SECTION 5 | INTRODUCTION
Section 5 | Part 1
Aeronautical decision making
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SECTION 5 | INTRODUCTION
t
Goals of this lecture
According to the FAA’s UAS Airman Certification Standards,
a Remote PIC should be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
• Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)
+
Effective team communication
+
Task management
• Crew Resource Management (CRM)
• Situational awareness
• Hazardous attitudes
• Hazard identification and risk assessment
Lecture text & additional notes
In this lecture, we’re going to talk about Aeronautical Decision Making
(ADM) and Crew Resource Management (CRM). The first thing I want
to say here is that good judgment CAN be taught. And in aviation,
good judgment matters. It is estimated that approximately 80% of all
aviation accidents are related to human factors.
SECTION 5 | INTRODUCTION
Lecture text & additional notes
When a series of judgmental errors leads to a human factors-related
accident, this is sometimes referred to as the error chain, and it is
our goal to ensure we are doing everything we can to prevent this
from happening.
Aeronautical Decision-Making is a systematic mental approach to
consistently determine the best course of action in a given situation.
Let me repeat that. This lecture is about teaching you a systematic
mental approach to consistently determine the best course of action
in a given situation.
A remote pilot-in-command uses a number of resources to safely
operate an unmanned aerial system (UAS) -- human resources like
visual observers or other folks manipulating the controls, hardware,
flight software, and other information. The Remote PIC needs to be
able to manage each of these resources effectively.
The importance of learning and understanding effective ADM skills
cannot be overemphasized. The goal of this lecture is to help you
improve your own Aeronautical Decision-Making skills, with the ultimate purpose of mitigating the risk factors associated with your future
flight operations.
Let’s dive in.
SECTION 5 | AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING
Aeronautical Decision Making
When a pilot follows good decision-making practices, the inherent risk in a flight is reduced
or even eliminated. The Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) framework can help to identify
hazards and to classify the potential threat that these hazards could pose in an operation.
ADM involves doing things like:
•
Conducting an attitude assessment before flight to identify situations where a hazardous attitude
might be present. I’ll say more on that in a bit.
•
Learning how to recognize and cope with stress. Situations like working with an inexperienced
crewmember, interacting with the public and city officials, and understanding new regulatory requirements can all lead to higher levels of stress and can ultimately affect your flight operations.
•
Using visual observers (VO), who are trained crewmembers in visual line-of-sight of the UAS and who
assists the remote PIC with collision avoidance and complying with the rules of flight.
•
Completing a thorough preflight inspection, planning for weather, familiarity with the airspace, proper
aircraft loading, and performance planning to mitigate identified risks.
So why is all this important? Let’s consider a few real-world examples.
Let’s say you’re conducting an sUAS operation near a school yard. Scheduling the operation to take place
when school is not in session could be one mitigation to prevent undue risk to the children that study and
play there. Another mitigation could be restricting people from the area of operations by placing cones
or security personnel to prevent unauthorized access during the sUAS flight operation.
Or what about if you’re the remote PIC of an sUAS in the proximity of an accident scene, and you are
shooting aerial footage. What if, while you are operating an sUAS, an emergency medical services (EMS)
helicopter requires use of the same area. You’re left without a suitable landing site, and you’re also running
low on power. If you hadn’t considered this situation prior to flight, you might not have thought to have
an alternate landing site, or to sacrifice your unmanned aircraft to avoid posing risk to people on the ground
or the EMS helicopter.
Strong risk mitigation involves considering the hazards of a given operation, determining the risk severity,
and then developing a plan to lessen (or to mitigate) the risk to an acceptable level. By documenting and
compiling these processes over time, you can build an arsenal of safety practices that will add to the safety
and success of future operations.
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SECTION 5 | ASSESSING RISK
Assessing risk
In the development of risk assessment criteria, sUAS remote PICs are expected to develop risk
acceptance procedures, and a good way to think about this is to factor in both the likelihood of
an event happening and the severity of the situation. The acceptability of risk can be evaluated
using a risk matrix, such as this illustration, which shows three areas of acceptability.
Source: FAA Advisory Circular 107-2
•
Unacceptable (red)
When the severity and the likelihood are both high, you fall into the red area. The risk should be
assessed as unacceptable. In this situation, you should design an intervention to eliminate that associated hazard or to control the factors that lead to higher risk likelihood or severity.
•
Acceptable (green)
When the severity and the likelihood are both low, you fall into the green area. The objective in risk
management should always be to reduce risk to as low as practicable regardless of whether or not the
assessment shows that it can be accepted as is. However, it should go without saying that a pilot who
becomes apprehensive for their safety for any reason should request assistance immediately.
