1268266 rev.001
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Forensic Anthropology
Objectives
• Understand and implement the scientific method
• Practice problem-solving skills through forensics
• Perform a toxicological analysis
• Perform a forensic anthropological examination to:
- determine ancestry
- determine age
- determine stature
- determine the cause of death
Safety and Disposal
Be sure to follow your teacher’s directions to ensure safety
while conducting this laboratory investigation.
Dispose of any waste materials at the end of the
investigation, as directed by your teacher.
Always wash your hands before leaving the laboratory.
Background
Toxicologists study the effects of chemical on organisms—
how chemicals affect body systems, routes and symptoms
of exposure, detection, and treatment. Forensic
anthropology is the study of the human skeleton in a legal
setting—most often in circumstances where an individual’s
remains are skeletonized.
Forensic anthropology is an off-shoot of the discipline
of physical anthropology—the study of the human fossil
record; its evolution, inheritance, adaptability and variation.
Physical anthropologists (sometimes called biological
anthropologists) also study other primates in addition to
humans.
Forensic anthropologists frequently work with other
professionals—pathologists, toxicologists, odontologists
(specialists who study teeth), coroners (officials who
investigate deaths), homicide investigators, and other
crime scene investigators to identify an individual, discover
evidence of trauma, and determine when a death occurred.
In the process, they routinely use many techniques of the
physical anthropologist to determine age, sex, ancestry,
and analyze bones for the presence of trauma and disease.
You and your classmates will learn some of these
techniques when you conduct your own forensic
examinations.
Let’s investigate the Case of the Lost Congregation.
Forensic science is the body of tested knowledge obtained
through the scientific method and used in a court of law to
discover the truth. In these activities, you will learn the skills
necessary to play the joint roles of forensic toxicologist and
anthropologist.
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The Case
On April 5, 2007, a trench-digger was busy creating a
utility trench on a land parcel in Halleck, Elko County,
Nevada. A building project was underway—part of the
mini tourist boom around old Fort Halleck. As the shovel
began to scrap away the top layer of soil the operator
thought he saw something... It looked like some bones?
He stopped his machine and got off. Upon closer
inspection he saw several bones, possibly a skull! The
operator called the Elko County Sheriff.
The Sheriff was not surprised. There were a number of
ghost towns in the county. One, was a group of buildings-including a church—near the current town of Halleck—in
the general vicinity of where the remains have been
reported. Those buildings were still standing into the early
1920’s, but had since crumbled to dust and disappeared.
It appeared that the expanding town development had
finally reached the long-forgotten area.
The Sheriff sent deputies and the local corner to the scene.
A coroner is a public official whose responsibility is to
investigate any death thought to be of other than natural
causes. The county coroner, Dr. Hitchcock, took charge of
the scene. All construction activity was suspended. The
area cordoned off, and secured. One deputy made a quick
sketch of the general area and indicated where the bones
were recovered:
concrete monument
NORTH
execation trench
(see detail)
fence line
country road
Trench Detail - position of mingled remains
skull#2
single bone
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Dr. Hitchcock made a phone call to the State Historical
Society to ask for a report on the old group of buildings
known to have been in the vicinity. He particularly wanted
to know if the church had a cemetery. He also wanted
to know if there were any recorded military or Native
American burials in the vicinity. What about old Fort
Halleck? Surely it had a military cemetery? Perhaps these
were the remains of interred soldiers?
• Can any additional information concerning these
remains be gleaned from the examination of the bone
material; from the detailed anatomical drawings?
Forensic technicians have taken a soil sample around skull
#1 for later analysis by your team. A soil analysis would
provide information about whether any heavy metals or
other poisons would have leached out the bones. These
two compounds are often connected with the possibility
of foul play or inadvertent poisoning. Both are naturallyoccurring elements that can be picked up by miners. There
certainly was no shortage of miner graves in Nevada, the
silver state.
Dr Hitchcock would appreciate a complete and
documented report.
The coroner was pretty sure that they had uncovered a
historic archeological site, not a crime scene. But one could
never be too sure...
Dr. Hitchcock wants the soil sample tested for arsenic
and lead. He has directed that the co-mingled bones be
recovered. He has called on the services of a forensic
anatomical artist to create an accurate set of drawings
(front and side views) of each of the skulls and a bone
fragment. These artifacts are too delicate to be handled
extensively.
The coroner has directed that the recovered bones, along
with the five drawings, be made available to your team for
a forensic analysis.
