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Faith at Work - Religious Perspectives: Protestant Accents in Faith and Work
David Miller and Timothy Ewest
Abstract
All roads do not lead to Rome, and despite the wishful thinking of many, all religions do
not believe the same thing. To be sure, there is a lot of shared belief among the world's religions
(Kung & Kuschel, 1993), particularly in prescriptions for how we ought to live our lives, and
what constitutes a good life (Stackhouse, 1995). Differences between religions begin to emerge
when discussing questions of the culmination of history or end times (eschatology ), the aim (or
telos) of life, and the cultural manifestations (orthopraxy) of religious beliefs (orthodoxy). This is
particularly relevant when considering how religious beliefs, customs, and traditions shape and
inform workplace behaviors. Historic and contemporary Protestantism is not monolithic; it has
many faces today, shaped in large part by its dialectical development over the centuries between
itself and culture (Niebuhr, 1951/2001). We explore the role of Protestant thought on the faith at
work movement (Miller, 2007) by beginning with a brief history of Protestantism, the emergence
in North America of Protestant accents concerning a theology of work, followed by a
consideration of the limitations and revisions of corresponding contemporary contextual
definitions. With this foundation, we denote five primary Protestant theological accents seen
today that shape and influence faith at work in the modern workforce.1
Introduction
The task before us could easily be the subject of a lengthy multi-volume scholarly text.
The sheer breadth and depth of the Protestant denominations make any hope for a unifying
perspective appear almost absurd. The Pew Forum on Religious Life (2008) conveniently breaks
1
The authors also wish to thank David Fernandez for his research and editing assistance.
2
Protestant denominations into three broad categories: Evangelical Protestant churches, mainline
Protestant churches, and historically black Protestant churches. However, collectively, within
these groups there are approximately 6,161 Protestant denominations (Pew, 2008). As one
Baptist friend playfully said about his own denomination's propensity to split, counting the
number of Baptist denominations is akin to counting the number of stars in the sky. In addition to
the diversity within the three Pew categories, there are a growing number of free-standing or
denominationally unaffiliated churches (Baylor University Institute for Studies of Religion,
2006; Thumma, 2010), which make Protestant theology and polity even more complex and
difficult to study. Some of these newer non-denominational Protestant churches are small and
local, while others are mega-churches with memberships measuring in the thousands and
expanding via nationwide affiliations or networks. Many are blends or offshoots of other
Protestant denominations, include a growing Pentecostal influence, and are often more racially
integrated than traditional Protestant denominational congregations.
The Protestant landscape is further complicated by, "Religious individualism which goes
very deep in the United States. Even in seventeenth-century Massachusetts, a personal
experience of salvation was a prerequisite for acceptance as a church member” (Bella, 1996).
For all of this diversity, Protestantism, broadly speaking, shares some common theological
accents and polity perspectives, even as they can differ dramatically within and between the
denominations. We will explore these commonalities and accents in both an historical and
contemporary context, as regards its influence on the modern faith and work movement
For the purposes of this essay, we employ a systematic theology methodology,
irrespective of denominations, noting how various theological accents commonly found in
Protestantism writ large and across a range of denominations, impact attitudes, and behavior at
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work. We will explore how Protestant orthodoxy (official or "right" beliefs, doctrine, and
theology) impacts Protestant orthopraxy (official or "right" actions and behaviors that flow from
orthodoxy) in society in general, and the workplace, in particular. We place specific focus on
those Protestant denominations that have been intentional about integrating faith into the
workplace and the economic sphere. To accomplish this aim, we begin this essay with a brief
history of Protestantism and the emergence in North America of Protestant accents concerning
the theology of work, followed by a consideration of the limitations and revisions of
contemporary contextual definitions. With this foundation, we propose five primary Protestant
theological accents that play a particularly strong role in influencing faith at work in the modern
workforce.
A brief history of Protestantism
Protestantism is the youngest of the three main branches of worldwide Christianity
(Roman Catholic; Eastern Orthodox; and Protestant), and emerged in the 16th century,
approximately 1,500 years after the Christ event. A brief history of the Christian church reminds
us that early followers of Jesus, or Christians as they came to be known, were not mainstream,
were viewed by society as a sect of Judaism, and were persecuted for centuries (González, 2010).
