TONE AND ATTITUDE
In literary work, tone reflects the attitude the author projects. That attitude is revealed
through style, through the writer’s choice of language, imagery, diction, details, and
syntax (LIDDS). The writer’s style implies a tone; as a result, the reader infers an
attitude.
Tone is the way the author or speaker expresses an attitude toward the subject and the
audience. Attitude is the actual emotion the author has toward the subject, audience(s),
and him or herself. Mood is the feeling created in the reader by a literary work or
passage.
Writers make two decisions to determine tone: how to express feelings about the
subject—e.g., ironic, light, solemn, satiric, sentimental—and how to place themselves
socially, intellectually, or morally in relation to their audience(s)—e.g., formal, intimate,
pompous.
Tone as the expression of feeling should not be confused with the description of feeling.
Tone expresses or implies the writer’s emotional state, the feeling about the subject that
the writer desires to share; it will often differ markedly from the feelings expressed by
characters who appear in the writing. A writer, for example, can describe the cheerfulness
of the airline flight attendants in a sarcastic tone or the self-dramatizing gloom of a
spoiled child in a scoffing tone or the pompous pontifications of a political candidate in a
tone of good-natured joshing.
Very young children can sense a speaker’s attitude in tone of voice. For that matter, even
a dog understands the tone of his master’s voice: “You lazy old cur, how are you today?
Did anyone ever tell you that you are absolutely useless? Wish I could be as worthless as
you are.” The dog wags his tail, enjoying the attention and kindness of his master’s voice
despite the literal meaning of the words. But understanding tone in prose and poetry is an
entirely different matter. The reader does not have voice inflection to carry or to obscure
meaning. Thus, one’s knowledge and appreciation of word choice, details, imagery, and
language all contribute to the understanding of tone. To misinterpret tone is to
misinterpret meaning. If readers miss irony or sarcasm, they may find something serious
in veiled humor and misunderstand the writer’s meaning.
Clearly, writers need not say what they are feeling; tone emerges as a quality of the
whole utterance, whether spoken or written. An indignant speaker might say with deep
sarcasm, “I’m delighted that you show such contempt for my efforts. Nothing pleases me
more than to find honesty where I least expect it.” The speaker does not need to say, “I’m
indignant.” When Wordsworth says, “But yet I know, where’er I go, /That there hath past
away a glory from the earth,” his sense of loss can be heard without his having to say,
“I’m sad.” And it is reported that Mark Twain delivered his popular speeches that kept
his audiences in stitches with a straight face and solemn voice.
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Tone, then, is the quality of voice that conveys feelings, whether stated directly or
indirectly. Some tones caress; some tones instruct; some tones condemn. With variations
of tone we can express love or hate; happiness or grief; comradeship or contempt;
compassion or loathing; humor or seriousness; anger, indignation, outrage, or
forgiveness. And these tones are only a beginning. Writers don’t usually present only one
tone but rather a mixture of tones: anger and pity, sorrow and hope, and so on.
Authors are rarely monotone, that is, monotonous. A speaker’s attitude can shift on a
topic or how an author might have one attitude toward the audience and another attitude
toward the subject. Clues to watch for shifts in tone:
 key words (but, yet, nevertheless, however, although)
 punctuation (dashes, periods, colons)
 stanza and paragraph divisions
 changes in line and stanza or in sentence length
 sharp contrasts in diction
An analysis of tone will depend on a precise and accurate understanding of the author’s
attitude toward:
 the subject
 the audience within the text
 him or herself
 the reader
A list of tone words is one practical method of providing a basic “tone vocabulary.” An
enriched vocabulary enables more specific and subtle descriptions of an attitude
discovered in a text. Use a dictionary for definitions of the following tone that you do not
know. Explicit dictionary meanings are needed to establish subtle differences between
tone words such as emotional, sentimental, and lugubrious to accurately comment on a
work that appeals to emotions, emphasizes emotion over reason, or becomes emotional to
the point of being laughable. Know and use tone words such as the following:
Positive tone
amused
cheery
compassionate
complimentary
confident
elated
enthusiastic
exuberant
hopeful
lighthearted
loving
optimistic
