i n t e r e s t i n E u r o p e , i t a c t e d t o
s e c u r e i t s awn s p h c r e of i n t e r e s t i n t h e M e s t e r n h e m i s phore.
bJo. h i n ~ t o na c h i e v e d t h i s ob j e c t i v u
through Article
51 o f t h e U n i t c d N a t i o n s C h a r t e r , f o r m u l a t e d b y S e n a t o r
V a n d e n b e r g and A s s i s t a n t Secretary o f S t a t e N e l s o n
Rockefeller.
A r t i c l e 51 p r o v i d e d f o r c o l l e c t i v e s e l f -
d e f e n s e throt:r,lh
s p e c i a l r e q j o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o be
f a r m r d o u t ? i . d e t h e ! J n i t c d V a t i n ! 5 , b r ~ ttjnden: t h e p r i n c i -
a 1 . e ~o f t h s C h a r t e r .
S e r i z t o r Vc?..ndenb~::c t y ; j i i ' i e d
i;ne
e x c l u s i v e A m c r i c z n p o x o r i n t h e N e t $ ~a n d t h e r i g h t t o
e x e r t Arscricsn pntcqr i n t h a O l d ,
38
Russia r e f u s e d t o a c c o p t Ari?oric;t's c o n c n p t o f t h e w o r l d .
S o v i e t a c c e p t ~ n c e07 t h c Open Boor w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e
r n e z n t A m e r i c a n econanic d o m i n a t i o n s f E a s t e r n E u r o p e ,
T h e r e f o r e , a s some o f t h e e a r l y c r i t i c
af t h e c c m t a i n n 3 r t
p o l i c y , i n p a r t i c u l a r t j a l l a c z , t i p p m a n n e n d B l a c k c t t . , haw2
p o i n t e d nut,
---
t h R~ u s s i a n s r e f u s e d t o p l a y t h e g s ~ ra c c o r d i n g
78
t o Amoricrsrl r i ~ l e r ; , a n d ,
instc:iri
o f b ~ i n c ncorrt,a.inrd,
t h e Open D o o r t o S o v i e t s c c u r i t y i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e ,
ccinsiderab!y
ex ~ n d u d t h i s e x p l a , ; t i o n .
t h a t t h e Amcrican c a n c c : t
a g a i n s t Stalin's
they
have
T h e y h a v e shown
of o p e n - u a r l d d i p l o m a c y c r a s h e d
m a j ~ rarr?a of c o n c e r n , E a s t e r n E u r o p e .
As e a r l y a s 1 9 4 1 and 1 9 4 2 , u ~ h e nt h e N a z i a r m y a p y r o a c h e d
Moscotii, S t z l i n i n s i s t e d t o O i e s t ~ r no f f i c i a l s t h a t p o s t w s r
t h e Gcrmzn army a t S t a i i n g r a r j .
dsm!r1.
.;
For a n o;;cn t v o r l d f o r h c cclu.ld not a f f c e d t o d o s n .
Aztfior he corlst-uctt
Soviet p o s t u a r p o l i c y on t h e &ssump-
t i n n t h a t it was n e c e s s a T y t o m n i n t a i n R u s s i a n f r e e d o m O F
action i n E a s t e r n Europe, an a r c a S i a l i n d c n n e d c s s s n t i o l
t n Soviet security.
He r e l i e d l e s s o n t h e F o m a l i t i c s o f
3 9 ~ n t t ~ o nEyd e n h a s c n n i j r m c d t h a t S t o l i n a s k e d f o r
r e c o g n i t i o n O F h i . .June 1 9 4 1 Frontiers z s e a r l y a s t h e
f o l lowing Decenbzr.
C i t e d i n Thovas, " C o l d LJzr C r i q i n s , "
I I , 191-192.
t h e L J n i t p d N a t i o ; l s C h a r t e r t t ? a n h a d t h 2 U n i t c d Strr-7tcr;
( A r t i c l e 51).
He a c c c . j x g l i s h c d S o v i e t s e c u r i t y i n a m n r e
r u t h l e s s m z n n z r , t h r w ~ g ht h e Red A m y ' s o c c u p a t i o n a n d
c c n s e q u e n t c o m ! q u n i z n t i n n c f East.c:rn E u r o p e ,
Extreme
p e r s o n a l a ~ b k t i o nc n d f e a r x i s t D o c t r i n ~ , p a r t l ya e c c u n t c d
f o r S t a l i n ' s p o l i e l ~ si n t h i s a r e a .
E u t t h e g r e a t Russian
demand f o r s e c u r i t y a n d e c o n o n i c r e h a b i l i t : q t i n n
p o l i c y in$arati\rc.
S t a l i n wcs i n a p r a d i c a r n e n t .
madc t h i s
I n order
t o recrtvor q u i c k l y o c o n o * i c n l l y , h e w o u l d r e q u i r e American
c a p i t a l , s i n c e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p o s s e s c ~ dt h c o n l y abund a n t c a p i i . .l r r s o t l r c e s i n t h e c o r 3 . d .
l'Jaltc.,r LaTcber has
b
L
W a s h i n g t o n ivzs awarc o f , a n d a t t e m p t e d t o c a p s t a l i ~ c
on,
S t a l i n ' s problem,
I t was p z r t l y f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t
A v e r e l l Harririar?, a p r i n c i p a l U n i t e d S t a t e s p o l i c y m a k e r
p o l i c y w i t h Russia.
