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GORILLA
FRANKFURT ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY
MEMBERSHIP MAGAZINE
THE SERENGETI
East Africa’s Legacy Landscape
Facts & Figures
Project work
Serengeti’s Great Migration: wildebeest and
zebras on their continuous journey for food
FZS’s on-the-ground-work to help
safeguard Serengeti’s wildlife
No 01
2014
EDITORIAL
CONTENT 01 / 2014
03 EDITORIAL by Robert Muir
FOCUS: SERENGETI
04 The Chief of Serengeti
Questions for Chief Park Warden,
Mr. William Mwakilema.
Dear Readers,
Dear Friends
of the Serengeti,
06 Serengeti – the endless plain
by Anthony R. E. Sinclair
10 Serengeti’s great migration
Robert Muir heads the FZS Africa Programme.
12 Trotting with wildebeest and zebra
by Grant Hopcraft
15 Proud herdsmen – the Maasai
by Markus Borner
06
The sound of wildebeest mowing the
grass outside brings white noise to the background as our Africa
Regional Office (ARO) carries on with its daily activities. We are fortunate that ARO is based in the middle of Serengeti National Park
in one of the world’s most iconic and significant protected areas.
Indelibly branded in the hearts and minds
of the international community by the pioneering work of Professor Bernhard Grzimek
The Great
and his film Serengeti Shall Not Die, the great
Migration has existed as
migration continues today thanks to his outstanding commitment.
long as the early man first
16 Frankfurt – the FZS in Africa
by Dagmar Andres-Brümmer
20 King of the savannah
by Daniel Rosengren
23 The Serengeti of my dreams
by Gerald Bigurube
20
IMPRINT
It is his commitment that we continue striving to fulfill today. Just as Professor Grzimek
flew over the wildebeest more than sixty
years ago with hopes to tally the herds, our
aircraft continues to be used for wildlife censuses today. Many issues that were lightly
spoken about in the past are becoming some
of the Park’s greatest challenges.
16
THANKS TO
Publisher
Frankfurt Zoological Society
Bernhard-Grzimek-Allee 1, 60316 Frankfurt
T: ++49 (69) 94 34 46 0 Fax ++49 (69) 43 93 48
E: [email protected]
I: www.zgf.de
Translated from the original German version
by Jeanette Pokorny
Editor in Chief
Dagmar Andres-Brümmer and Laura Borner,
Frankfurt Zoological Society
T: ++49 (69) 94 34 46 11
E: [email protected]
Design: atelier himmelbraun, Frankfurt am Main
2
The same wildebeest that are crossing in front of my window today,
are fortunate to have the ability to roam freely, with no fenced barriers around the Park. Through our Serengeti Community Outreach
office, we are helping to safeguard communities on the periphery
and lessen wildlife conflicts while simultaneously boosting sustainable development that includes, rather than
excludes, communities from decision-making and management.
Wildebeest
We thank all our friends, donors and sponsors, without whom we
were not able to realise the conservation work we achieve today.
Photos: all photos by FZS if not otherwise stated
As the Serengeti continues to attract more tourists each year, we
are seeking methods to ensure that it is sustainable and ecofriendly.
Behind the scenes, we are working in partnership with Serengeti
National Park Authority to grease the nuts and bolts (literally) of
their anti-poaching fleet and guarantee that the rangers protecting
Serengeti are properly equipped, trained and prepared to handle the
wave of poaching that is currently impacting several African countries, including Tanzania.
Cover photos: Marie-Anne & Thierry Camail (title);
Will Burrard-Lucas, www.burrard-lucas.com (back)
Printed at: Druck- und Verlagshaus Zarbock GmbH & Co. KG,
Frankfurt, Printed on recycled paper.
© ZGF 2014, Reproduction with FZS permission only.
walked over the plains
several million years ago.
The big question is how
much longer will it
continue to exist.