Similar to today, the early Christian church was not monolithic or homogenous in its
membership, structure, or beliefs, other than a core conviction that Jesus was the prophesied
Jewish Messiah and the incarnate Son of God. Jesus' mission was to heal the sick, reveal and
usher in an earthly vision of the kingdom of heaven, and through his death and resurrection offer
forgiveness of sins and eternal salvation to all who believed in him. After Constantine adopted
Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire in 312 CE, the early church became
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more organized, established, and what we now know as the Roman Catholic Church came into
being.
The first major split within Catholicism took place in 1064 CE, after a mixture of
theological and political issues caused a schism, and the Constantinople-led Eastern Orthodox
Church(es) were formed. The second major schism in Christendom came during the 15th and
16th century, when various European Catholic theologians and religious figures2 called for
reform in the Catholic Church to address issues of corruption, co-option by the political system,
and major theological and polity differences. Martin Luther, an Augustinian monk became the
symbolic, if not dominant, face of the Protestant Reformation3 (Lindberg, 2010). As change was
not forthcoming from the Vatican in Rome, reform-seeking clergy and theologians, such as
Luther, were either excommunicated from the Church or left it of their own accord. Thus,
approximately 500 years after the Catholic Church lost the east in the schism of 1064; it now
split within its European backyard, and unwillingly gave birth to Protestantism.
As with any separated family, the members often go their own ways, with each claiming
to retain and represent orthodoxy and orthopraxy. Yet despite the social, political, and
theological differences that led to Catholic/Protestant split, they remain forever connected by
some core New Testament tenets, even as they developed their own theological personalities
Some of the main theological issues that differentiate most Protestant denominations from
Catholicism would be the rejection of many hallmarks of traditional Roman Catholic theology,
including: papal authority; the nature and purpose of Catholic Sacraments; priestly elevation over
2
Leading European Reformation figures include, but are not limited to John Wycliffe, Jan Hus, Martin Luther,
Philipp Melanchthon, Hulderich Zwingli, John Calvin, and John Knox.
3
The "Protestant Reformation" derives its name from. those who were "protesting" the theology and practices of the
Catholic Church, and urging a "reformation" of the church. Notably, Luther and many Reformers did not initially set
out to establish a new branch of Christianity; their hope was that the Catholic Church would reform itself from
within.
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laity; papal/priestly interpretation of orthodoxy and orthopraxy; and ascetic traditions (Pelikan,
1984; Walker, et al., 1918/1985).
In contrast to these core elements of Catholic theology, most Protestant denominations
historically center around a different set of defining theological characteristics resulting from the
Reformation, including: the authority of Scripture as the rule in life (sola scriptura);4 that one is
saved by faith alone (sola fide), through grace alone (sola gratia); and that salvation comes by
faith in Jesus Christ alone (solo Christo). And importantly, Protestants elevate the role of the
laity, recognizing scriptural teaching on the priesthood of all believers, where all believers are
priests and traditional priestly mediation is not necessary for salvation or a relationship with
God. This elevated the role of the laity, logically led to a wider theological understanding of
calling (or vocatio), where daily work and non-clergy occupations were sanctified and deemed
capable of being holy callings. To wit, the German Reformer, Martin Luther (1520/1966) said,
… the works of monks and priests, however holy and arduous they may
be, do not differ one whit in the sight of God from the works of the rustic
laborer in the field or the woman going about her household tasks, but that
all works are measured before God by faith alone… (p. 202-203)
And John Calvin (1559/1960) (whose theology underpins Presbyterianism and other
Reformed Protestant denominations) wrote:
…the Lord bids each one of us in all life’s actions to look to his calling...
he has appointed duties for every man in his particular way of life. And
4
We recognize that some religious people (and from various traditions) use Scripture or verses from texts they deem
holy and authoritative as justification of their belief, and sometimes employ them polemically, apologetically, or
dogmatically. In contrast, in this essay we use Scripture as a reference for understanding Protestantism, its internal
rationale, and as attestation to historical Protestant theological accents.
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that no one may thoughtlessly transgress his limits, he has named these
various kinds of living ‘callings’. (p. 724)
The first Protestant Reformers fell broadly into three categories, whose heirs and
trajectory we still see today. From the early Protestant "radical reformers," we see the forefathers
of today's Anabaptists, Baptists, Mennonites, Amish, and Pentecostals (to name but a few).