Dr. Hitchcock would like your team’s findings concerning:
• Lab results from the processed soil sample connected
with the recovered bones. The coroner would like a
soil analysis for the presence of the heavy metal (lead)
and arsenic.
• Are the recovered remains human?
• How many separate individuals can be identified
from the co-mingled remains?
• Can the ancestry, gender, and stature be obtained and
possibly be compared with other historical information
to determine if these remains are involved with a
wrongful death?
Nevada State Historical Society
Report to Dr. Hitchcock:
Dr. Hitchcock:
The area where human remains were found is near Fort
Halleck in Elko County, Nevada. There were two other
structures known to be in the immediate area—a school
house (1872 – 1886), and a church (St. Casimar; 1875
– 1890). The church also had a small cemetery. No birth or
death certificates are available in Nevada before 1887 when
the state determined that these types of records must be
kept. The only sources that might have information are the
early newspapers, sexton (graveyard custodian) records or
baptismal records that may be on file at various churches in
the state or from tombstones if they exist.
I have had my staff check our achieves, and we have found a
sexton’s Burial Record book for St. Casimar church which was
located eight miles outside the present town of Halleck, NV.
The Nevada State Department of Records has no information
about the location of burial plots for the church cemetery. The
sexton made a crude drawing on the front page of the Record
Book.
I have also included some background information on Fort
Halleck:
First named Camp Halleck, after its commander, US Army
major general Henry Halleck in 1867, it was renamed Fort
Halleck in 1879. The fort was established to protect those who
were traveling on the California Emigrant trail and building
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the Central Pacific Railroad. The Fort was approximately
12 miles from the town of Halleck, Nevada and the Central
Pacific railroad. Washington exerted pressure to move the Fort
closer to the railhead, but it never happened mainly because,
at the time, Fort Halleck was the most expensive fort then
constructed by the Army! Since its location was removed from
the lines of commerce, Fort Halleck was abandoned in October
of 1886. Later, the Department of the Army had the military
graves moved to the San Francisco National Cemetery.
We believe that your discovery may be the co-mingled remains
of one or more burials from St. Casimar.
Yours truly,
Mathew Duncan
Chairman
Parker
Burial March, 12, 1883; Grave 4
Infant Leonard and Anna
Isaac Harmon
Burial July 25, 1883; Grave 5
He had come to NV in 1872 and had resided
in and about Ely for the last eleven years
prospecting and mining. Also prepared
game trophies for hunters. Nicknamed
“Captain.” Served during the civil war as a
pvt in Co. B, 13th Maine Vol., and later as a
1st Lt. in the 80th U.S. Colored Cavalry.
Hong Lee
Burial April 5, 1884 Grave 6.
Laborer, Central Pacific Railroad. Vry
small-sized man. Aged 35.
Sarah Connors
Burial May 15, 1886; Grave 7
Cook at for until sickness. Aged 49.
Consumption.
Burial Record
St. Casimar Church
Elko, Nevada
1875 -
1
James Johnson, Sexton
2
Charles Bagsby
Burial October 18, 1877; Grave 1
Blacksmith and miner. Served in the
45 ILL Infantry in the Great War. Aged
56 years.
George Clark
Burial July 24, 1878; Grave 2
Prospector. Body found in a barren gulch
some 8 miles from his cabin at Red Hills
between Red Hills and the Boundy
Brothers Ranch. Aged 43.
Arthur Cahill
Burial November 20, 1882; Grave 3
U.S. Marshall. Bushwacked. Lived In
Virginia City. Aged 50 years. Jordan Banks
to hang for murder in Carson City.
3
4
5
8
7
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Soon the elder Blandy grew ill - first stomach distress,
then sweats and growing weakness. Growing suspicious
that he was being poisoned; Blandy asked an apothecary
(pharmacist) to examine his food. He wasn’t sure, but it
could be arsenic….
Activity 1
Toxicological Investigation of Soil
Background
For some strange reason, Blandy continued to allow his
daughter to prepare his food. And for not so strange a
reason, he died. Cranstoun fled, but Mary was caught and
captured. She was placed on trial in 1752. Four physicians
testified that they had looked at Blandys internal organs at
autopsy and that arsenic had killed him. They said that the
liver and other organs had a preserved quality to them—
indicative of arsenic poisoning. Mary was found guilty. She
was hanged on April 6, 1752.
Toxicology—the first forensic science
Toxicology is the study of the adverse effects of chemical,
physical, or biological agents on living organisms. In
forensics, poisons are a popular method for murder.
Almost any natural substance in the appropriate amount
or concentration can be injurious. Many poisons mimic
common medical diseases leading investigators to assume
that the death was from natural causes.