Ha a d v i s z d t h a t s u c h t a c t i c s w o u l d
ccmpel t h e S o v i e t Union t o f o l l o u ~t h e A m e r i c a n ! - n t ~ r c r e t a t i o n
o f t h e i s s u e s in d i s p u t e l i k a P u l a r r
40
L a F e b n r , -C
.- o l d ':Jar,
p,
10.
',
t h U~ n i i e r f P j a t i o n s
Ril
C e c a u s e t h e Russjzn n o v e r n ~ ~ n t
v e t o , and r p p a r a t i o n s .
*lr..,,dtr,
a.cT.
...
; ~i A: -C ; ~ ~ s t r - t n ~ ~ ) i r t i h e i r : . e c o n -
I~ L.-.--..--.!
~ C > ) ~ : , ~ !
s t r u c t i o n , " a r i d b e c a u s e S t a l i n d i d n o t wish t o b r e a k
Washington,
. ,
it:.
zh
Harriman m s s a n v i n c e d Truman " c o u l d s t a n d
F i r m o n imps;-tank i s s u e s w i t h o u t r u n n i n g s e r i o u s risks,"
As e a r l y a s J a r l u a r y 1 9 4 4 , l i a r r i m a n h a d e m p h a s i z e d t h a t
" t h n S o t l i n t Govf?rn3nnt v l 8 c e ? t h e utmnst i n p o r t n r n cn
o u r c o a p e r a t i o n " i n p r o v i d i n g e c o n o n i c assi!:,tance;
and he
hed c o n c l u d e d t h a t " i t i s a f a c t o r w h i c h s h o u l d b e i n t e -
g r a t e d i n t o t h e f a b r i c OF o u r o v c r a l l r e l a t i o n s . " 4 1
Rftcr
a n e a r l y p o l i c y d i s p u t e i n x h i c h G e n a r a l Georqc X a r s h a t l ,
th:.
Rrwy
ChinF O F
StyfF,
2 n d S:-r;r..t?.;rt.
CC
I" -C? -. - 1
- -5
$ . .
I
-
5t.i msan r e c o i a ~ e n r f e d ~ : a ~ : t i i ? n ,I rurr:r.;n o p b d f o r r ' z r r r t n i ? n ' c ;
p o I. icy.
H a v i n g r s ~ d etlis d ~ c i ~ s i o nt , h P~r e s i d ? : n t d ~ c i d a dt o
b r i n g t h e Pal.lsh i s s u e
U n i t e d State:;.
tp-,
a s ~ l c t C i n nf z v o t ~ i 3 l c t o t h e
Truran resolved t o enforce h i s interpre-
t a t i o n of t h e Yaita cgreement, regarding reprcsr?ntztion
i n the r e s t r u c t u r e d P o l i s h government,
the United Nations.
e v e n i f i t wrecked
He l a t e r e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h i s uJas t h e
t e s t o f S o v i e t c o o ~ c r a t i o n . I F 5 t a l . i n ~ ~ o i n~ clL d a d h e r e t n
h i s a g r c e r n s n t s , T r u ~ a nr e a s o n a d t h a t k h c U n i t e d b ! a t i o n s
pp.
" ~ i t s d i n R c r n s t o i n , P o l i t i c s a n d Policies,
--..
25-36.
was
doornad.
" O u r anrer:me;>ts u : i t h t h o S o v i e t U n i o n s o f a r
t i n u e , Trumen i n f o r m c d h i s a d v i s e r s t h a t " i f t h e Russians
did n o t w i s h to j o i n u s , t h e y c o u l d g o t n h e l l . ,'42
The President's m i l i t a n t mood u!as e v i d e n t i n h i -
A p r i l 23, 1945 t a l k a i t h M o l n t a v , 4 3
Truman warned t h a t
e c o n o m i c aid would deu2nd m h o l l y u u c n R u s s i a n b e h z v i o t i r i n
e x e c u t i n g t h e Y a l t a agreement.
The n e w P r e s i d e n t acted i n
s u c h a manner evFn though sonn American o f f i c i a l s b e l i e v e d
t h e Y a l t a aqrc:cfi~ent
w35
open t o two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
A d m i r a l Leaky had remarked t o P r e r i d 2 n L Roasevalk t h a t t h c
h e r e n c e t o t h a R m e r i c a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n when t h c a g r e e m e n t
was s o v a g u e 9
. 45
T h e h!cw L a f t historians h a v s c h e r g s d t h a t
Truman a d o p t e d h i s u n c o m p r o m i s i n g a t t i t i r d e b e c a u s e t h e
e x t o n s i o n of t h e Open D o o r i n t o E a s t e r n E u r o p e was i n v ~ l v e d ,
-
4 2 ~ h i d . , pp.