In all area’s new technologies are allowing us
to gather more information needed to make
strong management decisions with sound
scientific evidence needed to protect this incredible wilderness area and ensure its normal ecological functions for decades to come.
The Great Wildebeest Migration has existed
as long as the early man first walked over
the plains several million years ago. The big
question is how much longer will it continue
to exist.
While we will likely see the demise of some protected areas over the
coming decades, FZS will fight hard to ensure that we can surpass a
tipping point in global consciousness whereby ecological systems,
such as the Serengeti, are held paramount for their natural heritage and refuge for wildlife, and their importance and existence is secured. Our responsibility for the people of Tanzania is to work in
partnership with them to continue the legacy of our founder and ensure that the Serengeti shall not die.
d
Sincerely,
y,
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FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
3
FOCUS | SERENGETI
FOCUS | SERENGETI
THE CHIEF OF
SERENGETI
The Serengeti National Park has had a number of Chief Park Wardens over the years, but
perhaps none as approachable as William Mwakilema. Always donning a smile, the Chief
has a visible presence and is a wonderful partner to work with. He enjoys his time in the
Serengeti while dealing with a number of challenges that the park faces on a daily basis.
With over 170,000 international visitors annually and an area of 14,763 square kilometres,
the Serengeti is a large project to oversee. While his job is not easy, he works diligently to
ensure the Serengeti will be a prime destination for decades to come.
Laura Borner spoke with Chief Park Warden, Mr. William Mwakilema.
Laura Borner: What are the biggest challenges you are currently addressing in Serengeti
National Park?
William Mwakilema: The two biggest challenges to the park at the moment are threats
posed by poaching and illegal cattle grazing
and secondly encroachment by agricultural
activities along the park boundaries.
What have been your largest achievements
in the past year?
Over the past year we have focused heavily
on poaching, and were successful in reducing the number of elephant poaching incidences in the park.
What are your plans for 2014?
We will continue putting forth our efforts
towards the fight against poaching.
What do you find to be the main attraction
for tourists?
The Serengeti is incredibly unique for many
reasons. It is still a large intact ecosystem
with a huge area of unspoiled wilderness.
One of the main reasons people visit is to
see the wildebeest migration. This makes
Serengeti a very special place.
Can you talk more about the security plan
and its importance?
The new security plan has identified the critical needs of our protection department. It’s
4
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importance lies in prioritization of critical
needs that address major challenges faced by
the park.
In brief, what are the future hopes for tourism in Serengeti?
The future of Serengeti National Park depends on achieving a balance between visitor
use and conservation.
Having lived in the SNP now a couple years,
how do you enjoy your time spent in this
beautiful place?
Working in Serengeti is highly challenging,
however, I enjoy being among the chosen
few who have the privilege of working in this
world-class national park.
Have you brought your children to the park
to visit?
I have brought them several times and they
love seeing the wild animals in their natural environment. In general, you can see the
children love the overall beauty of the park.
In ten years, how do you see SNP from a
global viewpoint?
The park will continue to attract more visitors. Therefore we have to make some difficult decisions to ensure that the high
visitation does not spoil this place. We must
devise mechanisms to ensure we receive high
returns for fewer visitations.
5
FOCUS | SERENGETI
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In the past I had seen many parts
of East Africa. But nothing had
prepared me for this experience
of wildlife in vast numbers,
the extraordinary migrations,
the sheer diversity of animals and
vegetation, and the spectacular
landscapes.
by Anthony R. E. Sinclair
F
Pho
Ph
hhoto:
too: Ma
Marriee-An
AAnnnee & Thi
hhie
ierr
rrry
r Ca
Camai
ail
ar in front of me were lines of wildebeest trekking slowly, each
animal plodding steadily behind the other, the furthest larger
than life, distorted in the mirage of heat. We had been driving
for two hours now and for the whole time it had been the same picture of countless herds. Our track followed the edge of the Serengeti
plains, a vast area of treeless grassland stretching 100 miles east of
us to the foot of Ngorongoro and the Crater Highlands. The peak of
the old extinct volcano, Lemagrut, rose to 8,000 feet, blue against the
shimmering haze, forming the backdrop for ridge upon ridge of rolling plains. From time to time groups of zebra would lead a column of
wildebeest, while the tan of a kongoni hartebeest stood out from the
general grey and black of the herds. The kongoni were not migrating;
they stayed behind, merely watching the herds pass.