Toxicology is not only important in investigating whether
foul play occurred, but also in other circumstances such as
suspected suicide, accidental death, and substance abuse.
Arsenic Poisoning
The history of forensic toxicology goes back over 200 years.
One of the first trials involving toxicological evidence and
testimony occurred in 1752. A certain Captain William
Cranstoun proposed marriage to Mary Blandy. Captain
Cranstoun was an unscrupulous fellow in debt—he
hatched a plan to get Mary’s father’s estate.
Cranstoun told Mary that he knew an herbalist who might
help them settle her father’s estate “on both of them.” The
captain produced a white powder and told Mary to add it
to the old man’s tea—in small doses. Months passed, and
Mary could see no signs of distress in her father. So she
began to add the white powder directly to his food.
Arsenic (symbol: As; atomic number 33) is a chemical
element. It has many forms: yellow (molecular non-metallic)
and several black and gray forms (metalloids). It is more
commonly found as arsenide and arsenate compounds.
For centuries, arsenic has been known—and used—as
a poison. Its symptoms mimic those of cholera—gastrointestinal tract upset, stomach cramps, and massive watery
diarrhea.
Arsenic has been used as an insecticide and preservative—
in early embalming fluids, wood preservatives, and by
taxidermists.
A forensic test for arsenic was developed by chemist James
Marsh in 1836. The Marsh test for arsenic trioxide (As2O3)—
a white powder easily incorporated into food and drink. A
blue color indicates a positive test. Before the Marsh test,
arsenic was undetectable in the body.
Lead Poisoning
Lead (symbol: Pb; atomic number 82) is a chemical
element. Lead is bluish white when freshly cut, but turns
to dull gray when exposed to the air. Lead has the highest
atomic number of all the stable elements. Like mercury,
and other heavy metals, lead can accumulate over time in
body tissues and bone.
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Lead is usually found in ore with zinc, silver, and copper.
It is extracted together with these metals. The main lead
mineral is galena (PbS), which contains 86.6% lead.
Lead mining ranked as Nevada’s second-richest mineral
producer, behind silver. Lead mining in the state peaked
in 1878, and declined thereafter due to decreasing mine
production and changing market conditions.
Lead is all around us! It has routinely been added to paint
as pigment for centuries—Lead (II) chromate (PbCrO4,
chrome yellow) and lead (II) carbonate (PbCO3, white lead)
being the most common forms. These additives were
incorporated into paint formulas to speed drying, increase
durability, retain a fresh appearance and resist moisture.
Today, paint containing more than 0.06% lead is banned
for residential use.
Lead poisoning is a medical condition caused by increased
blood lead levels (BLL). BLL measures current exposure to
lead, but lead is also incorporated into bone from prior
exposures. X-ray metering can measure bone-lead levels.
Symptoms of chronic lead poisoning include neurological
and gastrointestinal problems, excess lethargy or
hyperactivity, and, in extreme cases, seizure, madness
(dementia), coma, and death.
Today, routine lead testing is done on soils to check for the
presence of lead salts. The presence of a pink-red color in
the test result indicates the presence of free lead.
What You Need...
Per Student
-
Activity 1 – Student sheets
-
safety goggles
Per Group
1
piece cheesecloth, 4x4”
2
medicine cups, empty
2
medicine cups, each filled with 20 mL
extraction solvent
2
paper cones
2
weighing dishes, 8 cm
1
EVIDENCE envelope containing the soil sample
1
teaspoons, plastic
Per Class
Accidental lead poisoning was believed responsible to the
crew of 128 from the Franklin, a British expedition to the
Arctic in 1845. The new-technology of canned food on
board was determined to have contributed to the crew’s
demise—all the tin cans were sealed with lead solder. The
lead is thought to have leached into the food and longterm consumption of contaminated food eventually driving
the men mad.
1
balance
Many historians believe the music composer Ludwig van
Beethoven suffered from lead poisoning. X-ray tests done
in 2005 at the Argonne National Laboratory on fragments
of Beethoven’s skull have confirmed clinically-significant
levels of lead.
If the toxicological analysis is positive, the Coroner would
like a written report detailing:
• How the chain of custody was protected
• A description of the soil extraction process
• The reagents applied
• Test results and findings
Overview
Dr. Hitchcock would like the submitted soil sample analyzed for the presence of lead and/or arsenic.
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Protecting the Chain of Custody
The chain of custody refers to a document trail showing
the acquisition, custody, control, transfer, analysis, and disposition of physical evidence. Physical evidence must be
handled in a careful manner to avoid charges of tampering
or falsification.