From the "moderate reformers," we now find such mainline Protestant denominations as
Methodists, Lutherans, and Presbyterians. And from earlier "high-church" Reformers, we find
today such traditions as established State Churches (e.g. Church of England), Episcopalians, and
Anglicans. Transferring and localizing these religious traditions from their origins and roots in
Europe to early North America, we find specific Protestant theological accents pertaining to
work become highlighted because of dialectical interaction with and confluence within the New
World.
Emergence in North America of Protestant accents concerning the theology of work
Early European settlers in North America represented a diversity of socio-economic
backgrounds and a variety of Protestant denominations and representations in the
abovementioned three Pew categories. These Protestant believers used a combination of reason
and individual experience, illumined by the Holy Spirit, to interpret Scripture and to guide their
faith and daily life in the New World. Consistent with the theological and philosophical
discourse of the times, many had questions about the object of their faith , Jesus, and his nature
and applicability to the new setting, asking Christological questions, such as, “Whose Jesus
Christ?” or “Which Jesus Christ?” (Marty, 2007, p. 160). Answers from some Protestant
traditions resonated more deeply with people of faith than others did. The theological ideas that
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gradually came to the fore, were doctrinal accents that addressed the contextual questions and
New World ideals of liberty, independence, survival, economics, prosperity and community
(Cavanagh, 2009). Moreover, there was infrastructure building work to do in the New World,
and it was religious values that many scholars deem to have been seminally critical in shaping
Protestant and wider American attitudes towards work, and in turn, contributing to how the
nation's founders conceived of and designed the workplace, particularly during the shift from
small rural agrarian employment to large scale, city-based, industrial mass production
companies.
The first ideals to be adapted to the American workplace reflected the influence of two of
the most prominent and prolific Protestant Reformers, Luther and Calvin, whose Protestant
theologies of work quickly began differentiating themselves from earlier medieval Catholic
conceptions. Luther imputed religious meaning to daily work, traditionally considered profane
and mundane, identifying work as a calling, imbuing it with theological importance on the same
par as priestly work (Holl, 1921). Whereas Catholic tradition reserved the idea of calling or
vocation for the clergy, Luther expanded this category to include secular work and professions.
Under this influence, daily work in the New World, whether mundane or stimulating, became a
holy calling and endeavor. This theological heritage undergirds modern Protestant faith at work,
where work is seen as a calling or holy vocation from God, and not simply a material means to
fulfill basic human needs.
Calvin, building on Luther, had an even broader view of work as a calling, allowing for
social movement and self-betterment. In his Commentary on the Harmony of the Gospels, for
example, Calvin (1509/2007) states,
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We know that men were created for the express purpose of being employed
in labor of various kinds, and that no sacrifice is more pleasing to God than
when every man applies diligently to his own calling, and endeavors to live
in such a manner as to contribute to the general advantage... (p. 124)
Calvinism offered further theological motivations for business activity, teaching that hard
work, sober and modest lifestyles, and reinvestment of profits into business led to material
success. Commercial success was deemed a sign of God's pleasure and an indicator of eternal
rewards, often known as the doctrine of predestination. Moreover, Weber (1905/2002) observed
the economic impact of Calvinist teachings that accented a "this worldly" asceticism, called for
rational economic actions, and motivated people to work diligently and creatively, as if working
for God. Weber argued that Calvinist and Puritan forms of Protestant Christianity offered a
historically distinctive "spirit," that when coupled with other variables led to a religiously
motivated accent on rational economic engagement and production, and an ascetic Protestant
ethic (Goldman, 1990; Koch, 1993; Miller, 2007).
Calvinist and Puritan theological accents also highlighted a desire for living in the
expectation of something new and better, which was anchored in the eschatological belief (i.e.
the doctrine that addresses ends times, and what one needs to do to attain the afterlife) of the
restoration of Christ’s earthly reign brought about by the action of diligent believers. The often
misunderstood Calvinist doctrine of predestination (or "doctrine of the elect") also suggested that
material well-being and business success were not just a result of a person’s disciplined and
godly efforts, but also evidence of God’s blessing and pleasure (Handy, 2001; Hopper & Hopper,
2009). Thus Protestant theology, specifically its Calvinist and Puritan strands which developed
in light of Luther's dramatic theological impact, was catalytic (Holl, 1921; Miller, 2007).