6
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The great migration was moving north; the end of the rains signalled
the time to move. They stopped at the woodland's edge and slaked
their thirst, for here was the first river, the Ngare Nanyuki. The water
is alkaline, but the wildebeest can tolerate this. As we travelled we saw
freshwater pools in which a few old male buffalo wallowed. Groups
of Grant’s gazelle fed on the shrubs while their smaller cousins, the
Thomson’s gazelle ran in countless numbers, stopping briefly to feed
where wildebeest had been before. Grant’s like the kongoni, were not
moving, but "Tommys“ were part of the great migration.
It was my second day in Serengeti. I had arrived late the day before
on 1st of July, 1965. In the past 'I had something of East Africa', having been raised there, and had visited various game parks, but nothing had prepared me for this experience of wildlife in vast numbers,
the extraordinary migrations, the sheer diversity of animals and vegetation, and the spectacular landscapes. I decided then that I would
7
FOCUS | SERENGETI
FOCUS | SERENGETI
Photo: Marie-Anne & Thierry Camail
We can think of Serengeti as having three major habitats that, by coincidence, lie along the rainfall gradient. First, there are the plains
in the south-east. There volcanic soil prevents trees from growing
and so the plains are open grassland. Very short grasslands prevail
next to small flowering herbs, and the rest is bare ground. All these
plants are heavily grazed. The second habitat, the acacia savanna,
starts abruptly at the edge of the plains as the effect of the volcanic
soil disappears. The third major habitat is the broad-leaved woodland of the far north-west. The soils are derived from granite and are
poor in nutrients, the grasses are very tall and there are many different species of shrubs.
Zebras and hartebeest.
spend the rest of my life studying this ecosystem and why it was like
the way it was. It was, without a doubt in my mind, the most extraordinary place on earth.
THE GREAT MIGRATION OF ANIMALS HAD BEEN
DISCOVERED LATE
The name Serenegti is now a household word, the epitome of a
wildlife spectacle in Pleistocene surroundings. Surprisingly, it has
only recently come to be known to us. It was the lions that first attracted attention, in the 1920s – lions to be hunted by foreigners. The
Serengeti plains were the place to go for the grandest blackmaned lions in the world, and lots of them. The wildebeest migration was
completely unknown. Indeed, it was not until Bernard and Michael
Grzimek from Germany flew their plane over the Serengeti in the
late 1950s to document the great migration, that the world first became aware of the phenomenon.
The wildebeest migration across the Serengeti is one of the last intact wildlife migrations on earth. There were once such migrations on most continents, but humans have taken over the land and
blocked the migration corridors, leaving the animals with nowhere
to go. Many have perished as a result. Of the few migrations that remain, ‘The Great Serengeti Migration’ is the best known. Serengeti
is unique partly because of the special features of its geography that
determine its environment, climate, water relations, and habitats. Together, these four conditions create the migration.
The wildebeest migration covers an area of some 26,000 square
kilometers and this includes many political administrations. The
main ones in Tanzania are in the Serengeti National Park (SNP)
itself, and in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), which lies
east of the park and includes half of the Serengeti plains. North of
8
the NCA is the district of Loliondo through which wildebeest pass
on their way north into Kenya. The Maasai Mara National Reserve is
the main Kenya administration. This holds the vital dry season grazing and water supplies. South and west of SNP the wildebeest move
along small game reserves, such as Maswa, Grumeti, and lkorongo.