A specific individual must always have the physical custody
of a piece of evidence.
What to do
paper cone
medicine cup
STEP 4
Fold the cheesecloth into a 1-inch-sqaure, and place in the
bottom of the paper cone. The cheesecloth will act as a
barrier for soil particles.
STEP 1
paper cone
Record the information on the EVIDENCE envelope on your
Activity sheet (Evidence Intake Information) to preserve the
chain of custody of the soil evidence.
medicine cup
cheesecloth
Case No.
Lab Investigator
Date & Time of Recovery
Weighing the Soil Sample
Scene Location
Item Description
Place a weigh dish on a balance and determine its tare
weight. Record this value on the Laboratory Data portion of
the Activity sheet.
STEP 2
Remember that your team will need to prepare two
soil extraction samples—one for each substance being
analyzed. Open the EVIDENCE envelope, and remove the
sealed sample. Record information about the sample on
the Evidence Intake Information portion of the Activity
sheet. Use a balance to weigh the sample (soil sample in
zip-closure bag) so that it can adequately be described—
e.g. approximately 125 grams of collected soil.
STEP 3
Test fit the paper cone into in an empty medicine cup. The
paper cone should fit snugly as illustrated:
STEP 5
Gently pour the collected spoonful of soil onto the tare’d
weigh dish and weigh it on the balance. Determine the
sample weight (mass) by subtracting the tare weight from
the total sample weight to obtain the net sample weight.
Record this value on the Laboratory Data portion of the
Activity sheet.
STEP 6
Transfer the weighed sample from the balance and folding
it so that the soil can be poured into the paper cone.
Remember to pour the soil sample into the middle of the
cheesecloth barrier.
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STEP 7
STEP 10
Your team will now extract any heavy metals and/or arsenic
trioxide that may be present from the collected soil into
the lower medicine cup by carefully pouring the extraction
solvent over the soil sample in the cup. Allow the poured
liquid to drain completely through the soil sample.
Remember to record the exact volume of the extraction
solvent on the Laboratory Data portion of the Activity sheet.
Repeat Steps 3 through 9 for the other sample; testing
for the presence of lead. A pink-red color is indicative of a
positive test for the presence of lead. At the conclusion of
the test, record your team’s test results on the Laboratory
Data portion of the Activity sheet.
STEP 8
STEP 11
Clean up your area as your teacher directs. Wash your
hands before leaving the laboratory.
Once the extraction solvent has completely drained
through the soil sample, remove the upper paper cone
and soil. Discard the extracted soil sample as your teacher
directs.
STEP 9
Note: Put on protective goggles.
Perform the Arsenic Test (Marsh Test for arsenic trioxide
As2O2) by applying 5 drops of the test reagent to the
extracted solvent sample. A blue color indicates the
presence of arsenic trioxide. Record the test results on the
Laboratory Data portion of the Activity sheet.
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County Crime Laboratory
EVIDENCE INTAKE INFORMATION:
Date:
Chain of Custody: From: Comments:
County Sheriff’s Office
Halleck,
Elko County, Nevada
Description:
Description of Sample: To:
Date:
LABORATORY DATA
Sample No.
Tare Weight:
grams
Net soil sample weight:
grams
Arsenic Test:
Marsh Reagent: (Volume of extraction solvent used: mL)
Test Results:
Sample No.
Tare Weight:
grams
Net soil sample weight:
grams
Lead Test:
Lead Reagent: (Volume of extraction solvent used: mL)
Test Results:
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Analysis & Findings
3. Has a crime been committed?
Was a poisonous substance found in the collected
soil sample(s)?
4. W
hat other issues do the findings suggest?
Questions
1. What is toxicology?
5. W
hat other tests could be run?
2. Is the presence of either lead or arsenic associated with
the recovered bones a significant finding?
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Activity 2
Head
Forensic Identification of Recovered
Co-mingled Remains – Elko County, Nevada
Background
Note: Use the Forensic Anthropology Guide to learn more
about terminology, bone and skeletal anatomy.
Forensic anthropologists perform an evaluation and analysis on either a complete or partial skeleton. Sometimes the
recovered remains are co-mingled—with bones of two or
more individual found together.
skull
un-paired bone
paired bone
Foot
Findings:
What to do
STEP 1
Determining the Number of
Individual in Co-Mingled Remains
The first task is to determine if the remains are commingled
or separate. This involves laying out the bones in the
correct anatomical position on a flat surface, such as a
table. Individual bones are identified: paired bones (right
and left) and non-paired bones. For example, having three
scapulas immediately tells you that you are dealing with
two individual skeletons.