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Protestant theology, specifically its Calvinist and Puritan strands which developed in light of
Luther's dramatic theological impact, was catalytic in these and many other work related
influences (Holl, 1921; Miller, 2007).
Other Protestants, such as Moravians, also saw “Commercial success and spiritual wellbeing as inextricably connected” (Engel, 2009, p. 3). For them, however, the theological accent
was less on the intrinsic value of work itself, and more on how profitable commerce could
support missionary work and it was this that “made entrepreneurs of the Moravians” (Engel, p.
4). The success of their missionary efforts resulted in established congregants encouraging them
to develop a “Strategy of privatization to support their ongoing religious work. This gave raise to
look for greater efficiencies within production and consumption so households were able to give
more to missionary work" (p. 5). Finally, we see the influence of the Quakers who were
originally regarded as anti-authoritarian, pacifistic, community minded, and with a profound
sense that business and commerce were there to serve communities (Moore, 2000; Olusoji,
Okanlawon, and Owoyemi, 2010). Many prominent, highly successful and long-existing
businesses in the UK (e.g. Cadbury, Barclays Bank) and the USA (e.g. Bethlehem Steel,
Strawbridge and Clothier) were founded by Quakers.
Many of these historical Protestant religious accents can still be found in today’s
workplace, and continue to serve as motivators for faith at work behavior both individually and
organizationally, as noted in the works of Weber (1905/2002) and his heirs, and de Tocqueville
(Brown, 2010). We have noted similar connections between theological accents and attitudes
toward work (Miller and Ewest, 2010) and joined many contemporary scholars who argue for the
interpolation of faith as a motivator in the workplace (e.g. Novak, 1990; Phillip and Harris, 1998;
Palonen, 1999; Williams, 2003; Nelson, 2010). This is of significant academic and practical
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importance, as studies continue to show that the percentage of people in the United States who
believe there is a God remains consistent at around 92%, even as the number of people who do
not identify with a specific religious tradition (currently at 16%) is growing (Pew, 2008). The
relative decline of the emphasis on religious adherence appears offset by the rapid growth of
more individualistically oriented spirituality phenomena, and thus the influence of faith, religion,
and spirituality on attitudes toward and behaviors at work remains high.
Revision of contemporary contextual definitions in light of their foundation
Some management scholars believe that shifting the definition and focus away from
"religion" to the purportedly more inclusive term "spirituality" is more in sync with culture and
more accurate when depicting the workplace spiritual phenomena. This debate is held largely by
management scholars with little to no theological or religious education, and ignores centuries of
scholarship by theologians and religious studies scholars5. The academy was (and in some ways
remains) mired in a dialectical either/or approach to religion/spirituality, some insisting on the
superiority or desirability of spirituality over religion, and others vice versa. Many Academy of
Management (AOM) articles and definitions are often opinions based on individual experience
and preference, and not grounded in classical theory or disciplines such as theology, religion,
psychology and sociology of religion, as we have noted in previous research (Miller and Ewest,
2011).
Indeed, many theologians as well as some management scholars would argue for the
interconnectedness of religion and spirituality (Lonsdale, 2005; Williams, 2008). These scholars
are joined by a growing number of supportive AOM voices (Zinnbauer et al, 1999; Slater, Hall,
5
See Margret Benefiel and Kelly Phipps, Spirituality and Religion: Seeking a Juxtaposition that Supports Research
in the Field of Faith and Spirituality, within this volume.
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and Edwards, 2001; Lynn et al, 2009). Moreover, in the evolving AOM literature, one sometimes
senses a thinly veiled disdain for religion and a preference for spirituality, the former seen as
restrictive and inappropriate, and the latter seen as welcoming and more inclusive. In God at
Work: The History and Promise of the Faith at Work Movement (Miller, 2007) and here, we
argue that both views are caricatures and unfair to religious and spiritual people alike. Religion
can indeed be restrictive, but spirituality is not innocent of this charge either, often rejecting or
excluding religionists. To transcend this seemingly never-ending debate where no side feels
fairly understood or respected, we proposed "faith" as a more neutral and overarching scholarly
rubric that includes both religion and spirituality. This also allows individual people of faith to
privilege or prefer personal use of the terms religion or spirituality, as it pertains to their
worldview and self-understanding.