26-27.
4 3 ~ o rT r u m n ' s l e c t u r e t a M o l o t o v o n t h z t a c c n s i o n ,
1.3 in C h d p t o r I 1 o f t h i s p a p e r .
see f o o t n o t e
4
5 Herz's
~
~b c o~
4 , ----a c o i n n-i n r ---.-s oC t h s----C n-l d \t!ar, f o r
a n €!>:cf?llefIt a n d l y s i s t h a t c l e a r l y ravr!a ls t h e vsr;ucr:ezc: u f
t h e Y a l t a a o r e z ; n ~ n t s . We c o n c l u d
o p e n t a t?i!o i n t e r i ~ r c t n t i o n s .
P o l i t i c s of
W2r,
-11_-----_.___
7
t h a t they were d e f i n i t e l y
s t r a t c q y s i i r l l a r t o th,zt.
f i . ~ l l n . ~i ~n dthrs l e n d - l e a s e
Stalin's a p p l i c a t i c j n f o r a s i x b i l l i o q d a l ! a r
tila
ttcr
,
l c a ~i n
J a n u a r y 1 3 4 5 w a r m c t v ~ S t ha F z r n i l i a r A n ~ r i c a n r e s p o n s e .
4 8 ~ o rT r u r i n ~ ' l~a t c r c x p l n n a t i c n o f t h e n t o p p a g c
o f l e n d - l w c c , s e n P r u n a n , -b?emc.irs,
-...
--- - VoE. I , 2 2 5 ,
S e e or.!
"--. nstsin,
--P
-- o l i t i c s TI?.! P o l i c i e s- , p p . 2 7 - 2 0
f o r t h c T?ew L e f t , histcrian:: ' c o n t c r i t i o n tha-l T r u i ~ ?
~ .n I.: " , ~
recolleotion ~ v a si n a c c u r a t e .
A l p e r o v i t z makes t h c p o i n t t h a t "a l i r n i t ~ t i n non
L e n d - L e a s e F o l l . o ~ ~ eIri!-;i.cnlly
d
F r o m t h e vie:.:; k h h t A m c r i c ~ r ~
d i p l o r r a c y c o u l d g a i n i F t h z S o v i a t U n i o n wcro rEnrc dnperld e n t u p o n e c o n o m i c assistance?, A l ~ e r o v i t zc o n c l u d z s t h a t
" T h i s w o u l d i n c r c : s s e ~ ! : P I s T ~ c C~ C~ C' sI ~ U M ~l Ce v e r a g o ' . "
Hs
t h s n q u o t e s 9 c z n s t n t h e~ f f c c t t h a t s u c h A n c r i c a n a c t l o 5
w o u l d "meke t1.i.. s o v i e t a u t h o r i t i e s come t o u s " Atemi(-:
D i s ~ 1 u m /_~ c \ p a 3 6 .
In t h i s r n g z r d , s e e a l s o K o l k o , -The
P o l i t i c s-..-..-O F
-.-----War, p , 3 9 ' / ,
.
---
t~
--
(
r
S o v i c t p o i n t o f vietxr,
51
LaFcber,
r n c m b e r s h i p i n thvr;r!
Cold
--
" z r , pp. 2 2 - 2 3 .
a g e n c i e s , con-
0h
Secretary o f S t a t e B y r r t t ? s s k a t ~ di.n 19.47,
z t c m it7ci,;>
E
:!
- J
i;.G
. - . z -
:-.=. ..?.'P . . '
JUbLG3L21
U L
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L;J"UIT;
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Japanesc to a c c e p t s u r r s n d e r o n o u r t e r n s .
,,5:3
":
L ~I I ~ e
But t h e
f a c t t h a t . t h e Ur;itot! S t a t e s tins d e t e r m i n e d t o e n d t h e Lvar
a g a i n s t J z p z n b ~ f a r oF i u s s i a n e n t r y c n A u c u s t 8, r a t h e r
t h a n t h e I\fover;rSef
L i r ~ v a s i n n dzts,
h a s bc!.:n a f f i r m e d a n d
reaPfi.rrnod i n a much m c p E r j c c j - s i v e ri-?nrrer.
mas a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g thzit t h e
"Thoarjh t ? ? r t ~ t r
S o v i e t s w o u l d e n t e r t h e wzr
t h r e e months a f t e r Germany s u r r e n d e r e d " , B y r n e s has testif i e d , " t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d I hoped t h a t Japan w o u l d s u r r e n d e r
b o n b at t h e P o t s d a m C o n f e r e n c e f o r a s p c c i f i c a n d f a r -
Japan.