passionate
proud
sympathetic
Negative tone
accusing
angry
bitter
condemnatory
disgusted
furious
indignant
inflammatory
irritated
outraged
threatening
wrathful
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Humor/Irony/Sarcasm
amused
disdainful
bantering
facetious
condescending
flippant
contemptuous
insolent
critical
ironic
cynical
irreverent
mock-heroic
mock-serious
patronizing
pompous
sarcastic
sardonic
satiric
scornful
taunting
whimsical
Sorrow/Fear/Worry
apprehensive
concerned
despairing
disturbed
elegiac
fearful
foreboding
gloomy
hopeless
maudlin
melancholic
mournful
resigned
sad
serious
sober
solemn
somber
staid
Rational tone
admonitory
argumentative
authoritative
baffled
candid
ceremonial
clinical
coaxing
condemnatory
critical
curious
cynical
detached
didactic
disbelieving
doubting
explanatory
factual
formal
frank
guileless
incredulous
indignant
informative
innocent
insinuating
instructive
learned
matter-of-fact
nostalgic
objective
oracular
persuasive
pleading
puzzled
questioning
reminiscent
restrained
sentimental
sincere
thoughtless
uncertain
urgent
wistful
Pleasure
bright
cheerful
contented
elated
enraptured
giddy
happy
joyful
jubilant
peaceful
playful
pleasant
satisfied
sprightly
Pain
annoyed
bitter
bored
cheerless
crushed
disappointed
disgusted
dismal
dismal
fretful
irritable
melancholy
miserable
mournful
pathetic
plaintive
querulous
regretful
sad
sore
sorrowful
sour
sulky
sullen
tragic
troubled
uneasy
vexed
worried
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Passion
angry
desperate
enraged
fierce
frantic
greedy
hungry
hysterical
impetuous
impulsive
insane
jealous
nervous
reckless
savage
serious
shocked
wild
Friendliness
accommodating
approving
caressing
comforting
compassionate
confiding
cordial
courteous
forgiving
gracious
helpful
indulgent
kindly
loving
obliging
pitying
polite
sociable
solicitous
soothing
sympathetic
tender
tolerant
trusting
Unfriendliness
accusing
antisocial
belittling
boorish
contemptuous
cutting
derisive
disparaging
harsh
hateful
impudent
insolent
insulting
pitiless
reproving
sarcastic
satiric
scolding
scornful
severe
sharp
spiteful
suspicious
Comedy
amused
comic
facetious
humorous
ironic
mocking
playful
satiric
uproarious
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Tone words from past AP exams
afraid
cynical
allusive
despondent
ambivalent
detached
angry
didactic
apathetic
diffident
apologetic
disdainful
audacious
disinterested
bantering
dissembling
bemused
dramatic
benevolent
dreamy
bitter
effusive
boring
elegiac
burlesque
emotional
candid
enigmatic
childish
facetious
clinical
factual
cold
fanciful
colloquial
fawning
compassionate
flippant
complimentary
frivolous
concerned
giddy
concrete
happy
condescending
hollow
confident
horrific
confused
humorous
conspiratorial
hyperbolic
contemptuous
idealistic
contentious
impartial
incisive
indignant
inflammatory
informative
insipid
insolent
ironic
irreverent
joking
joyful
learned
lugubrious
mock-heroic
mocking
mock-serious
moralistic
nostalgic
objective
oblique
ominous
patronizing
peaceful
pedantic
perfunctory
petty
pitiful
poignant
pretentious
proud
provocative
remorseful
resigned
restrained
sad
sanguine
sarcastic
sardonic
satiric
scornful
seductive
sentimental
sharp
shocking
silly
somber
sweet
sympathetic
taunting
tired
upset
urgent
vexed
vibrant
whimsical
wistful
zealous
Vocabulary of Attitudes
Attitudes of logic—explanatory, didactic, admonitory, condemnatory, indignant, puzzled,
curious, guileless, thoughtless, innocent, frank, sincere, questioning, uncertain, doubting,
incredulous, critical, cynical, insinuating, persuading, coaxing, pleading, persuasive,
argumentative, oracular.
Attitudes of pleasure—peaceful, satisfied, contented, happy, cheerful, pleasant, bright, joyful,
playful, jubilant, elated, enraptured.
Attitudes of pain—worried, uneasy, troubled, disappointed, regretful, vexed, annoyed, bored,
disgusted, miserable, cheerless, mournful, sorrowful, sad, dismal, melancholy, plaintive, fretful,
querulous, irritable, sore, sulky, dismal, sullen, bitter, crushed, pathetic, tragic.
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Attitudes of passion—nervous, hysterical, impulsive, impetuous, reckless, desperate, frantic,
wild, fierce, serious, savage, enraged, angry, hungry, greedy, jealous, insane, wistful.
Attitudes of friendliness—cordial, sociable, gracious, kindly, sympathetic, compassionate,
forgiving, pitying, indulgent, tolerant, comforting, soothing, tender, loving, caressing, solicitous,
accommodating, approving, helpful, obliging, courteous, polite, confiding, trusting.
Attitudes of unfriendliness—sharp, severe, cutting, hateful, antisocial, spiteful, harsh, boorish,
pitiless, disparaging, derisive, scornful, satiric sarcastic, insolent, insulting, impudent, belittling,
contemptuous, accusing, reproving, scolding, suspicious.