Most of Serengeti’s ecosystem consists of a flat or rolling landscape
highly dissected with small seasonal streams that flow into a few major
rivers. It is part of the high plateau of interior East Africa. This altitudinous plain gently slopes from the edge of the Gregory Rift in the
east, to Lake Victoria in the west, causing all rivers to flow west. There
are three major rivers, the most important being the Mara, which
originates in the montane forests of the Mau Highlands of Kenya.
It has until recently flowed year-round, providing the main water
supply for the great herds of migrating animals in the dry season.
The two other rivers are the Grumeti, which originates in the highlands of northeastern Serengeti, and the Mbalageti. Both are seasonal
rivers with only pools remaining in the dry season.
THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL
DRIVES THE MIGRATION
There are two special features that determine the Serengeti environment. First, the Crater Highlands in the south-east are sufficiently
high that they impede the prevailing winds from the Indian Ocean,
causing a rain shadow on their western side. The far eastern Serengeti
plains, therefore, are semi-arid, receiving only 500 millimetres of rain
per year. The second important feature is Lake Victoria in the west.
This lake is so large that it creates its own weather system; rainstorms
develop over the lake and affect the west and north-west of the ecosystem, even during the dry season. So we have a wet north-western
region and a dry south-eastern region producing a marked gradient
in rainfall. It is this gradient that drives the migration.
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
TWO MILLION ANIMALS ON THE GO
Every year during the great migration about 1.3 million wildebeest,
together with 200,000 zebra and half a million Thomson's gazelle,
move around the system – over 2 million animals in all. They all
converge on the plains in the wet season because that is where the
best food is. The grasses of the plains have the highest protein content in the whole of Serengeti, but they are also high in calcium and
phosphorus. The animals move around the plains following the rainstorms and the growth pattern of grasses. The three migrant grazers,
however, stick to themselves with only a small overlap in their distributions, taking advantage of the different heights of grass.
growth. Then as the grass grows a little taller the wildebeest arrive
and displace the gazelle which now move further east to the short
grass plains. Eventually, the zebra arrive and they confine themselves
largely to the intermediate grass plains. They all move back west in
reverse order when the plains dry out in May.
June sees the migration moving west and north. They move slowly –
both because it takes time to graze long grass and because they are
wary of predators. Wildebeest dictate the movements of the other
species. They eat down the grass and provide a niche for the gazelle
that follow behind. Zebra like to stay with wildebeest because they
are safer there, but they must stay in front because they need a greater
bulk of food than the wildebeest.
Once the herds reach the woodlands this pattern breaks up and
smaller groups of wildebeest and zebra make their way west and
north. Thomson’s gazelle stay behind in the central woodlands.
The beginning of the rains in November brings the migrants south
and east again towards the edge of the plains. They only congregate
again when the rains become more consistent and the herds move
onto the plains.
The text is an excerpt from “Serengeti Story” by Dr Anthony
Sinclair (with kind permission of the author). Sinclair is a Professor
Emeritus of Ecology at University of British Columbia, Canada.
As the plains turn green with the first rain, usually around December, the Thomson's gazelle arrive first, feeding on the short new
SCIENTIFIC FORTUNE AND ADVENTURE
It is hard to find somebody who knows as much about the Ecosystem in the Serengeti as Tony Sinclair. He spent over 50 years
researching in and about the Serengeti. The acknowledged Professor of Ecology, who meanwhile is retired, supervised uncounted numbers of studies and thesis of young scientists. During
all these years Sinclair published the reference books Serengeti I
to III and a fourth volume is about to be finished. These four scientific manuals report with detailed knowledge about the correlation between animals, plants and geology of the Serengeti. Just
like many other academic documentation, these books are written for a more professional audience. Lists of data, dry
fact sheets, detailed methodical graphics and spreadsheets prevail. Personal issues, which took part during
research, the ups and downs of life as a scientist and the
adventures of being a university professor on field trips
– all these more intimate subjects – are not part of the
books’ contents.