A t t h e szme t i n e ,
B y r n e s h a d d e c i d e d n o t t o co-
o p e r a t e w i t h t h e S o v i n t s i n t h e e a r l y s t a g s s sf n u c i ~ a r
p . 203,
53 J a n c s F . B y r n e s , S p ~ z l t i n nFrrrnk1.y
.-
(NQN
Yorl:,
l96?),
Alpc!rovitz
has i r r t e r p r n t ~ dT r u m a n ' s
q o t tough lecture t o
P ? o l o t o v a s e v i d e n c e o f a d r a m a t i c s h i f t from Rooscvelt's
a v n ?l a b l e t o B l ~ c k e t t , t h a t
p c i n t of vieti:,
fro;^ a n y
r a t i o n a l military
J a p a n i.:as a l r e a d y d a f ~ a t e d " ,a~n~d activu!.y
p u r s u f n g s u r r e n d e r terms.
General E i s c n h o u e r h a s s t a t e d
'I t o l d him ( T r t l t n ) I vms a g a i n s t it ( t h e
d r o p p i n g OF t h e n t o n b o m b ) o n t m o a c c t s u n t s .
First,
t h e Japnncsc wzrc r e a d y tc s u r r e n d ~ ra n d it w?sn't
n e c e s s a r y t o h i t t h e m u ~ i t ht h a t z w f u l t h l n q ,
Second, I h a t e d t o s c a o u r count,rbl :-a t h o f i r s t
5 6 ~ i t e di n Thocns,
" C o l d Mar O r i g i n s , " 11, 1 9 4 .
" ~ l ~ e r o v i t z .A-t c n i r--1
. y
--
-
p.
1116.
t o u s e such a weapon. 5 0
E v i d e n t l y the borilb x a s n o t drappclrl F o r m i l i t a r y c o n s i d ~ r a t i o n s , t o d e C e 3 t J a p a n , a n d t h u s t o s a v e thoussnds o f
Arncriczn a n d J a p a n o s r l i v e s , a s o r t h o d n x h i s t o r i a n s l i k e
F - u r t b l z r d c s u t t i s c a s t u p z n the o r t h c d r r x
F e i s h a v e argued.
i n t e r p r c t a f ion by t h e f a c t t h a t IJrcsident T r u r a n d i d nut
it
even c o n s i d e r
n e c e s s a r y t o a s k t h o~p i n i o n o f t i l o
m i l i t a r y z d v i s u r most d i r e c t l y concerned.
T h i s laas ncnc
o t h e r t h a n G e n e r a l . PkcArthur, S u p r e m e Coi2mander o f f ? l l i c d
Forces i n t h e P a c i f i c .
He u a s s i m p l y i r i f o r m ~ d o f t h e
w e a p o n s h n r t l y b s f o r c i t LQes b s c d zt Hircst-tina.
o c c c s i o n s b c f o ~ oh i s d e a t h Chpt, i i L e
s i z t c d on numeroa:
E i ~ i 3 i : h 3 ~h3e ~ b~~
u n n z c E s s a r y fi-n,:
l i c \ : ~ dk h ~a l t r ; , 4 c t;orlt,
z ailitdry
Why t h e n d i d Trumcln,
h a v e stressed, n a t
tives?
M2c9rthur
curt; ? . o t ~ 3 . y
I:;(:
p o i r ~ io r vie,!.
sr)
t h ~ ?i\lleiu L e f t h i s t 0 1 i a n s
Lry one o r more o f
t h o f v l 1 o w i r . g ;Itr:rnt;-
The t h r e e most l i k e l y were g u a r a n t e c i n q t h c p o s i -
t i o n a f t h Japanese
~
E m p e r o r (arid h e n c e rnzking s u r r c n t i e r
c o n d i t i o n a l ) , s e e k i n g a Russian d e c l a r a t i o n o f vlar ( o r
a n n o u n c e r c e n t o f i n t e n t ) , o r L ~ a i t i n gf o r R u s s i a n ~ > n i s yi n t o
t h e mar.
As
no i n v a s i o n o f t h e Japanese m a i n l a n d
3s p l a n n a d
50
PJF?Ios~JJ;~cI:,
--
"cited
" I ~ Bo n ! k e w , Nov.
11, 1 S 6 3 p . 107.
i n A l p e r o v i t z , -Rt,crmic D i p l c-.-::3cy, p . 2 3 g .
t n u g h speech, t h e f f ~ o l c t o v i n t e r v i e c : ,
o r a conciliatory
a p p r o a c h , t h a KapkZns m i s s i o n , o r e v e n thrcugh cconnmic
p r e s s u r e in t h e e n d i n g o f L e n d - L c a s e ,
rely
011
Truman d e c i d e d t a
Lrner.ica's master c a r d , t h e a t o m i c bomb,
In o r d ~ : = .
t o d o t h i s , t h e P r c s i d 2 n t had t o iuait u n t i l t h n a t o m i z
I ' l l c e r t a i n l y h a v e a hammer o,n thus^ b o y s ! ,,h 9
Eurupe t a t h e f c r c i g n rr!inintars'
r n c e t l n q in 5 e p t e m b e r a r " t e r
t h o h o e b s hsti b e e n dropper!,
T h c r e is lit ti^ d a u o t t h a t t l t e h ~ n bh a d a d o c i s i v o
,t h e Soviets morn m a n a q e z h l c i n L.nstr:rn E u r o p c , and t h u s
airj
thu
,4rfici.j.cal1 q o v o r . t . ~ r n ~ n .it n i L r ; e:'iit~l*t t o k s c ~t h ?