Attitudes of comedy—facetious, comic, ironic, satiric, amused, mocking, playful, humorous,
uproarious.
Attitudes of animation—lively, eager, excited, earnest, energetic, vigorous, hearty, ardent,
passionate, rapturous, ecstatic, feverish, inspired, exalted, breathless, hasty, brisk, crisp, hopeful.
Attitudes of apathy—inert, sluggish, languid, dispassionate, dull, colorless, indifferent, stoical,
resigned, defeated, helpless, hopeless, dry, monotonous, vacant, feeble, dreaming, bored, blasé,
sophisticated.
Attitudes of self-importance—impressive, profound, proud, dignified, lofty, imperious,
confident, egotistical, peremptory, bombastic, sententious, arrogant, pompous, stiff, boastful,
exultant, insolent, domineering, flippant, saucy, positive, resolute, haughty, condescending,
challenging, bold, defiant, contemptuous.
Attitudes of submission and timidity—meek, shy, humble, docile, ashamed, modest, timid,
unpretentious, respectful, apologetic, devout, reverent, servile, obsequious, groveling, contrite,
obedient, willing, sycophantic, fawning, ingratiating, deprecatory, alarmed, fearful, terrified,
trembling, wondering, awed, astounded, shocked, uncomprehending.
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LIDDS
Using the acronym LIDDS may help you remember the basic elements of tone to consider when
evaluating prose or poetry. Language, images, diction, details, and syntax all help to create the
author’s or speaker’s attitude toward the subject and audience.
LIDDS
Language — The overall use of language, such as formal, clinical, jargon
Images — Vivid appeals to understanding through the senses
Details — Facts that are included or those omitted
Diction — The connotation of the word choice
Syntax (Sentence structure) — The effect of structure on meaning
Language (LIDDS)
Like word choice, the language of a passage has control over tone. Consider language to be the
entire body of words used in a text, not simply isolated bits of diction. For example, an
invitation to a graduation might use formal language; whereas, a biology text would use
scientific and clinical language.
Different from tone, the following words describe the force or quality of the diction, images, and
details. These words qualify how the work is written, not the attitude of tone. Study the
denotative and connotative relationships among these language descriptors:
clarity: lucid, explicit, graphic
obscurity: vague, convoluted, obscure
plainness: unvarnished, severe, commonplace, unimaginative, sparse
embellishment: ornate, flowery, turgid, bombastic, florid
conciseness: brief, terse, laconic, succinct, sententious
diffuseness: verbose, prolix, rambling, protracted, wordy, convoluted
elegance: polished, classic, graceful, symmetrical, felicitous
inelegance: graceless, vulgar, labored, ponderous, tasteless
vigor: forcible, mordant, incisive, graphic, impassioned, trenchant
feebleness: prosaic, unvaried, sketchy, weak, puerile, inferior, ineffective
conformity: ordinary, commonplace, bromidic, exemplary
unconformity: singular, bizarre, extraordinary, anomalous
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Use a dictionary to clarify the denotative meanings of the following so you may better identify
the connotative applications.
artificial
bombastic
colloquial
connotative
cultured
detached
esoteric
euphemistic
exact
figurative
formal
grotesque
homespun
idiomatic
informal
insipid
jargon
learned
literal
moralistic
objective
obscure
obtuse
ordinary
pedantic
picturesque
plain
poetic
precise
pretentious
provincial
scholarly
sensuous
simple
slang
subjective
symbolic
trite
vulgar
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Images (LIDDS)
The use of vivid descriptions or figures of speech that appeal to sensory experiences
helps to create the author’s tone. Evaluate the author’s or speaker’s tone conveyed in the
images of the following lines of poetry:
My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun. (restrained)
An old, mad, blind, despised, and dying king. (somber, candid)
He clasps the crag with crooked hands. (dramatic)
If I should die, think only this of me. That there’s a corner of a foreign field that is
forever England. (poignant, sentimental)
If we must die, let it not be like hogs
Hunted and penned in an inglorious spot. (allusive, provocative)
Love sets you going like a fat gold watch. (fanciful)
Smiling, the boy fell dead. (shocking)
Details (LIDDS)
Details are most commonly the specific pieces of information or facts used by the author
or speaker to help create the meaning. The speaker’s attitude, tone, purpose, expertise,
and perspective shape what details are given.
Diction (LIDDS)
Describe diction (choice of words) by considering the following:
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Words can be monosyllabic (one syllable in length) or polysyllabic (more than
one syllable in length).
Words can be mainly colloquial (slang), informal (conversational), formal
(literary), or old-fashioned (archaic).