Two skulls (labeled Skull #1 and Skull #2) and a femur have
been retained by the coroner. He has had a set of accurate
medical illustrations made that your team can use for its
forensic analysis.
Record the symbol and the identity of the bone (or skull)
on the orientation diagram below.
STEP 2
Determining Relative Age,
Trauma, and Presence of Disease
Next, each bone is examined for growth status, trauma,
and disease. Use the Forensic Anthropology Guide as a guide
to skeletal landmarks. Record your data on the Skeleton
Inventory sheet. Record your summary findings below:
Are there any signs of epiphyseal plate closure on the
long bones indicating that the bone is from an adult (see
Epiphyseal Union Table) aged greater 25 years?
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Epiphyseal Union Table
Long Bone
Male
Female
humerus (head)
20-25 yrs.
18-22 yrs.
humerus (condyle)
14-18 yrs.
14-17 yrs.
radius / ulna
17-20 yrs.
16-19 yrs.
femur (head)
18-21 yrs.
16-19 yrs.
femur (condyle)
17-20 yrs.
16-19 yrs.
tibia / fibula
17-20 yrs.
16-19 yrs.
Adapted from: Brothwell, D.R. 1981. Diggin Up Bones: The Excavation, Treatment and study
of human skeletal remains. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York.
Are there any signs of trauma?
Are there any signs of disease?
- Does the bone have a sandpapered appearance
where usual surface detail appears to be obliterated?
- Are there discolorations?
Immature Skeletons:
mandible not fused (birth to 12 months)
appearance of ossification growth centers
(birth to 15 years)
Mature Skeletons:
bone growth centers (epiphyseal plates) fused in
long bones? yes no
sub adult (<25 years)
adult (> 25 years)
adult (> 50 years)
STEP 3
Record all information regarding each bone on the
Skeleton Inventory Form for all recovered bones and
bone fragments:
Record your answers on the Skeleton Inventory sheet.
Findings:
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Skeleton Inventory Form
Date:
Case No.
Examiner:
Elko County Nevada Crime Lab
Skull #1
Orbital Rim
Landmarks
Notes
Rounded
Not Rounded
Projects below
base of skull
Does not
project below
base of skull
Cranial Breadth
[euryon (eu)
– euryon (eu)]
(mm)
Cranial Height
[glabella (g)
– opistocranium
(op)]
(mm)
Calculations:
Facial Height
[nasion (n)
– gnathion
(gn)]
(mm)
Facial Width
[zygion (zy)
– zygion (zy)]
(mm)
Calculations:
Nasal Breadth
[alare (al)
– alare (al)]
(mm)
Nasal Height
[nasion (n)
– nasiospinale
(ns)]
(mm)
Calculations:
Notes
Eye Orbit Shape
Mastoid Process
Gonial angle
Mandible
(front profile)
Cranial Index
Facial Index
Facial Index
Facial Profile Type
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Skeleton Inventory Form
Date:
Case No.
Examiner:
Elko County Nevada Crime Lab
Skull #2
Orbital Rim
Landmarks
Notes
Rounded
Not Rounded
Projects below
base of skull
Does not
project below
base of skull
Cranial Breadth
[euryon (eu)
– euryon (eu)]
(mm)
Cranial Height
[glabella (g)
– opistocranium
(op)]
(mm)
Calculations:
Facial Height
[nasion (n)
– gnathion
(gn)]
(mm)
Facial Width
[zygion (zy)
– zygion (zy)]
(mm)
Calculations:
Nasal Breadth
[alare (al)
– alare (al)]
(mm)
Nasal Height
[nasion (n)
– nasiospinale
(ns)]
(mm)
Calculations:
Notes
Eye Orbit Shape
Mastoid Process
Gonial angle
Mandible
(front profile)
Cranial Index
Facial Index
Facial Index
Facial Profile Type
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Appendicular Skeleton
Bone
Side
Percent Complete
Condition
Osteometric Measurement (mm)
Upper Limbs
Clavicle
L
R
Scapula
L
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
L:
L:
W:
R
L
R
L
R
L:
L:
L:
L:
L:
L
R
Hands
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
__ of 16
Lower Limbs
__ of 28
__ of 10
L
Os Coxa
R
L
Femur
R
L
L:
HD:
Shaft Diameter:
L:
HD:
Shaft Diameter:
L:
L:
Fibula
R
L:
Patella
L
R
L:
L:
R
Tibia
L
Feet
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
R
__ of 14
__ of 10
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Thorax – Spinal Column
Bone
Side
Percent Complete
Condition
Osteometric Measurement (mm)
Cervical
atlas
axis
C3-C7
Thoracic
T1-T12
Lumbar
L1-L5
Sacrum
S1-S5
Coccyx
L:
W:
coccyx
Sternum
manubrium
sternum Body
xiphoid
Ribs
L
1-12
R
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STEP 4
Determining Ancestry
Determine ancestry using cranial traits. Use the Forensic
Anthropology Guide as a guide to skeletal landmarks.