Tony Sinclair did not want to deprive us of all his wonderful, venturesome as well as all too human anecdotes and
d
memoirs. “Serengeti Story“ is a compilation of all his ex-peditions, published in a book for the zoologically inter--
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
ested, common reader. In this short and compact version, Sinclair
uses his unfailing treasure of knowledge and combines it with all
his personal recollections. Scientifically substantiated facts are
eased with anecdotes from 50 years of research out in the field.
Anthony Sinclair takes his readers along onto a personal safari
and research expedition into one of the most spectacular nature
reserves left on our planet. The book is a must-have of every
Serengeti-fan and especially in its electronic version, the perfect
travel literature, while “migrating” in the savanna.
Dagmar Andres-Brümmer
Anthony R. E. Sinclair
SERENGETI STORY
LIFE AND SCIENCE IN THE WORLD’S
GREATEST WILDLIFE REGION
Hardcover, 188 pages
Oxford University Press, 2012
ISBN 978-0-19-964552-7
Hardcover: € 22.00 ; US $ 33.00
E-Book: € 13.67 ; US $ 19.00
9
FOCUS | SERENGETI
FOCUS | SERENGETI
SERENGETI’S
GREAT MIGRATION
The long journey of the wildebeest and zebra is a continual trip in the search for
fresh food. There is neither a starting point nor a finish line. There are only a few
intermissions on the long way between areas with abundant rainfall in the North
and the nutrient-rich pastures in the South where they stay a bit longer before
continuing the rounds again.
KENYA
TAN
ANZA
ZANI
NIAA
Maasai
asa Maraa
Game
am Reserrve
WHITE-BEARDED WILDEBEEST
(Connochaetes taurinus)
August –
November
Since the 1970s the wildebeest population has been stable. Therefore,
scientists believe that this population size mirrors the carrying capacity
for this region. It is not the big predators which control the population
size of large herbivores (including elephants or buffalo) but rather the
availability of food.
Iko
Ik
Ikorongo
kor
oro
ron
ong
nggo
go
Gam
Game
Gam
ame
me
Reser
RRes
eser
ese
errve
ve
Gru
Gru
Grumeti
rume
meti G
Game
Gam
am
am
mee RReser
eser
ser
erve
ve
THE PLAINS ZEBRA
May –
July
(Equus quagga)
At the end of the 19th century, the wildebeest population had collapsed
due to the cattle plague also known as rinderpest. At the end of the
fifties, when the Grzimeks were flying across the Serengeti, they only
counted 200,000 wildebeest, a meager remnant of its original historical
abundance. Nevertheless, they were still impressed by these relatively
low-numbered herds and drew the right conclusions: herds must be
allowed to roam freely – no obstacles should be allowed in their way.
LLoli
Lo
olio
oli
llion
oondo
on
ndo
do Ga
Gam
aame
me
me
Con
Controlled
Controlle
Con
ontro
trrol
olle
lled
edd Area
Areeaa
Serengeti
National
ation Park
a
~ 200,000
~ 1.3 million
Since the 1960s the cattle of the Maasai had been vaccinated extensively
against cattle plague. Thus, the epidemic was controlled. This was the
turning point for the wildebeest population. It grew steadily together
with the other wildlife.
Indeed zebra do accompany the wildebeest on most of their journey.
However, the zebra seem to be taking a few short cuts and seem to be
having a few reservations about excursions leading too far West and North.
One round of the wildebeest migration covers about 2,000 kilometres.
The striped, unique pattern of the zebra is like a fingerprint.
Not one animal matches the other.
December –
April
Wildebeest synchronise their births, producing 90 percent of them within
three to four weeks during the month of February. This corresponds to
several thousand calves per day. The mass reproduction reduces the risk
for each single calf of being captured by a predator.
Zebra are non-ruminants and they can cope quite well with low-nutrient
grass. A lot of times they feed on the harder grasses.