Words can be mainly denotative (containing an exact meaning, e.g., dress) or
connotative (containing a suggested meaning, e.g., gown).
Words can be concrete (specific) or abstract (general or conceptual).
Words can be euphonious (pleasant sounding, e.g., languid, murmur) or
cacophonous (harsh sounding, e.g.. raucous, croak).
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Become sensitive to word choices in your own writing and to those of others. Select an
interesting word with a neutral denotation. Then use a thesaurus noting each synonym
and considering the attitude implied by the varying words. For example:
To laugh: to guffaw, to chuckle, to titter, to giggle, to cackle, to snicker, or roar
Self-confident: proud, conceited, egotistical, stuck up, haughty, smug, complacent,
arrogant, condescending
House: home, hut, shack, mansion, cabin, chalet, abode, dwelling, shanty, domicile,
residence
King: ruler, leader, tyrant, dictator, autocrat, rex
Old: mature, experienced, antique, relic, ancient, elderly, senior
Fat: obese, plump, corpulent, portly, roly-poly, stout, rotund, burly, full-figured
Syntax/Sentence Structure (LIDDS)
How a speaker or author constructs a sentence affects what the audience understands.
Syntax refers to the order of words in a sentence. The inverted order of an interrogative
sentence cues the reader or listener to a question and creates a tension between speaker
and listener. Similarly short sentences are often emphatic, passionate or flippant,
whereas longer sentences suggest the writer’s thoughtful response. Work to enrich your
understanding of how sentence structure affects tone.
To discover how syntax/sentence structure affect meaning, consider the following:
Examine the sentence length. Are the sentences telegraphic (very short in length), short,
medium in length, or long and involved? Does the sentence length fit the subject matter?
What variety of lengths is present? How does the sentence length affect the meaning?
Examine sentence beginnings to determine if a pattern emerges. Examine the
arrangement of ideas in a sentence. Are they set out in a special way for a purpose?
Examine the arrangement of ideas in the paragraph. How does the writer’s arrangement
of ideas affect the meaning?
Consider how these syntactical structures affect meaning:
A short sentence within a group of longer sentences could
 emphasize the idea in the short sentence.
 indicate a strong emotion by the speaker for the idea in the short sentence.
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An interruption of thought in the middle of a sentence could indicate
 a change of thought by the speaker.
 a realization of a new idea by the speaker.
 an attention-getting device.
Several short sentences together could show
 a lack of intelligence in the speaker (if the speaker uses only short sentences).
 heightened emotion by the speaker since the thoughts don’t flow smoothly.
 a determined or demanding attitude on the part of the speaker.
 an emphasis on clarity by the speaker.
Overall use of long, complex sentences could reflect
 the high intelligence of the speaker.
 deep complex thought by the speaker.
 fluid thought and therefore a feeling of composure and self-control by the speaker.
Several fragmented thoughts within a passage could indicate
 a highly emotional state by the speaker since the speaker doesn’t stay on one topic.
 conflicting emotions within the speaker.
 a conflict between two ideas that the speaker is trying to resolve.
 confusion within the speaker.
Parallel structures could indicate
 a conflict between two ideas that the speaker is trying to resolve.
 well-reasoned thought and analysis by the speaker.
 a comparison or contrast between the ideas that are parallel.
 an emphasis on the ideas that are parallel.
Narrative pace is affected by syntax. An author changes the narrative pace to achieve
various purposes.
 One short sentence among longer ones slows the pace or causes a pause.
 Using several short sentences together usually speeds up the pace.
 Several very short sentences together can sometimes slow the pace by causing strong,
distinct emphasis on the ideas in the sentences.
 More complex, longer sentences usually result in a slower pace.
A declarative (assertive) sentence makes a statement: e.g., The king is sick. An
imperative sentence gives a command: e.g., Stand up. An interrogative sentence asks
a question: e.g., Is the king sick? An exclamatory sentence makes an exclamation: e.g.,
The king is dead!
A simple sentence contains one subject and one verb: e.g., The singer bowed to her
adoring audience. A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a
coordinate conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or by a semicolon: e.g., The singer
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bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores. A complex sentence contains an
independent clause and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses: e.g., You said that
you would tell the truth. A compound-complex sentence contains two or more principal
clauses and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses: e.g., The singer bowed while
the audience applauded, but she sang no encores.
A loose sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending:
e.g., We reached Edmonton/that morning/after a turbulent flight/and some exciting
experiences. A periodic sentence makes sense only when the end of the sentence is
reached: e.g., That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we
reached Edmonton.
In a balanced sentence, the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their
likeness of structure, meaning, or length: e.g., “He maketh me lie down in green pastures;
he leadeth me beside the still waters.”