As such, "Faith at Work" is a term Miller (2007) proposed as a constructive way to break
the ongoing and unresolved debate in AOM between "religion" and "spirituality" at work. The
"at work" part of faith at work suggests that people of faith, regardless of their tradition or
understating of faith, are increasingly wishing to bring their whole self to work. They are no
longer willing to bifurcate their lives, leaving their spiritual self at home or in the parking lot
while the rest of their self goes to work. Just as with race, ethnicity, gender, and genderorientation, increasing numbers of workers wish to bring and integrate their whole self at work,
including their faith as a constituent part of their humanity. Regardless of what AOM concludes
regarding issues of definitions, we urge it to pay attention to cultural context and phenomena,
whereby people are trying to integrate their faith and work in the rapidly changing modern
workplace.
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The modern workforce
Wuthnow (2003) notes ten important trends within the American workforce and suggests that
these trends are altering nature of the American workforce. The trends include: changing
demographics; dual career families; single parents in the workforce; temporary workers; multiple
careers; longer lifespan; and economic division, to cite a few. These trends have created a large
portion of the workforce who want it all, have money to spend, but they have “become
immobilized by the shock of it all. Or they adopt a risk-averse strategy of coping” (p. 12). The
result is a workforce who "refuse to make long-term commitments, knowing that it is more
rational in an uncertain job or marriage market to cultivate lots of shallow commitments so that
one can move when the situation demands" (p. 12). Finally, Wuthnow also notes that the
workforce has entered into a postmaterialist era, where people have a sufficient amount of
“stuff” and now have the need to “pursue higher values, such as personal fulfillment, serving
others, or expressing concerns about the environment” (p. 14). With this in mind, the "Occupy
Wall Street" phenomena, which started in 2011 in the wake of anger and frustration corporate
elitism and greed, seems to tap into this workforce uncertainty, refusal to make long term
commitments, and a yearning for values and a rediscovery of a higher purpose in one's daily
work.
Roof (1999) thinks that present employee uncertainty not only results in shallow
commitments, but when coupled with a desire for personal fulfillment, leads to “A highly
privatized conception of religion which encourages personal ethics that may or may not be able
to develop into fully morally expressive values" (p. 280). Murray (2012) foresees that this
attitude by workers will continue to erode the social capital within America. Others like Fox
(1994) suggest that “beliefs” for the uncertain young are anchored in present action and not
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about trusting past dogma and so if this generation acts into its future, it is not only to be
successful, but as an attestation that they do believe, they have hope in something greater for
themselves - suggesting a type of spirituality (p. 105).
Contemporary management research scholars are beginning to demonstrate that many
employees are integrating their faith into the workplace. The Academy of Management considers
Protestant-specific practices (Brooke & Parker, 2009; VanderVeen, 2009; Creed, Dejordy &
Lok, 2010; Geren, 2011; Zulfikar, 2012), normally under the term Protestant Work Ethic (PWE).
PWE research is often accompanied by psychometric scales, primarily the Mirels and Garrett
scale, (Mirels & Garrett, 1971; Furnham 1982, 1990a; Furnham & Rose 1987; Baguma &
Furnham 1993; Wentworth & Chell 1997; Arslan, 2001; Zhang, Liu, & Liu, 2012). Many in
AOM use Clarke (1983) to define PWE as: "As the bundle of values, beliefs, intentions, and
objectives that people bring to their work and the conditions in which they do it" (p. 122). Others
define PWE more narrowly, but we find this creates undue reductionistic tendencies and reduces
the full effect of Protestant theological accents. Further, narrow definitions ignore the reality, that
while Protestant workplace tenets are rooted in Scripture, reason, and history, these tenets are
constantly seeking relevancy with contemporary culture. And with the ever-reforming nature of
Protestant theology. in mind, which we now turn to, it requires that we bring the aforementioned
themes and voices of history into the present conversation about the workplace to transcend
former focus on PWE and to discover the current Protestant accents and theology of work.
Modern Protestant theological accents and faith at work.