.
Cnen Door intzct 6 5
t h e e l e c t i u r l s h c r e and i n t l u n ~ a r yw e r e poskpcned.
I t is
a f f a i r s , n a r k n d L h e b e q i n n i n g o f " t h e t r z q i c i n p a s s c ? in
S o v i c t - A f i 1 3 r i c n n r e l a t i o n s . ,I 6 fi
ttic United S t a t ~ s
r ~ i t ht h e o p t i o n O F u s i n g t!-,z norib t 3 c c p r c o o r e v e n b i z c k -
m a i l t h o S o v i c t ! ~ n i a n . T~ h~o J o i n t C h i e f s o f S t a r f c l e a r l y
p e r c e i v n d t h c a d v a n t a g e o f n ~ c l e a rmor!o;oly
t o the United
States.
Kc s h o u l d e : : p l c ~ i t ( t h e n u c l e a r r n o n o : l o l y ) to
a s s i s t i n t h c e a r l y e s t a t l i s t l r n c n t crf a s a t i s f y i n n peace , ,
I t will be d e s i r 3 b l c f o r
i n t e r n a t j o n a l aqr~.ement.s c o n z n r n i n g t h e a t o n i c
bomb t o f o l l o w t h e E u r a p o a n s p e a c e t r o a t i c s a n d
d e f i n i t e l y t o p r e c e d e t h e t i m e when o t h ~ ? zc o u n t r i e s c o u l d h a v e atoi5i.c banhs.70
..
6 9 ~ e et:oromitz,
t c t o Y i ~ t ~ a r npp.
,
265-279.
Ynl
.------
7 0 ~ i t n d i n O c r n s t u j n , P o l i t i c ? 2 n d F ~ l i c i e s ,p . 4 8 .
*--
94
U n d e r tt:e
terms o f t h e B a r u c h P l a n , t h e S e v i e t
U n i o n was b e i n g a s k e d t o a c c e p t completely a W c s t , e r n
arranqernent t h a t e n t a i l e d opening i t s borecrs
a r e z s a n d i t s ~ i l i t a r ysecrcts, a n d
w i t h i t s a b s o l u t e mpapon,
tg
,
i.ts t a r ~ e t
t r u s t Pjashington,
net t a take p o l i t i c a l o r m i l i t a r y
a d v z n t a g e o f t h u d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t w o u l d ' ~ n d o u b t e d l ye n s u p ,
Clearly, the Saruch Plan d i d cndnnqer Russian s e c u r i t y , a t
l e a s t i n i t s e a r l y s t a g ~ s . I n h i s l e t t e r t c ~T r u m n o f
J u l y 1 9 4 5 , Vallace o b j e c t e d t o t h e Bzruch a p p r o a c h ,
a s h e p r e d i c t e d i n h i s containment t h o r r y , t h i s w o u l d
p r e c l u d e t h e S o v i e t Union f r o m e v e r r e c e i v i n g at.onic
information.
T h i s c o r ! s i d e r a t i o n , t h a t t h e C c r n c u n i s t Pa;.ty
w o u l d b a u n d e r m j n e d i f i;lcscort~a c c e p t e d t h e fimerieai-r B a r u c h
P l a n , was v e r y much i n t h e m i n d s o f t h e men u ~ h o d r a f t e d
b e l i e f t h a t he c o n s i d c r c t f
" t h c p r o b l c n ! o f au:
T h e T r u m z n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i g n o r e d Stinson's
satisfactory
advice,
Russia
r n j c c t e d t h e B a r u c h P l p n and S o v i u t - A n a r i c z n r e l a t i o n s were
l,-t r j kc, V i c . t r : ~ i n , p
7 7 ~ i t r d in t i ~ r L
c .%
~ ~. l' -tY
..-~
--a
----
d i p l o m a c y f a i l e d in i t s n r i r ; c i o z l o b i o c t i v e "to s a 4 p
Russia m c t r n s n a q c n b l u i n E u ~ G ~ ?a"n d t h u s t n p r e s e r v e
a n d e x p a n d t h o Open Door.
And,
V J ~ Z ~ E Lhc
V ~
tritth i n t h e
e a s t E u r a p e a n govr?ri-rr?lc?ntnar;d t h e g s n r z r a l t i g h t e n i n g up o f
S t z . l i n i s t c o n t r o l w h i c h c u l n - ! i n a t o d in t h e e x p u l s i o n o f T i t o
f r o x t h e C ~ m i i i P n r r . : : .in 194I?, a l l f o l l o v o d the e r a o f aka:nic
d i p l a ~ s c yi c h i c h t h c I!cxi LcPk his Li-jr Fiir!s, A l p c r a v i t z a n d
Horo:!~itz i n por. ti.cuJ.:~r, h l i ~ ; ~e v! p ! - . a s i z o d ,
interpretatinn
ctf
i;hz
continu:,tf LO d~;:i-,pl>y
.
Ar,.,ew:"c,rp
2ussia a n d
.-.,-.I
93
rt
.