Natural order of a sentence involves constructing a sentence so the subject comes
before the predicate: e.g., Oranges grow in California. Inverted order of a sentence
(sentence inversion) involves constructing a sentence so the predicate comes before the
subject: e.g., In California grow oranges. This is a device in which normal sentence
patterns are reversed to create an empathic or rhythmic effect. Split order of a sentence
divides the predicate into two parts with the subject coming in the middle: e.g., “Oranges
in California grow.”
Juxtaposition is a poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas,
words, or phrases are placed next to one another, creating an effect of surprise and wit:
e.g., “The apparition of these faces in the crowd;/Petals on a wet, black bough”
Parallel structure (parallelism) refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between
sentences or parts of a sentence. It involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences,
and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly
phrased: e.g., “He was walking, running, and jumping for joy.”
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Examples of parallel structure:
Antithesis is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas written in parallel structure.
(Example: Sink or swim.)
Chiasmus is a reverse parallel grammatical structure in successive phrases and
clauses. (Example: He exalts his enemies; his friends he destroys.)
Ellipsis is the deliberate omission of a word or words implied by the context and
by the parallel structure. (Example: Susan went to Cancun; Karl, to Baja.)
Repetition is a device in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once to
enhance rhythm and create emphasis: e.g., “. . . government of the people, by the people,
for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”
A rhetorical question is a question that expects no answer. It is used to draw attention
to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement: e.g., If Mr. Ferchoff is always
fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin’s arguments?
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Introduction to Rhetoric
Simply defined rhetoric is the use of language to attain a purpose with an audience.
We are bombarded with rhetoric every day: by advertisers, by politicians, by our family and
friends, by anyone and everyone who uses language to affect our thinking or actions.
Consequently, understanding rhetoric is about obtaining power, the power to recognize
language being used to manipulate us and the power to use language to affect others.
Assertions about Rhetoric
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Rhetoric is pervasive.
Argument is essential to the advancement of knowledge and society.
Argument naturally arises over significant issues or questions that are open to
sharply differing points of view. If one side or the other could prove the validity
of their argument, there would be no controversy.
Arguments arise over questions of fact and how to interpret the facts.
Inartistic evidence: facts
Artistic evidence: assertions and interpretations of fact based upon ethical
appeals, logical appeals, and emotional appeals
As readers of argumentative writing we should weigh all the evidence logic,
claims, and appeals for each viewpoint before arriving at a decision about which
one we find most convincing; however, differing viewpoints ultimately reflect
differing beliefs and values.
As writers of argument we should assume that readers are not likely to be
persuaded by one-sided view of a complex situation; thus we must respond to the
crucial challenges of views that differ from our own through anticipation, rebuttal
or refutation, antithesis, and/or concession.
A writer who aims to be persuasive cannot simply assert that something is or is
not the case; the writer must persuade using evidence, logic, and eloquence.
Unethical writer will resort to fallacious arguments such as reduction to the
absurd, overgeneralization, false dilemma, or ad hominem attacks. (See fallacy
definitions on page 21.)
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ARGUMENT IN WRITING
Rhetorical Triangle
Purpose(s)
LIDDS1
Tones/Attitudes2
TEXT
Rhetorical Devices3 and Strategies4
Ethical, Emotional, Logical Appeals
5
Writer
Speaker
Structure of Argument
Audience(s)
ReaderEvaluation of Argument’s Effectiveness
Listener
1LIDDS
is an acronym referring to the Language, Imagery, Diction, Detail, and Syntax
an author uses. LIDDS combines to create a tone and reveal an attitude.
2
See Pages 10-14 for lists.
3
A rhetorical devices are any use of language that causes the reader to agree with the writer:
analogy, analysis of cause, anticipation, antithesis, appeals (ethical, pathetic, logical),
concession, direct address, deduction, definition, extended metaphor, rebuttal or refutation,
reduction to the absurd, overstatement, understatement. (See Pages 21-23.)
4Rhetorical
strategies are methods of organizing ideas for more persuasive communication.
Strategies may include
 Description of people, places, things, or ideas
 Narration of events, situations, relationships
 Classification or comparison/contrast
 Evaluation
 Stating a thesis, then refuting it
 Suggesting possibilities, then dismissing all but one
 Posing a problem, then resolving it
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Forming a hypothesis and testing its implications
Expressing an opinion, then contradicting it with facts
Narrating several apparently unrelated episodes, then linking them in a surprising way
Reporting appreciatively
Recollecting dispassionately
Presenting a series of convincing arguments for or against an idea
Examining the implications while leaving a conclusion unresolved
Condemning as illogical those of one or several opinions different from the writer’s
Progressively narrowing focus from a universal, accepted concept to a specific
personal understanding
Digressing to divert attention from major issues
5 Rhetorical
structures provide organizational patterns:
Induction (specific to general) or deduction (general to specific)
Problemsolution
Illustration: the citing of specific examples
Description and narration
Compare and contrast
Analogy and extended metaphor
Process analysis
Causal analysis
Definition
Classification
The Parts of an Argument
Thesis: The thesis is the central idea the writer is trying to persuade the reader to
believe.