There once were clear Protestant denominational demarcations between the orthodoxy
and orthopraxy of, say Lutherans and Methodists. Indeed, a Baptist with a Presbyterian spouse
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might have been considered an interfaith marriage. But with the aforementioned drift away from
differences in denominational dogma, we suggest many (clergy included) would be hard-pressed
to explain the official theological and polity differences between various Protestant
denominations (Prothero, 2007; Pew 2010). So logically, it would be beyond the scope of this
essay to attempt to differentiate how various denominational theologies and polities manifest
themselves differently today in culture at large, or the workplace in particular. At best,
Protestants might be able to differentiate themselves over and against Catholics as regards
theological accents and their impact on laity in the workplace.
For workplace spirituality and integration of faith and work, Protestants generally still
turn to Reformation hallmarks such as the aforementioned sola scriptura, sola, fide, sola, gratia,
and solo Christo to shape and inform ethics, decision-making, work as a calling, workplace
engagement, and matters of economic justice. In contrast, Catholics would turn toward Church
teachings and Papal Encyclicals such as Laborem Exercens (1981), Centesimus Annus (1991),
and Caritas in Veritate (2009) for guidance as to why and how to integrate faith and work.
As such, to answer this question of how Protestants embody or integrate their faith
tradition at work we shall not explore the respective official theologies of say, Episcopalians,
Presbyterians, Lutherans, Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists, and Baptists, or the so-called
Black Church, and the variety of growing free-standing or Pentecostal-based Protestant churches.
Instead, we return to our aforementioned methodology and note how various theological accents
commonly found in Protestantism writ large (and found across a range of Protestant
denominations) impact contemporary attitudes toward and behavior at work, listening to
foundational voices from the past as modified by context and experiences of the present.
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One major change we observe in modern times theologically, ecclesiastically, and
socially, is a move away from eschatological thought that dealt with how Protestant conceptions
of end times impacted current behavior. One implication of this is that AOM's historic focus on
PWE is now less relevant and informative than in prior decades, as the theology that underpins
much of PWE thought is largely eschatological and no longer a motivator. Historically, Weber
and others argued that the Calvinist and Puritan work ethic was in part driven by a theology
motivated by Protestant teachings on eschatology. They argued that eschatological thought
served as a motivator for and at work, which in part, helped create the conditions for the
industrial revolution and the flourishing of the modern capitalist model. Yet today, with limited
theological exceptions, one seldom finds clergy or laity thinking about, talking about, or
pondering the ramifications of eschatology on daily life and behavior, let alone eschatology's
influence on the integration of faith and work. Instead, starting in the mid-twentieth century, we
see a growing Protestant accent on "practical theology," where ethics, stewardship, and
engagement in the world in general, and the marketplace in particular become central motivating
themes (Niebuhr 1932/1960; Niebuhr 1951/2001). Protestant discourse on "Christian Realism"
(Niebuhr, 1932/1960) shifted the focus from eschatology to "social ethics," addressing
contemporary marketplace issues and injustices as a central responsibility of Christians. While
some argue the Protestant Ethic has been abandoned, (Bell, 1976), we argue that a work ethic for
people of faith, specifically Protestants, constantly reinvents itself in reference to a broader set of
theological and personal faith beliefs. In contrast to Bell, other scholars recognize that a person’s
faith when integrated into the workplace takes on various applications based on organizational
roles, as well as cultural and economic changes (Cherrington, 1980; Hernandez & Mahoney,
2012). Thus, the modern theological discourse on faith and work recognizes but transcends
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traditional PWE thought. Other than retaining an appreciation for PWE's still valuable and valid
observation that theology matters in economic development and affairs. We argue that theology
remains a key motivator and variable that helps shape and inform people's marketplace decisions
and behaviors.
Building on the abovementioned theological foundations of the Protestant Reformation,
we observe five overarching modern Protestant accents that shape and inform the integration of
faith and work. First, there is an accent on personal purpose or calling in daily life. One example
from Scripture for Protestants to illustrate calling can be found in the Apostle Paul, “For we are
his workmanship, created in Christ Jesus for good works, which God prepared beforehand, that
we should walk in them” and "I urge you to live a life worthy of the calling you have received.