N
Nggoro
N
Ngorongoro
Ngo
goro
ron
ong
ngo
gor
oro
roo
Cons
Conser
Co
onnse
ser
errvat
vatio
vation
atioon Are
Areea
Area
A calf can run within fifteen minutes of birth and it is able to run as fast
as its mother within twenty-four hours. Mothers can time their births so
that most of their offspring are born midmorning - which is commonly
the sleeping time of the predators. By night time, the new-born calves
are already strong and no longer an easy prey.
RAIN & SOIL
This gradual change in the amount of rain and soil types brings about a
distinct gradient in grass quality. The seasonal rain in the South allows
for very fertile grasses to grow - but only for a short period of time.
Despite having more rain, the North produces grass with fewer nutrients.
Moreover, here the pasturage grows higher and is of a harder consistency.
In short, the amount of nutrients in the grass is reciprocal to the amount
of annual precipitation.
10
Mas
M
Masawa
asa
asaw
aw
wa
wa
Game
G
ame RRes
am
Reser
eese
ser
errve
ve
Zebra Migration
Wildebeest Migration
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
Lake Manyara
Lake
Manyarra
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
0
50 km
Illustrations: Jonathan Scott | Map: himmelbraun
The Serengeti is a semi-arid ecosystem producing a clearly defined rainfall gradient: the Southeast has only 400 mm of precipitation per annum,
while the Northwest has more than 1,200 mm of yearly rain. Parallel to
the variation of rain, the soil types change progressively. Fertile soil with
volcanic ashes dominates the South; while in the North the soils derived
from granite, are poor in nutrients and produce sandy savanna.
NORTH OR SOUTH?
The wildebeest like it best in the South, where the nutritional quality of
the grass is high. They migrate north during the dry season. During this
time, the North is the only region supplying food and water for them.
However, there the low nutrient content of the grass causes their bodily
condition to diminish. Thus, when it starts to rain again, the wildebeest
move to the southern parts of the ecosystem where, at that time, they can
find more nutritious feed.
11
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FOCUS | SERENGETI
Every year about 140,000 travelers visit the Serengeti National Park
to witness the spectacular migration of wildebeest, zebra and antelopes. It is one of the last migrations of its kind on our planet. With
the help of modern GPS-tracking systems researchers can track the
wildebeest while on the go. Live-tracking allows scientists to learn
what really makes them go.
Photo: Marie-Anne & Thierry Camail
by Grant Hopcraft
There are five subspecies of wildebeest. The Serengeti ecosystem is inhabited by the western white-bearded wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus mearnsi).
The first question that most visitors ask when they arrive in the
Serengeti is: ‘Where are the wildebeest?’ The standard response is
‘They were here yesterday’, which captures the essence of migration. Wildebeest and zebra are constantly on the move, looking for
fresh grazing and escaping from predators such as lion, hyena and
crocodiles. The straight-line distance of the Serengeti migration is
about 600 km. However, research shows that individual animals
travel more than 1800 km every year (an average of 5 km/day) with
the longest recorded distance of almost 40 km in a day. In the Olduvai Gorge, which is in the northern part of Tanzania, one has found
proof showing that wildebeest have been migrating in the Serengeti
since over 100,000 years. Long before the first humans were spreading out from the cradle of mankind, the migration of wildebeest
was of importance.
PPho
Ph
hhootto
to:
oo:: Da
D nni
nie
iieel Rose
sseeng
nngr
gren
en
WHY ARE MIGRATIONS COLLAPSING AROUND THE WORLD?
12
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
The Serengeti is special because it is one of the few migratory systems
on earth that has not declined in recent years. There used to be at
least 24 other large terrestrial herbivores that were migrating across
Africa, Europe, Asia, and North America. Why did they subside?
In a study comparing features and status of all migrations globally,
we found there are several reasons why migrations are in such crisis.
The most important factors responsible for collapsed migrations are
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
fences, over-hunting, land-use change, blockages to the migratory
routes (including roads and train tracks), habitat change (including
artificial water holes) and access to sufficient forage. In the handful
of migrations, that still survive around the world, the key attributes
to their survival are secured seasonal ranges, adequate resource protection, strong government and international support (financial and
political), and no blockages to the route. All of the migrations that
collapsed were missing at least one of these key attributes. Tanzania
has succeeded where other countries have failed!