Record your osteometric (bone measurement) data on the
Skeleton Inventory sheet. Use the Human Ancestral Traits
Table to determine likely ancestry. Record your summary
findings below:
(G) Mandible—chin:
Place the mandible in side profile on a table. Examine the
relative projection of the chin.
Summary Findings
Skull #1
Ancestry Determination:
- face profile:
(A) Calculate the cranial index.
- eye orbit shape:
(B) Calculate the facial index.
- gonial angle:
- chin profile:
(C) Calculate the nasal index.
Skull #2
(D) Determine the facial profile:
(E) Eye orbit shape:
Examine the skull face-on. Describe the overall shape as
square or rounded. If the eye orbits are rounded, examine
the upper border. Is it level, or does it slope laterally?
(F) Mandible (jaw)—Gonial Angle
Place the mandible in anterior (front) view directly in front
of you. Examine the gonial angle to see if it is rounded.
Ancestry Determination:
- face profile:
- eye orbit shape:
- gonial angle:
- chin profile:
Human Ancestral Traits
Cranial Trait
European
Descent
African
Descent
Asian
Descent
(A) Cranial Index
75 to 80
<75
>80
(B) Facial Index
>90 (narrow to
very narrow)
< 85 (broad to
very broad)
85 to 90 (medium)
(C) Nasal Index
<48 (narrow)
> 53 (wide)
48 to 53
(intermediate)
(D) face profile
orthognathic
(straight, flat)
prognathic
(projecting-upper
teeth socket area)
intermediate to
mostly orthognathic
(E) eye orbit shape
rounded and sloping
square or rectangular
rounded and
non-sloping
(F) gonial angle
rounded
not rounded
rounded
(G) chin profile
prominent
and projecting
rounded
slightly projecting
Adapted from: Bass, 1995; White, 2000
Talking Bones
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STEP 5
Limb Lengths Related to Sex
Determining Gender
Use the Forensic Anthropology Guide as a guide to skeletal
landmarks. Record your data on the Skeleton Inventory
sheet. Record your summary findings below:
Background
Humans vary (about 12%) in their degree of sexual
dimorphism—differences in form between males and
females—mostly in body size, robustness, muscularity, and
teeth size. Sexual dimorphism can be used to determine
the sex of unknown individuals. In humans, although
other bones are used, the skull, long bones, and pelvis are
primarily used to determine gender.
Pelvis
Male
Female
greater
sciatic notch
narrow angle;
relatively deep
wide angle;
relatively shallow
subpubic angle
under 90°; narrow
generally 90°
or higher
Skull
Male
Female
orbital rim
rounded
not rounded
mastoid process
medium to large
(thumb-size), usually
projecting below the
base of the skull
small (little finger
size), usually does
not project below the
base of the skull
mandible
heavier jaw, more
square chin that has
two points connected
by more or less a
straight line.
More narrow and
pointed
Bone
Female
Intermediate
Male
Femur (maximum length)
412.0
432.5
453
Humerus (maximum length)
303
313.5
324
Os Coxae obturator foramen
Small and triangular
---
Large and ovoid
Os Coxae sciatic notch
Wide; > 90 degrees
---
Narrow; < 90 degrees
Os Coxae acetabulum
small
---
large
Scapula (maximum length)
129
137.5
146.1
Scapula (maximum width)
88.1
92.7
97.3
Clavicle (maximum length)
125.3
132.5
139.6
Radius (maximum length)
231.5
242.1
252.7
Ulna (maximum length)
247.9
258.9
269.9
Tibia (maximum length)
355.0
366.7
378.5
Adapted from: White, T.D. 1991. Human Osteology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Note: data in mm; left side (standard)
Summary Findings:
Talking Bones
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STEP 6
Determining Stature
Use the Forensic Anthropology Guide as a guide to skeletal
landmarks. Record your data on the Skeleton Inventory
sheet. Record your summary findings below:
Background
The height or stature of an individual is useful in
making forensic identification, inclusion, and exclusion
determinations. Before estimating stature, one must first
determine the ancestry, gender, and age of an individual (if
possible) since stature varies within these variables.