Assertions: An assertion is a main argument that supports the thesis.
Evidence: Evidence is the data, information, and knowledge which a historian, social
scientist, or any communicator uses to support an argument. It is only when we know
the sources of the evidence that we can judge how valid the evidence actually is.
Commentary: Commentary is the explanation of the evidence’s relevancy to the
assertions.
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Evaluation Questions for Argument
Ask the following questions of any selection with argumentative elements:
1. Audience Analysis/Identification
(You may want to answer one or more of the following questions as you analyze the target audience.)
 Who is the intended audience of this essay?
 What assumptions can the author make about its background?
 What are its beliefs and values? What hierarchies does it believe in?
 What are its political beliefs and orientations? What is its socio-economic status?
 Does the author assume the audience will be friendly or hostile to his or her claim?
Logical Reasoning: Logos
1. What is the assertion or proposition made by the author? Will the audience find this
claim reasonable?
2. What logical arguments are made? Can the facts used for the argument withstand the
following STAR test?
S—Sufficiency of grounds: Is there enough evidence to warrant the claim drawn?
T—Typicality: Are the data representative of the group of data being argued about?
A—Accuracy: Is the information used as data true?
R—Relevance: Is the claim asserted relevant to the information about the sample?
3. Sources are indicated and, where practically feasible, quoted so that they may be
checked in contexts where this is sufficiently important.
4. Does the author use specific examples, detailed description, quotations from
authorities, facts, statistics that pass the STAR test?
5. Does the writer acknowledge where expert opinion is cited and whether relevant
experts differ from each other? Either the case developed does not depend entirely on
citing expert opinion or good reasons for selecting particular experts are given. Those
experts whose views are not accepted are not attacked on irrelevant grounds.
Controversial interpretations of events or texts, explanations from which there are
plausible alternatives, disputable predictions, estimations, or value judgments are
acknowledged as such. Reasons for them are given and, where appropriate, the
impact on the analysis of making another such judgment is recognized.
6. Does the author represent the important opposing arguments fairly? Facts that would
tend to support an interpretation or evaluation different from that of the speaker or
writer are acknowledged. Their apparent impact is either recognized or argued
against or qualified. Are there any omissions? Reasons are given as to why opposing
positions are seen to be less satisfactory than the one advocated. Alternative positions
are fairly and accurately represented and described in non-prejudicial language.
People holding opposing views are described accurately, politely, and respectfully.
7. Does the author’s use of amplification—widening of perspectives through analogies,
comparisons, or other aspects of experience—meet the STAR test?
8. Are concessions made? The point is acknowledged where evidence and reasons
offered are less than rationally compelling. An explanation is given as to why the
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position taken nevertheless seems the most nearly correct or appropriate in the
context. Facts that would tend to support an interpretation or evaluation different
from that of the speaker or writer are acknowledged. Their apparent impact is either
recognized or argued against or qualified.
9. Does the writer make valid assumptions? An assumption is something that is not
stated but is taken for granted in an argument. Some assumptions are not warranted
and should not be accepted. Others are reasonable.
10. Does the author develop a logical structure/stance/pattern which will be effective with
this audience? What is that structure/stance/pattern? Why is it effective? Or why not?
11. Are any logical fallacies present? Does the author have reason to distort, cover up,
give false impressions, lie, sensationalize, and manipulate? Arguments are careful
and well reasoned, not fallacious.
Emotional Appeals: Pathos
12. What emotional appeals are made? Is the language relatively neutral or not? Does the
author arouse desires useful to the persuader’s purpose and demonstrate how these desires
can be satisfied by acceptance of the persuader’s assertions or proposition?
13. Does the author’s summary include an arousal of indignation for the opponent’s view,
and an arousal of sympathy for the speaker/writer’s view?
Ethical Appeals: Ethos
14. What attempts are made to establish the writer’s credentials?
15. Does the writer use a reasonable tone, treating the opponent with respect by avoiding
such things as illogical statements or inflammatory language?
16. Does the writer seem to have any prejudicial attitudes, sentiments, or stereotypes?
17. Does the writer make an attempt to embody some evidence of personal knowledge of the
subject, good evidence of personal knowledge of the subject, good will toward the
reader/audience, good sense, perspective, taste in judgment, or disinterest in personal
benefit?