74
T i l e o::thoc:c>:
nriqiilr; o f tl-IE C o l d !'l>r, hc:-:ei;zr,
01%s i r i r p l y
,.,-,r.<,.-,.%<...,-~
-(:
u
i
4b. lL:-t 3
t o il
..2
2 t- _ .
u L ~ t : t *
\ j ! . ' z ~ l ~ i n ! j i , ~p[?Ij.&g:;
r;~~
i n t h e c r u c i a l 9945-19.:5 p : - r i o d ,
.,.-
,<:E
1::;~
tlas
impacL vkich
S ~ , ; t i t j hai:
Uii
i , ~ c j ~ ? ; .t d h S~:!i::t.
~
b~Lf.1
Lli,rj.~n
NELJ L e f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v ~
~ i v e nt h i s aspecl:. o f t h u C o l d War rni!ui.i n e e d e d eniphasis.
doctr:ne,
economic c?:'
mindndness,
* ~ ~ ~ i n i and
. s m h i s t o r i c a l prescnt-
hava t o a g r n a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h e arttlodox
h i s t o r i a n s c r i t i c a l l y e x a m i n e d t h e r o o t cac:scs of t h e C o l d
h z s l a r g e l y b s ~ rf o~r g o t t e n o r m i s r e p r e s e n t e d t n z t t h e
U n i t e d States hzd the choice o f a l t e r n a i . i v e s i n the
immediate p ~ s t - : ~ ! o r l d? J a r I 1 p e r i o d ,
A s a l r e a d y noted,
the
A m e r i c a n g a v e r n r n o n t possessed p r e d c m i n a n t power, b o t h
ecj2nornic a n 3 a t o m i c ,
t h a t "pau:cr
I t f o l l o e s , a s 11Jill.ians has s t a t e d ,
a n d r c s p u i - ~ s i b i l i t j r g o togetl-ler. i n a d i r c c t ar:d
intimate relationship".
T h e r e f o r e , Washington, more so
t h a n IS"loscota, h a d i t i n i t s po!i!er
w h s t h c r or n o t t o cooperat?.
2 ~ i l lAppl
i .- n kiiil ? i n n s , -T h e T r n o-e d y o r Americar:
-- --D
i
p
l
o
n
a
c
v
(?icu~
Y
o
r
k
,
1
9
5
9
)
,
p
.
2nU.
__-.-----A
__L
T h i s is esssntial t o a @ e n u S n n u n d a r s t n n d i n q o f t h e o r i q i n s
of t h e Cold
!~Jr;tr.
UnTt3rtun-;l.tc.ly, 3 s t h e Nc~u L e F t h i s t o r i n n s
hclvc? zxautlrf, i t a p p e z r s t h a t t h a Uni-Lcd S t a t e s c h o s e t o
u s e i t s p o v t e r i n a V a i n c f f o r t t c c o m p e l Russia t o a c c e p t
t h e Open D o o r ,
C e r t a i n l y , a s s t u d z n t s OF h i s t o r y , t h e neLv r e v i s i c n -
i s t s h a v e r s i r e d a fe!v d i s c o ~ c e r t i n gq ! ~ ~ . s t i o nf so r t h o s e
who a r e committed e i t b s r tc t h e o r t h o d o x v i e w o f t h e C o l d
Nap o r t o t h e o r t i l ~ d r ~view
x
of the historian,
among t h e s e i s t h e q u 2 s l i o n :
blast p r o m i n e n t
hov: d i d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
a r r i v c d a t s t r c h an e r r o n c ~ re~x y~l a n a t i a n q i v c n t h z i r ob.jcct i v c c o n c e y t i n n a f t h s historian's F u n c t i o n ?
o r t c n c h a r q c d , mere r i l z t o r i c ? i r e d h y t h a i r militsfit o p p o s i t i o n t o Aneric3n f o r e l l n p o l i c y .
On t h z c n n t r a r y , t h e ncm
r e v i s i o n i s t s inuch m a l i n n e d dissent from A c c r i c a ' s f o r e i g n
a n d d o m e s t i c p o l j - c i c s , co:nbj.ncd l x i t h t f ~ z i rB e a r d i a n v i e w o f
tho historian,
has p e r h a p s eriabiec! thgn t o p e r c e i v e t h e
o r i g i n s o f t h e Co?-d !t:itr i n a manner c1osr.r t o t h c a c . t i ~ o l
rcalftics of t h
period.
s r 2 p n r a t e ns v e l l a s i n t e r r e l a t e t h ~
p r o n l c m s o f R u s s i ? , E n 5 3 3nd. 1:lestern c a p i t a l i s m , 2 n d t l ~ cr c v c ? l ; t i o n i n r,!uch o f t h e u ~ c r l d
in t h c o v f : r r f d i n q c n n t ~ x tOF t h e U n i t e d S t a t ~ s '
e x p a c s ' ~n a n d a d v a n c a m e n t o f i t s n a t i n ~ a l
i n t c r c st.5
onr!