•
Acceptable with mitigation (yellow)
Where the risk assessment falls into the yellow area, the risk may be accepted if you identify ways
to mitigate, or lower, the risk. An example of this situation would be like the schoolyard example a few
moments ago. Scheduling the operation to take place when school is not in session could be one mitigation. Another mitigation could be restricting people from the area of operations by placing cones or
security personnel to prevent unauthorized access during the flight operation.
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SECTION 5 | ASSESSING RISK
The chart is not the only way to do flight or operational risk assessments, but the key thing is to ensure
that you identify all potential hazards and risks and that you take appropriate actions to reduce the risk
to people and property.
It is also very easy to get bogged down in trying to identify all the “what ifs.” That is not the purpose of
a risk assessment. The focus should be on those hazards that pose the greatest risks.
To prevent the final "link" in the accident chain, a remote pilot must consider Risk Management.
Once appropriate risk controls are developed and implemented, then the operation can begin.
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SECTION 5 | CRM
Crew Resource Management (CRM)
Crew resource management (CRM) is the art and science of managing all the resources that are available
to the remote pilot-in-command (PIC) prior and during flight. That includes resources both on board the
aircraft and from outside sources.
Often, it’s not just you out there. As a remote PIC, you can take advantage of traditional CRM techniques
by utilizing additional crewmembers, such as visual observers (VOs) and other ground crew. These crewmembers can provide information about traffic, airspace, weather, equipment, and aircraft loading
and performance.
Good CRM includes:
•
Communication procedures
One way to accomplish this is to have the VO maintain visual contact with the small UA and maintain
awareness of the surrounding airspace, and then communicate flight status and any hazards to the
remote PIC and person manipulating the controls so that appropriate action can be taken. Then, as
conditions change, the remote PIC should brief the crew on the changes and any needed adjustments
to ensure a safe outcome of the operation.
•
Communication methods
The remote PIC, person manipulating the controls, and VO must work out a method of communication,
such as hand-held radio, that would not create a distraction and allows them to understand each other.
The remote PIC should evaluate which method is most appropriate for the operation and decide on it
prior to flight.
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Task management
Task management is the process pilots use to manage the many concurrent tasks involved in safely
flying an aircraft. Tasks vary depending on the complexity of the operation. Depending upon the area
of the operations, additional crewmembers may be needed to safely operate. Enough crewmembers
should be utilized to ensure no one on the team becomes overloaded. Once a member of the team
becomes over-worked, there’s a greater possibility of an incident/accident.
•
Other resources
Take advantage of information from a weather briefing, air traffic control (ATC), the FAA, local pilots,
and landowners. Technology can aid in decision-making and improve situational awareness. Being able
to collect the information from these resources and manage the information is key to situational
awareness and could have a positive effect on your decision-making.
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SECTION 5 | SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Situational awareness
Situational awareness describes the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions that affect safety before, during, and after flight. An extreme case of a pilot being over taxed,
or “getting behind the aircraft” can lead to the operational pitfall of loss of situational awareness.
Risk management, as part of the Aeronautical Decision-Making process, relies on situational awareness,
problem recognition and good judgement to reduce the risks associated with each flight.
Before we get into the specifics, I have one word that will make you a better Remote Pilot...Checklist.
One of the most neglected items when a pilot relies on short and long term memory for repetitive tasks
is the Checklist. It gives us something to talk to each other about, it makes us feel important and it definitely
enhances safety. To avoid missing important steps, always use the appropriate checklists. In fact, consistent
adherence to approved checklists is a sign of a disciplined and competent pilot.
PAVE, IMSAFE, and DECIDE models
Complacency and overconfidence can be risks, and so there are several checklists and models
to assist in situational awareness.
Use the PAVE model to identify hazards:
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Pilot-in-Command: Am I healthy for flight and what are my personal limitations based upon my experience operating this sUAS? During this step, you can use the IMSAFE checklist in order to perform
a more in-depth evaluation:
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Illness
Am I suffering from any illness or symptom of an illness which might affect me in flight?
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Medication
Am I currently taking any drugs (prescription or over-the-counter)?
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Stress
Am I experiencing any psychological or emotional factors which might affect my performance?
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Alcohol
Have I consumed alcohol within the last 8 to 24 hours?
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Fatigue
Have I received sufficient sleep and rest in the recent past?
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Emotion or Eating
Have I fully recovered from any recent upsetting events? Am I sufficiently nourished?
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SECTION 5 | SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
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Aircraft: Have I conducted a preflight check of my sUAS (aircraft, control station (CS), takeoff and
landing equipment, etc.) and determined it to be in a condition for safe operation? Is the filming equipment properly secured to the aircraft prior to flight?
•
Environment: What is the weather like? Am I comfortable and experienced enough to fly in the
forecast weather conditions? Have I considered all of my options and left myself an “out?” Have I determined alternative landing spots in case of an emergency?