By migrating from the Maasai Mara to the Serengeti plains every
year, wildebeest and zebra maximize the amount of fresh high quality food available to them, even when grass is scare during the dry
season. As a result the population of wildebeest is much larger than
if they did not migrate at all. From what we know about migrations,
we can be sure that if the wildebeest were blocked by fences or habitat loss, or if artificial water holes stopped the annual movement, the
population would undoubtedly decline to less than one tenth of its
current population. Now we have about 1.3 billion animals; a nonmigratory population would only support 100,000 wildebeest.
DO WILDEBEEST AND ZEBRA RESPOND TO PROTECTION?
Protection is clearly a major factor that ensures the long-term survival of mass migrations, but the question is; do individual animals
13
FOCUS | SERENGETI
FOCUS | SERENGETI
PROUD HERDSMEN
THE MAASAI
“The wildebeest’s strategy
seems to be: quick we
come to feed as much
as possible, and off we
hurry away again.”
react to the protection managers provide? In
dependencies and interactions wildebeest have
order to answer this question we fitted GPS
with the Serengeti ecosystem.
collars on individual wildebeest and zebra, as
part of an on-going research program done in
We are now looking with more depth to their
collaboration with TAWIRI (Tanzania Wildmovement patterns and understanding the
Grant Hopcraft
life Research Institute) and supported by FZS.
drivers of movement. To assess this informaA GPS collar is a light-weight, battery powtion we are correlating their positioning along
ered, receiver that uses satellite based navigawith several other potentially influential factions systems to relay the exact point of the animal every 12 hours tors, such as availability of food, reproductive status (e.g. was the wilvia an SMS phone message. By compiling thousands of locations debeest pregnant just at that time, or was it with a calf?) and various
from several collared animals every year, we generate accurate maps disturbances. By looking at hormonal changes in their tail hairs, we
of where animals are moving. Using these maps along with those of can provide an accurate measurement of the times during which angrass quality, water availability, predation pressure and anti-poach- imals were facing food restrictions and stress.
ing efforts from TANAPA (Tanzania National Parks) we ask how do
animals choose their migratory routes? The answer is complicated This ongoing research will hopefully help capture the underlybut there are patterns; both wildebeest and zebra choose the safest ing manner in which landscape conditions affect the way animals
routes, avoiding areas where poachers are most active, in order to move and provide the critical missing mechanistic link between the
get to the best grazing areas. This shows that the protection provided environment and animal response. Such research will allow us to
by National Parks to these wild areas, has a direct consequence for continue learning about the natural importance of Serengeti and uneach individual animal in the ecosystem.
derstand its ecological components.
WHAT MORE CAN WE LEARN ABOUT WILDEBEEST?
It is likely that we have only scratched the surface with our knowledge about this incredible species and furthermore, the vast inter-
Dr J. Grant C. Hopcraft, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health
and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, studies the
migration of wildebeest since many years.
LIVE-TRACKING OF WILDEBEEST WITH GPS
It took Dr Hopcraft and his team ten days to mark nine wildebeest with the
GPS collar. All animals were females with calves, which were being nursed
up until September 2013. By now the nine are probably pregnant again.
The data transmitted by the GPS receiver is automatically recorded, which
enables the research-team to check the positioning of the animals on a
daily basis. The results can be viewed by the team on an online map.
14
One can track the pattern of movement for each individual animal on the
exact day (here it is the route of wildebeest 1860 from October 1st through
the 20th, 2013, when it moved around and about for 56 km). This data
of their route is brought in correlation with other parameters such as the
quality of grass, the amount of precipitation fires, tourism crowds and
more. The result gives us the answers to what triggers the particular
animal to move about or stay close by.