r:iijst
The c ~ n t i n u i n ge f F o r t s o f t h e N e v ~ L e f t u ~ r i t e r sin
t h i s a r e a m k o i t e v i d z n t t h a t t h c y ha:.e a c c o p t e d t h e c t i a l -
l e n q e h a n d e d t o 'i'w h i s t o r i c a l p l n f e s s i o n b y F r c d e r i c ! c
Jackson T u r n e r ,
i n h i s P r ~ s i d e n % i : j lA d d ~ e s s , t o t h s A m ~ ? r i c z n
P o s s i b l y , t h i s h a s bp:,n
contribtltion t o date,
t h o liesf L a r k h i s t o r i a n : ; '
Thr
great.cst
N c v ~ Left; historians h a v c un-
q u e s t i o n a b l y rei!:orked A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y f r c - ) m t h e p e r s p e z t icko f t h c 1953s a n d 1 9 7 0 s a s t h s i r p r c d c c e s s a r s d i d f r o m t h a t
O F t h e 1943s 2 n d 1 9 5 0 s .
P e r h a p s an i n t e r p r c t s t i n n t h a t i s
c l a s c r ' t o thr? t r u t h t h z n any t h a t e x i s t s nw!v will eiser2c
Byrnrts,
James F a
-
Kcnnan,
.
G e o r q p F.
AL!,
- in
-
Gnc t i f e t i r n r .
--.
S p -c
.---a k i n r i Frankly.
N e r ~Y o r k ,
195C.
New Y o r k , 1947.
1925-1950.
--Me~o:rs,
--.------"-
S t imson, Hcr!ry I..
, a n d S u n r l y , lilcGc;?rqc:,
in
Pnccr!
:>.nd
'i!~;.,
P!c?L~J Yark, 1 9 4 7 ,
--.----. -----
Sustnn,
On
-*-..-
1967.
A c----------t . j . v ~S e ~ v ! T . c n
B ~ r n s t e i n , B i l r t o i ~J , , c d .
T r u m a n A----d m i r l i 1 : t ~-".ai'
+ -1.
-
--
.,
ed.
P c i_.i k i c s _____
~ c r fP o l i c i e s
o? t h c
C h i c 3 q o , LY'lb.
iow3rds
----
E s s a y s -----i n A ~ c ~ r i c--- aPni c-tcrv.
A Nro~Pa::t.
--hew Yoric,
D i s s e n t i-n?
~.%I'T.
P. I 5
Atcmlc
------!,le:?pons a n d E a s t - ! t ' c s t R e l a t ' o f i s .
Canbridqe, 1955.
Slackett,
I
>
.
_^
Garc!.-,er, L l o y d C .
--,.-Arci:it:ccts
---.----...-.---- o f X- L l v s i r ~ ! ~ : Pic:?
....+----.a n d Idcas
.
j n iimizri..rr.n
F
o
r
c
a
n
i!oli.c:y,
l
Y
4
l
l
9
4
9
.
C
h
i
c
a
g
o
,
1
~'fd.
- ---.
---
Go!.r-berq,
Fia:rvoy,
eti.
h m o r l c a n I<adl.c:rls
---
--------.--
Grae\;ner, h!nsLlsn A ,
Co?--j I:,!;).;.
I?~JJ~.?:;-; ~: v
-r.,-_-_-.,-.-i---x*..x-r...r-.-.---.p
.
p-r
*
,
l L . ? : . k L ; r i g 12" J ,
- ,.-,-.-... ." - -- . f-.r
.
"
.
..
Hiqhaz, John, e t a l e
1965.
Hist,ory,
-
,
Same P r c b l e m s
k r i . ~ : . ^ l ~ !!'- ~
. ?~! ?
n: i r ) ~ ,
-.---L.i9L;?*
I-^.^--..--
Er?glclvood C ? . i f f s ,
N.
J.,
. *
i i o l l t n , Gzhrrc; !. 8nc.i j c y t ; u .
I I C L ~ Ii..k$;
.-.I --- .- -.---- Y
and
i
i
n
f
t
e
d
S
t
a
t
:
:
For'.cai:~n
P
o l-.i c y ,
_
_.__.___^__-'_----.-.-I.--."
I
!
1972.
_
CaIjrieI
T __-___
2 r i L ,
!a:
St:?tes F o r r > inn ---P i 3 l i c- ~ +i Y L-3 - 1 P- ~5.
I(oli.r),
An
-----
-----fin'.
--
--
.
fil;.> s
Thr! !:!orld and I! !: t c d
13cw Y o r k , 1 9 6 8 ,
A
+
-
I
I
k t ! i ' ~ ) ~ ! j C ? . B C S ~ U I ~ 1955'.
,
*,
. i - * i t ; ~ ~t i t j ~ ; ~ j . a312d
,
L ! I C ~C o l d
F
N e w Yozk,
__ - __
"-
-A,-.
of /?mt?rican
-_
_ - . F.o r e i o n p o l i c y :
Thr\ i-~
tnots
1_l*r
4
7
of
L'!IIJ~P~
;:PU
..------- --*--.--
LaFebc2 I- I"..
i
1 9 4 5 - 1 9 6-.