Be completely humble and gentle; be patient, bearing with one another in love" (Ephesians 2:10;
4:1b-2, New International Version). More formally expressed, the doctrine of vocation notes
that all Christians, whether in humble or exalted positions have a calling (or callings) to fulfill
God's purposes here on earth. This applies to daily work and economic matters as well as other
spheres of life, and is expressly not limited to the ordained clergy. The doctrine of vocation
leads to a Protestant theology of work, where all work is deemed honorable, a gift, and even
sacred when done excellently and to the glory of God. Protestants argue that Scripture teaches
us that we were created to work, and when able, ought to work. Yet Protestant understandings of
work and callings recognize that these are often difficult, challenging, and that we work in a
broken and fallen world. Hence, Protestants also accent cultivation of regular spiritual
disciplines such as prayer for coping, healing, and personal growth.
Second, there is a Protestant accent on stewardship (related to what some call "coregency"). A representative Scripture passage for Protestants is, “God blessed them and said to
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them, “Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the
sea and the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground.” (Genesis
1:28). Jesus also teaches the Parable of the Talents, which rewards those who take and multiply
the gifts and resources given to them, noting "Well done, good and faithful servant! You have
been faithful with a few things; I will put you in charge of many things." (Matthew 25:14-30;
Luke 19:12-28). This doctrine teaches that the people of God are co-creators with God, and have
a responsibility to use wisely and responsibly the gifts and opportunities they are given. There is
a sense of duty to complete God's creative work, which includes not only inventing, building,
planting, growing, and harvesting, but also a call to heal and repair the broken or fallen aspects
of the material world. The Apostle Paul notes how Christ, "committed to us the message of
reconciliation" (2 Corinthians 5:19b). And the final chapter of the final book of the New
Testament paints heavenly vision for "the healing of the nations" (Revelation 22:2b). Further
related to stewardship, Protestants also emphasize covenant theology, which suggest a noncontractual mutuality of obligation and care between counter-parties and stakeholders in
commercial matters (Stackhouse, 1995). Finally, in recent years, stewardship is understood by
some Protestants business executives to accent an inverted leadership model and style, fashioned
on the life of Jesus, called "servant leadership" (Greenleaf, 1977/1991; Blanchard, 2003;
Nooralizad, Ghorchian, & Jaafari, 2011). This challenges the typical power structure and
organizational pyramid with the CEO at the top, where instead the CEO views his or her role as
serving their employees and enabling them to do their jobs better.
Third, there is a Protestant accent on economic justice and business ethics. One
representative scripture for Protestants regarding economic justice is Apostle Paul saying, “All
they asked was that we should continue to remember the poor, the very thing I had been eager to
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do all along” (Galatians 2:10). Economic justice tends to focus on macro issues, drawing on
scriptural conceptions of justice in the global economy, concern for the impact of economic
actions on the other, in particular the weak, i.e. "the widow, the orphan, the alien" (Deuteronomy
10:18). Business ethics, closely related to economic justice, tends to matters of individual and
corporate behavior in the marketplace, where the scriptural standard is to follow the spirit of the
law, and not just the letter. A representative Scripture verse can be seen in the Old Testament,
"You must have accurate and honest weights and measures, so that you may live long in the land
the LORD your God is giving you" (Deuteronomy 25:15; see Table 1 for other verses). Many
Protestants view personal and social ethics in business as the primary connection point between
faith and work; that Scriptural teachings in both Old and New Testament have a consistent and
accented theme that Christians are called to be of the highest ethical standards in all spheres of
life, including the marketplace. They are to conduct their business affairs honestly and with
integrity, and they are not to make their profits by breaking the backs of the poor.
Fourth, is a Protestant accent on lifestyle modesty within success, coupled with a spirit of
radical generosity. Protestants believe that orthodoxy and orthopraxy in business generally lead
to positive commercial results, which over time yield financial success. When one attains
business or financial success, there is an historic Protestant accent on modesty in material
pleasures, prudence in consumption, and generosity for those who have less. A representative
Scripture passage for Protestants is Jesus saying, “Give to everyone who asks you, and if anyone
takes what belongs to you, do not demand it back” (Luke 6:30) or John the Baptist telling people,
“Anyone who has two shirts should share with the one who has none, and anyone who has food
should do the same” (Luke 3:11). Many Protestants accent the Old Testament concept of tithing,
19
i.e. giving 10% of their income to the church and charities, as a minimum way of thanking God
for God's generosity and helping those less fortunate.