Note: Stature determinations are estimates, never exact.
Stature estimates are calculated in centimeters (cm). An
individual who is 5 feet, 6-inches tall is 167.6 cm tall.
(5.5ft x 12 in/ft x 2.54 cm/in = 167.64cm)
Stature is estimated by comparing measurement
data of certain bones to tables of published data. The
most commonly used bones for stature estimation for
incomplete remains are the long bones (femur, tibia, fibula,
humerus, radius, ulna), but short bones of the hands and
feet may also be used.
It is important to remember that most individuals thirty
years of age, and older, have undergone some degree of
degenerative change associated with the aging process
which results in a decrease in stature. To account for this
loss of height associated with aging, one must subtract
from the stature estimates. The estimated age is plugged
into an equation; the answer is then subtracted from the
stature estimate.
Determine the stature of an individual by inserting the
appropriate maximum length measurement for any long
bone in the table below. If ancestry and gender is known,
use the appropriate formula. If either gender or ancestry is
not known, use the default formula.
Example
The estimate range in stature of an individual of known African decent whose femur measures
a maximum length of 447.3 mm would be calculated as:
447.3 mm = 44.7 cm
2.10 x 44.7 cm = 98.78 + 72.22 = 171.00 cm
171.0 cm + 3.94 cm = 174.94 cm / 2.54 cm/inch = 68.87 inches / 12 in/foot = 5 foot 9 inches
171.0 cm – 3.94 cm = 167.06 cm / 2.54 cm/inch = 65.77 inches / 12 in/foot = 5 feet 6 inches
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Stature Table
Bone
Femur
Race
Male Data
Female Data
European Descent
2.32 x femur length + 65.53 ± 3.94
2.47 x femur length + 54.10 ± 3.72
African Descent
2.10 x femur length + 72.22 ± 3.91
2.28 x femur length + 59.76 ± 3.41
Asian Descent
2.15 x femur length + 72.57 ± 3.80
data not available
Default
Tibia
European Descent
2.42 x tibia length + 81.93 ± 4.00
2.90 x tibia length + 61.53 ± 3.66
African Descent
2.19 x tibia length + 85.36 ± 3.96
2.45 x tibia length + 72.56 ± 3.70
Asian Descent
2.39 x tibia length + 81.45 ± 3.24
data not available
Default
Fibula
2.60 x fibula length + 75.50 ± 3.86
2.93 x fibula length + 59.61 ± 3.57
African Descent
2.34 x fibula length + 80.07 ± 4.02
2.49 x fibula length + 70.90 ± 3.80
Asian Descent
2.40 x fibula length + 80.56 ± 3.24
data not available
2.89 x humerus length + 75.48 ± 4.57
3.36 x humerus length + 57.97 ± 4.45
African Descent
2.88 x humerus length + 78.10 ± 4.57
3.08 x humerus length + 64.67 ± 4.25
Asian Descent
2.68 x humerus length + 83.19 ± 4.16
data not available
3.01 x humerus length + 71.88 ± 4.40
European Descent
3.76 x ulna length + 75.55 ± 4.72
4.27 x ulna length + 57.76 ± 4.30
African Descent
3.20 x ulna length + 82.77 ± 4.74
3.31 x ulna length + 75.38 ± 4.83
Asian Descent
3.48 x ulna length + 77.45 ± 4.66
data not available
Default
Radius
2.55 x fibula length + 73.33 ± 3.70
European Descent
Default
Ulna
2.33 x tibia length + 82.91 ± 3.73
European Descent
Default
Humerus
2.26 x femur length + 64.83 ± 3.76
3.60 x ulna length + 73.78 ± 4.65
European Descent
3.79 x radius length + 79.42 ± 4.66
4.74 x radius length + 54.93 ± 4.24
African Descent
3.32 x radius length + 85.43 ± 4.57
3.67 x radius length + 77.79 ± 4.59
Asian Descent
3.54 x radius length + 82.00 ± 4.60
data not available
Default
3.81 x radius length + 75.91 ± 4.53
Data adapted from: Bass, W.M. 1995 Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual, 4th Edition. Missouri Archaeology.
Note: data in cm
Talking Bones
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Stature calculations
Summary Findings:
Talking Bones
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STEP 7
Site Drawing
Compare the summary osteometric data with historical
data provided by the Nevada Historical Society. What are
the findings in this case?