•
External pressures: Am I stressed or anxious? Is this a flight that will cause me to be stressed or
anxious? Is there pressure to complete the flight operation quickly? Am I dealing with an unhealthy
safety culture, meaning that there are not strong policies and procedures in place? Either the organization with which I am associated or myself should develop Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) that
relate to an acceptable level of safety. Am I being honest with myself and others about my personal
operational abilities and limitations?
Remember, even though the remote pilot may hold a current and valid U.S. driver's license, he/she has
the final responsibility for determining whether they are fit to fly for a particular flight. If advice is needed
concerning possible flight with an illness, a pilot should contact an Aviation Medical Examiner.
Use the DECIDE model to help you continually evaluate each operation for hazards and analyze risk:
•
Detect
The fact that a change has occurred
•
Estimate
The need to react to or counter the change
•
Choose
A desirable outcome for the flight or situation
•
Identify
Actions to control the change successfully
•
Do
Take the necessary actions
•
Evaluate
The effects of the action to react to or counter the initial change
To improve situational awareness, we do everything we can to consider our environment and all of its
moving parts before, during, and after flight. One example is to monitor the Common Traffic Advisory
Frequency (CTAF) at 122.8 MHz to get a good idea of what traffic conditions to expect before entering
airspace near an uncontrolled airport. Another example is meeting with your client/landowner and scouting
out your flight location and intended mission operations ahead of time. This isn’t fluff, folks. These are
models you’re going to want to internalize. It may even show up on your Aeronautical Knowledge Test.
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SECTION 5 | HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES
Hazardous attitudes
So you may be in good physiological condition, and you may also have years and years of experience, but that doesn’t necessarily mean you’re fit to fly.
In this section, I want to cover the five hazardous attitudes studies show can interfere with your
ability to make sound decisions and to exercise authority properly. I also want to cover their
respective antidotes.
There’s a very strong chance you’ll see one of these attitudes show up on your Aeronautical
Knowledge Test, so make sure you take time to go through them.
1 Anti-Authority
Don’t tell me. This attitude is found in people who do not like anyone telling them what to do. In a sense,
they are saying, "No one can tell me what to do." They may be resentful of having someone tell them
what to do, or may regard rules, regulations, and procedures as silly or unnecessary. Of course, it is
always your prerogative to question authority if you feel it is in error. But don’t be anti-authority.
Antidote: Follow the rules; they are usually right. Don’t bend the rules to get your way; it will backfire.
2 Impulsivity
Do it quickly. This is the attitude of people who frequently feel the need to do something, anything,
immediately. They do not stop to think about what they are about to do; they do not select the best
alternative, and they do the first thing that comes to mind.
Antidote: Not so fast; think first. Most situations don’t require one-second snap decisions. You have
time to evaluate and choose and action.
3 Invulnerability
It won’t happen to me. Many people feel that accidents happen to others but never to them. They know
accidents can happen, and they know that anyone can be affected. They never really feel or believe that
they will be personally involved. Remote pilots who think this way are more likely to take chances and
increase risk.
Antidote: Just because you’ve never had a motor fail or weather turn ban, that doesn’t mean it will
never happen to you.
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SECTION 5 | HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES
4 Machismo (or Macho)
I can do it. Remote pilots who are always trying to prove that they are better than everyone else are
thinking, "I can do it – I'll show them." Pilots with this type of attitude will try to prove themselves
by taking risks in order to impress others. And no, this is not just a male characteristic! Women are
equally susceptible to macho attitudes. Many times, the basic drive for a pilot to demonstrate the "right
stuff" can have an adverse effect on safety, by generating tendencies that lead to practices that are
dangerous, often illegal, and may lead to an incident or accident.
Antidote: Taking chances is foolish. Although a certain amount of confidence is required for flying and
you are feeling more capable when your skills improve, it’s important to keep a realistic view.
5 Resignation
What’s the use? Remote pilots who think, "What's the use?" do not see themselves as being able to make
a great deal of difference in what happens to them. When things go well, the pilot is apt to think that it is
good luck. When things go badly, the pilot may feel that someone is out to get them or attribute it to bad
luck. The pilot will leave the action to others, for better or worse. Sometimes, such pilots will even go
along with unreasonable requests just to be a "nice guy."
Antidote: I’m not helpless; I can make a difference. Keep to a safety mindset and decide for yourself if
a flight is safe, instead of letting outside pressures push you to the final go/no-go decision.
In this framework of hazardous attitudes, the first step toward neutralizing a hazardous thought is to
recognize it. Then, you label it. Finally, you prescribe the appropriate antidote.
(Hazardous Attitudes Source: Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge)
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Thank You