Fifth, there is a Protestant accent on the expression of one's faith, often called
evangelism. Again a representative passage for Protestants is Jesus saying, “Therefore go and
make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the
Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with
you always, to the very end of the age” (Matthew 28:19-20; see also Romans 10:14-15). While it
differs in accent among modern Protestants, evangelism/expression (whether verbally or by
example) is central to certain Protestants, in all spheres of life, including the workplace. For
some evangelism requires verbal communication of one's belief in Christ, while for other
Protestants evangelism is done by exhibiting acts of charity and/or a willingness to suffer for the
other.
In all five of the contemporary Protestant theological accents impacting workplace
spirituality, the common hermeneutical key is the primacy of Scripture when deciding orthodoxy
and orthopraxy. Protestants still place a high premium on searching Scripture individually and in
community (acting as the priesthood of all believers) for application to daily life. Moreover, the
Protestant exegetical process interprets the Old Testament in light of the New Testament. And
when the Bible is silent on current marketplace (or other) issues that were not conceived of or
anticipated in Biblical times, Protestants typically seek applicable principles and Christocentric
teachings to help solve such modern problems and dilemmas.6
6
Note: The five Protestant accents and their underlying doctrines and theologies map directly to The Integration
Box theory and its Four Es or manifestations of how people integrate their faith at work (Miller, 2007; Miller and
Ewest 2011). See David Miller and Timothy Ewest, The Integration Box (TIB): An Individual and Institutional
Faith, Religion, and Spirituality at Work Assessment Tool, within this volume.
20
[INSERT TABLE 1 HERE]
Conclusion
We began this essay with a brief history of Protestantism and the emergence in North
America of Protestant accents concerning the theology of work, followed by a brief discussion of
the limitations and revisions of Protestant Work Ethic in light of contemporary contextual
definitions. And with this foundation, we outlined five primary Protestant theological accents
influencing faith at work in the modern workforce.
In the course of this essay, we sought to portray Protestantism in its rich historical context
and diversity, and its trajectory into its modern formulations and expressions. Protestantism is a
major branch of Christianity whose core theology accents and honors creation, and humanity's
participatory role in generating, repairing, reforming, and restoring the world. Protestants often
think of the world in salvation history terms, as a grand theological narrative of creation, fall,
redemption, and restoration (Bartholomew & Goheen, 2004). The New Testament scholar
Wright has said, “…it is our task not just to tell but to live out the story; that the model of God's
self-giving love in creation, covenant, judgment, mercy, incarnation, atonement, resurrection,
wind and fire, and ultimately recreation must be the basis for our self-understanding, our life, and
our vocation” (Wright, 1999, p. 13). As regards workplace spirituality, Protestants believe that
individual Christians are called to participate in God's creation, even in its fallen state, through
the already completed redemption and perfection in Jesus Christ, by co-creating and helping
restore the fallen world and reform it afresh in God's image.
21
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Table 1
Protestant Accent/PWE
Definition
Scripture reference
Personal purpose or calling.
Personal identity.
Purpose and meaning from work.
Ephesians 2:10, 4:1b-2
Jeremiah 1:4-10,
20:7-9
Acts 9:1-20
Stewardship/Co-Regency
Called to complete God's creative work.
To heal and repair the broken or fallen aspects of the material world.
"Servant leadership" serving those “below” you and enabling them to
do their jobs better.
Genesis 1:28
Matthew 25:14-30
Luke 19:12-28
2 Corinthians 5:18
Philippians 2
Revelation 22:2b
Economic justice and
business ethics
Justice, equitable use.
Economic justice.
Personal ethical character.
Modesty coupled with generosity
within success
Modesty in display.
Generosity to those in need.
Prudence in consumption.
Galatians 2:10
Leviticus 19:13,
25:10-27:1
Deuteronomy 10:18,
25:15
Jeremiah 22:13
Luke 6:20
1 Timothy 5:18
James 5:4
Micah 6:8
Luke 3:11, 6:20
Acts 2:44
Evangelism/Expression
Proper stewardship of resources and/or ethical behavior is rewarded
with profit. “May” be tied to doctrine of providence.
Isaiah 41-42
Matthew 28:16-20
Romans 10:14-15