1
Summary Findings:
2
3
4
5
8
7
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Report to Dr. Hitchcock:
Note: The names of individuals and case scenarios are fictitious.
Any semblance to actual persons, crimes, or locations is entirely coincidental.
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2. Use the library and internet (with permission)
to research the following topics:
Going Further
1. See if you can analyze the following osteometric
data and identify the remains found in a shallow
grave:
Femur #1
Femur #2
Humerus #1
Humerus #2
maximum length
maximum length
maximum length
maximum length
52.5cm
42.4 cm
30.0 cm
37.4 cm
Height measurements for the following Europeandescendant individuals are known:
Caroline 5’ 3 ½ “
Bob
6’ 2”
Clarence
5’ 8 ¾ “
Gretchen
5’ 8”
- The Body Farm at the University of Tennessee.
- United States Central Identification laboratory (CIL)
is the only facility of its type in the world. It has
responsibility for the identification of United States
military war dead
www.jpac.pacom.mil/CIL/CIL_Home.htm
- Research Neanderthal long bone measurement
data. How does the stature of a Neanderthal
compare with Homo sapiens?
3. Using the Glossary in the Forensic Anthropology
Guide, see how many bone structures you can
observe on human bones.
Calculations
Talking Bones
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Neat Websites
Houde, John. Crime Lab: A Guide for Nonscientists. Calico
Pr., 1998.
Careers in Forensic Science:
www.forensicdna.com/careers.htm
Kessler, Ronald and P. McCarthy (Editor). The FBI/Inside
the World’s Most Powerful Law Enforcement Agency. New
York: Pocket, 1994.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
www.fbi.gov/homepage.htm
Morgan, Marilyn. Careers in Criminology. McGraw-Hill,
2000.
Facial Imagery – FBI / Smithsonian Collaboration
www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/fsc/backissu/oct2000/ubelaker.
htm
Massie, Robert K. The last Romanov Mystery. The New
Yorker. Pages 71-95. August 21 & 28, 1995.
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
www.rcmp.ca/
American Academy of Forensic Sciences
www.aafs.org
Rainis, Kenneth G. Exploring With a Magnifying Glass. New
York: Watts, 1996.
Rainis, Kenneth G. Crime-Solving Science Projects. Forensic
Science Experiments, Berkeley Heights, New Jersey:
Enslow, 2000.
Combined DNA Index System (CODIS)
http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/codis/index1.htm
Rainis, Kenneth G. Microscope Science Projects and
Experiments—Magnifying the Hidden World. Berkley
Heights, New Jersey: Enslow, 2003.
New Scotland Yard
www.met.police.uk/
Rainis, Kenneth G. Blood & DNA Crime-Solving Science
Projects. Berkley Heights, New Jersey, Enslow, 2006.
PBS (Public Broadcasting Service) – History Detectives
www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives/techniques/
forensic_ml.html
Ramsland, Katherine. The Forensic Science of C.S.I. San
Francisco: Berkley Publishing Group, 2001.
Learn and Read
More About It
Barber, Jacqueline. Crime Lab Chemistry: Teacher’s Guide.
Berkley. Gems; Lawrence Hall of Science, 1993.
Camenson, Blythe. Opportunities in Forensic Science
Careers. VGM Career Books: Chicago, 2001.
Sillitoe, Linda et al. Salamander: The Story of the Mormon
Forgery Murders. New York: Signature, 1990.
Toobin, Jeffrey. The CSI Effect. New Yorker. Pages 30-35.
May 7, 2007.
Wiese, James and E. Shems (Illustrator). Detective Science:
40 Crime-Solving, Case-Breaking, Crook-Catching Activities
for Kids. New York: Wiley, 1996.
Evan, Colin. The Casebook of Forensic Detection: How
Science Solved 100 of the World’s Most baffling Crimes.
New York: Wiley, 1998.
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Evidence
Skull #2
Case No 23-1234
Accurate illustration of recovered Skull #2 from Elko County, Nevada
Talking Bones
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Evidence
Case No 23-1234
Accurate illustration of
recovered skull #2 from
Elko County, Nevada
Talking Bones
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Evidence
Skull #1
Case No 23-1234
Accurate illustration of recovered Skull #1 from Elko County, Nevada
Talking Bones
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Evidence
Case No 23-1234
Accurate illustration of
recovered Skull #1 from
Elko County, Nevada
Talking Bones
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Evidence
Case No 23-1234
Accurate illustration of recovered proximal right femur from Elko County, Nevada
Talking Bones
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