6,
~ 2 7 P"I;,ZX
L20rIs
-- ;.-- Tkte ---.-.b 9.--4 5 - 1 9 t i L .
N e w Yori;,
-..-
--.-
tijar,
1967.
lilay, C r n c s ' i H .
Ii *,:e~.!.al
r ? o n oc f~
- - Der:or,rar,v : t ! r-- ~E r ?- ~ r------2 s a Great; C.or~:.r, ?ev! Ycrk, 1961;
-Ar;irric;i
------A_.
-.-I
---
Jack.
New Y o r k ,
S \ < o t h c i n r 2 o h i ~ r tA l l e n , e d , ----The Hisf-.sr;.en
-. -.
o
f
O
p
i
n
i
a
n
.
3?:i[:insP
fi:~.ss.
, 1969.
----.--"------
---
T h g --..
iJ,
I
-
1962,
S
a n-.d 4.hs
atc
--- C l i o---...
-, -Cuba
- - - -cinb
- - -Cac?.~c;.
N e ~ uY o r k ,
"LCrj,tien History :?s :tn A c t oC F a i t h . "
r-..----------! n r c ! r i r . ~ : . ~ ni*3t::ricrl
C ; B Y . ~---..?CJ~ - X X X l V
an,, 1 9 3 4 ) , 2 1 9 - 2 2 9 ,
- ----
-----&--..--....--..,.----
Garraty, John A,
C i l b c r t , James,
January 2 0 ,
"A T h e n F o r NO:^,
11
r e v l e v ! oF b ~ 7 r i o r i .I.
" A H a s s l e o f b i i s t o i=n:.*
1 9 6 3 , pp. 7 7 - 7 9 ,
.-
----.~hc.
>lac
--
'rt,
Grumbach, Doris'
-
Comnonmeal,
"0:1t of t h e G r a q v e c O F At:adcn~."
X C X , [do. 15, J a n .
1 6 , 1970, 4 6 0 - 4 7 0 .
0
H c r r i n a ,- J r . , C r l o r a- o C.
L e n d - i e a s n to R u s s i a ~ n tdk c
O r i g i n s a f <Pic C o l d P!zr, 1 9 4 4 - 1 9 4 5 . "
Thc JcirlrnaL
.-------..--o f
A
m
e
r
i
c
z
n
!-list;~=,
V
a
l
,
L
V
I
,
tJo.
1
(
J
I
J
R
Z
,
l5i.b~i7,
33-1l3.
----->
Critic,"
195?),
&i;:?j:i~~~?
-------.-..
-. .
GC9--5?5.
. ~. , s ~ i c zRS: . : L ~ ~ ~ ? L YX ~L l I I
-----.---.-.
(kgrj.1
,
"Revisionist Tales of Neqokirtinns with
t h e C o t n m u ~ ~ i s t s , " -R
..- a n ~ ? r t s , June 2 9 , 1 9 6 8 , p p , 4 5 - 5 8 .
-
- ------.
,
2 n d L y n d , 5tnur;tltart.
"Cold-"'ar O r i g j - r r s
a n d t h e 9 o f i n i t i o n o f R c v o l u t i c r , Mn E ~ c h a n o c . "
~ t l q h e s , 11,
Stu:?rt.
"'(he
3cccr;rtd Y ~ e ro f t h ? C o l d ''!:ix..
r\
.
" T h c C o n s c i c u s Crc ' b a n o
C h r i st^;. ~ P T , @*Th!; H j r 4 t ~ ; f { ~ ; 7a?, D i ; - L r 7 ; . ! : t l w
IGatiprj, ? d ~ ? * . . ~ , 7 4 , 3 9 5 7 , p p . 3 L R - 3 5 3 .
Lasch,
-T,..?
--
-
.
te t h e Plcvcwrnt , Ch:?llsnq!-nn t h ?
H i s t u r i a n : , . ' " L i c ~ r o t i o n , - - Vul. 14, Xo, PO ( F e 5 , , 1 9 ' ( 3 ) ,
----
- --
"Lnttor
pea-,-
40-43.
R o b e r t Ja~cc?s. " r i Cn3.d !}Jar R a . t t . l e . "
---Nou; Y o r k
Heview o f..--,- Uno!:;-, Vo?. X X , No. 1.5 ( i l c t , 1 8 , 19'1%
GC-59.
Paddox,
--.--"
--i..---t- a d . i c a l
,
"The Lerjzcy o f S e o r d i a n H i s t o r y . "
Vo1, 4 , No. 8-9 ( i ' ~ o v , , 1 9 7 0 ) , 6 7 - G O .
! i --.-c r i ---ra,
Jaur.rt;zI
2
~ s t . - ! * : : ~C~r i s i s , A D i : i c t l s s i a n . "
Cootc~r.,
__
c ; r z r vI1 ' : _
__-._
c . t c r y t I I T ( ~ p r i l ,1 9 6 G ) , 2 ~ - ? ~ 2 - ~ ~ , -
" O r i y i n s of rl
of
_
_
I
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