18. Does the author make unwarranted value judgments? Values are conditions that a
communicator of an argument believes are intrinsically good, or thinks are important or
worthwhile. Sentences containing words such as “good,” “bad,” “right,” “justified” usually
indicate that a value judgment is being made.
Style Note the features of the writer’s style: LIDDS.
19. Was the diction choice relatively neutral or does it reveal bias? Is needless jargon,
weasel words, or cliches present?
Evaluation
20. Was the language and rhetoric effective or ineffective for the intended audience?
21. Is the author’s solution or call to action good in all cases?
22. How did the article change or modify your initial position on the subject?
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Rhetorical Devices
Affiliations: the author’s stated or implied membership of or allegiance with a group.
Allusions: references to other people or works
Analogy: an explanation based upon a comparison that explains or describes one subject
by pointing out its similarities to another subject
Analysis of cause: the determination of why something happened
Anaphora – One of the devices of repetition, in which the same expression (word or words) is
repeated for effect at the beginning of two or more lines, clauses, or sentences.(e.g., “We
shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on
the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the
air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches,
we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we
shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender.” Churchill.)
Anecdote: A short, often autobiographical, narrative told to achieve a purpose such as to
provide an example, an illustration, or a thematic truth
Anticipation: anticipating opposing arguments or a reader’s reactions
Antithesis: a direct contrast of structurally parallel word groupings
Authority: subject matter expert
Asyndeton — Lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words.
Asyndeton takes the form of X, Y, Z as opposed to X, Y, and Z. (e.g., “We shall pay any
price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure
the survival and the success of liberty” J.F. Kennedy, Inaugural. “But, in a larger sense,
we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground” Lincoln,
Gettysburg Address. (e.g., “An empty stream, a great silence, an impenetrable forest.
The air was thick, warm, heavy, sluggish.” Joseph Conrad Heart of Darkness.)
Concession: to accept an opposing argument as true, valid, or accurate
Connotation – The set of associations that occur to people when they hear or read a word.
(Some connotations of lamb are innocence, sacrifice, purity. Some connotations of
Hollywood are the glamour, success, excitement. Some connotations of dawn are
beginnings, hope, new life.)
Contrast: compare or appraise in respect to differences
Deductive logical structure: a general to specific logical structure; the conclusion about
particulars follows necessarily from general or universal premises
Definition: a statement expressing the essential nature of something
Diction: word choice; denotation is the dictionary definition; connotation includes the
emotional associations created by a word
Direct address: to speak directly to the audience; may be revealed by the use of second
person
Extended metaphor: the use of a comparison throughout a work to create unity or to
illustrate or intensify an argument
Ethical appeals (ethos): the credibility or trustworthiness that the author establishes in
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his/her writing. Ethos is one of the three types of persuasion along with logos and pathos.
Ethos, a Greek term from which the word ethics derives, refers to ethical appeal in
rhetoric. The author's attitude and character toward his audience forms the basis of
his/her ethical appeal. Character is what gives value to the ideas in the argument and thus
provides support for the arguments since the audience trusts the speaker.
Fallacies: often plausible arguments but based on false or invalid inferences
The following should be recognized as a small sample of rhetorical fallacies:
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Hasty generalization A logical leap is taken from a particular instance to a
generalization
Poor analogy A false analogy is one that breaks down easily, for example, baseball is
like ballet. (Baseball and ballet don’t have enough in common for the analogy to hold.)
Post hoc, ergo propter hoc (After the fact, therefore because of the fact) Just because
something follows does not mean it was caused by what preceded it. For example, an
athlete who wins twice wearing the same socks should not attribute that to being the
cause of the result.
False authority (Argument ad verecundiam) This often occurs when a celebrity sells a
product, such as an athlete selling cars.
Accident (Using generalities as argument without accounting for possible counter
arguments) An example would be if we accuse someone of being in a car wreck because
of his or her driving habits when it may indeed have been an unavoidable accident in this
instance.
Majority (Argumentum ad populum) Appeal to Belief is a fallacy that has this general
pattern:
 Most people believe that a claim, X, is true.
 Therefore X is true.
This line of "reasoning" is fallacious because the fact that many people believe a claim
does not, in general, serve as evidence that the claim is true.
Name calling (Argumentum ad hominem)Arguing against the presenter of the argument
rather than the subject of the argument.
Straw man is to purposely create a simplistic argument in order to easily refute
It.
Glittering generalities involves the use of words and phrases which have deep emotional
values attached to them, but do not mean anything specific. These allow the speaker to
gain support for or against a policy, without specifically showing what is wrong with the
policy: “Justice,” “Motherhood,” “The American Way,” “Our Constitutional Rights,” and
“Our Christian Heritage.”
Transfer An Appeal to Emotion is a fallacy with the following structure:
 Favorable emotions are associated with X.
 Therefore, X is true.
More formally, this sort of "reasoning" involves the substitution of various means of
producing strong emotions in place of evidence for a claim. If the favorable emotions
associated with X influence the person to accept X as true because they "feel good about
X," then he has fallen prey to the fallacy.
Testimonial An Appeal to Authority is a fallacy with the following form:
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Person A is (claimed to be) an authority on subject S.
Person A makes claim C about subject S.
Therefore, C is true.
If person A is not qualified to make reliable claims in subject S, then the argument will be
fallacious
 Red Herring involves creating a distraction from the real issue. The speaker brings up
an irrelevant topic in an attempt to win an argument by diverting attention away from the
argument. This is a fallacy because changing the topic hardly counts as an argument
against a claim. “We agree that the government must promote education. Nevertheless,
do note that the country is at war right now.”
 Plain folks is the verbal stratagem by which a speaker tries to win confidence and
support by appearing to be “just one of the plain folks.”
 Card stacking means “selecting only those facts–or falsehoods–which support the
propagandist’s point of view, ignoring all others.” The speaker need not be lying, but
need not be telling the whole truth either.
 Band wagon means to convince someone to do something just because that thing is
popular. More specifically, it plays on people’s desire to be on the winning side, and
tries to argue that they should support or oppose a particular issue as it is on the winning
or losing side, respectively. Often, it capitalizes on people’s urge to merge with the
crowd.
 Appeal to pity and sympathy (Argumentum ad misericordiam) An example would be
students’ assertions that they are too busy to do homework.
Figurative language: the use of metaphors or similes or personification to express one
thing in terms normally denoting another with which it may be regarded as analogous
Humor: the use of levity to appeal to an audience or attack the opposition
Imagery: the use of language to create mental images
Implied thesis: the central idea of the writer that is NOT stated directly
Inductive argument structure: a specific to general logical structure; specific
observations or experiences lead to general understandings.
Language: Consider language to be the entire body of words used in a text, not simply
isolated bits of diction. For example, an invitation to a graduation might use formal
language; whereas, a biology text would use scientific and clinical language.
Listing: to record a series of phrases, ideas, or things for the purpose of overwhelming the
opposition’s stated or anticipated argument(s)
Logical appeals (logos): A logical appeal is exactly what it sounds like—an attempt to
argue based in logical relationships a reader will find hard to refute. In academic
argumentation, logical appeals are made primarily through the use of acceptable proof;
however, a writer can also argue from a logical relationship (e.g., cause/effect, deductive
reasoning) to demonstrate how various forms of proof should be interpreted or to make a
commonsense argument by logically extending what a reader already believes to the topic at
hand. When we appeal to a readers' sense of logic, we often rely on long-established
relationships between events and facts. If we can show that one event leads to another, for
instance, we are establishing a logical relationship.
Logic markers (transitional words): the use of words to show the logical relationships
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between ideas: however, nevertheless, thus, consequently, moreover, and so forth.
Narrative pace: the speed and intensity created by syntactical structures
Parallelism – The repetition of a grammatical structure in which ideas or parts of an idea
are similarly developed or arranged
Pathetic appeals (pathos): Pathos is related to the words pathetic, sympathy and
empathy. Whenever you accept a claim based on how it makes you feel without fully
analyzing the rationale behind the claim, you are acting on pathos. Pathetic appeal can be
related to any emotion: love, fear, patriotism, guilt, hate or joy. Although the pathetic
appeal can be manipulative, it is the cornerstone of moving people to action. Many
arguments are able to persuade people logically, but the apathetic audience may not
follow through on the call to action. Appeals to pathos touch a nerve and compel people
to not only listen, but to also take the next step and act in the world.
Point of view: Whether first, second, third, or omniscient, an author’s stance affects his
or her relationship with the topic and audience
Polysyndeton – The repetition of conjunctions in a series of coordinate words, phrases,
or clauses. (e.g., “I said, ‘Who killed him?’ and he said, ‘I don't know who killed him but
he's dead all right,’ and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no
lights and windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and
everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her
inside Mango Bay and she was all right only she was full of water.” Hemingway, After
the Storm)
Rapport: the relationship an author tries to develop with his or her audience relation
marked by harmony, conformity, accord, or affinity
Refutation: to prove wrong by argument or evidence; show to be false or erroneous
Repetition: the purposeful repetition of a word, phrase, or idea to create intensity
Syntax: sentence structure can affect pace and intensity
Tone: Manner of expression in speaking or writing created by LIDDS; conciliatory,
outraged, exuberant, authoritative, deliberative, didactic, and so forth.
Us vs. them: the creation of a allegiance with the audience and against the opposition
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