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
The name “Serengeti” derives from the
Maasai language and means “endless
plain.” However, the Maasai were not the
first to inhabit the Serengeti. It was only at
the end of the 19th century that the Maasai
came to this area.
by Markus Borner
Four million years ago the Serengeti was populated by early-hominids, and only about
60,000 years ago, the first modern men lived
in these plains. Archaeological studies show
that 17,000 years ago, the Serengeti was occupied by a people of hunters and food gatherers – the Hadzabe, or Hadza – the indigenous
people of the Serengeti.
And, although we might think of the Serengeti
as a great and paradise-like part of the world,
the plains have not been used much by man.
The main reason for this is the tsetse fly, the
main transmitter of the African sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis), which
h affects humans
and their cattle, causing severe sickness, and
sometimes death. As a result, both farmers and herdsmen avoided the Serengeti
as much as possible.
The Maasai are Nilotic people,
eople,
l or
Nilotes, who originated from the lower
Nile river valley, until spreading
reading
south in the 17th and 18th century.
entury.
While moving into central parts
arts off
Tanzania, the Maasai dispossessed
essed
the original clans who had been
living there. Just like other earlier
arlier
tribes, the Maasai stayed away
way
from the Serengeti because of
the tsetse fly, instead settlingg
in the outskirts of the greater
plains. In these regions,
they were preceded not only
the Hadza, but also other earlier clans from the Nile includding the Barabaig and Cushitic
itic
groups. The Maasai eventually
ally
arrived at the Ngorongoro Craater area around 1850 – just a
few years before the first Ger-man settlers arrived.
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
In 1887, rinderpest – an infectionious disease
affecting livestock – was introduced to Ethiopia from Europe. The consequence was abysmal to all of East Africa. It devastated not only
the wildlife of the area, but also killed most
of the Maasai’s livestock. The disease spread
rapidly, reaching the Serengeti by 1890, leaving over 90 percent of the Maasai cattle dead.
And, as if that were not enough, the years
that followed had unusually long droughts
and brought another epidemic, Smallpox. For
the Maasai this was a terrible period. When
Austrian Oscar Baumann travelled through
the Ngorongoro and the Serengeti in 1891,
he was shocked by the tragic conditions he
witnessed – bodies reduced to skeletons as
the Maasai tried to survive by eating leather,
bones or even horns. During that time about
two thirds of all Maasai died.
Aside from Baumann’s account, several reports from researchers and hunting expeditions confirm that the Serengeti was
uninhabited
during the middle of the
un
u
n
ninhabited
19th century. The Maasai started
to settle in the Serengeti in about
1870, but only on small parts of
the outer grassy meadows. Permanent settlements existed only west
off O
Olduvai.
their
lduvai.i SSome
ld
ome off th
heir
i clans
l
would let their cattle graze
in the eastern part of the
Serengeti plains, as far up
the
when
as th
he SSimba
imbba Kopjes, wh
hen
the season was right.
In Loliondo, the local
District Officer J. Grant,
kept an exact record of
the area’s citizens. According to his notes,
442 Maasai were left
between 1940 and
1950, and after 1950
he counted only 194.
In 1959, their
local spokes-
men, the Laibons, and the state of Tanzania came to a mutual agreement to relocate
the Maasai permanently. At that time the
Ngorongoro Conservation Area was separated
from the Serengeti National Park, which included new mapping for the Serengeti border.
When the Ngorongoro Conservation Area
was founded about 50 years ago, it was home
to less than 5,000 Maasai with about 150,000
cattle. Today, nearly 47,000 people occupy
the same area. This is a staggering population when you consider that herdsmen who
solely depend on their cattle need about six
cows per person to have enough food to survive – that’s over 280,000 head of cattle. Today, the Maasai have an average of about three
cows per person or less, since a few very rich
Maasai own a large number of cattle. As a
consequence, the Maasai suffer from malnutrition – especially the children.
Although the Maasai managed to survive the
rinderpest catastrophe 150 years ago, what
they need to thrive in modern times, is land
the
– something almost impossible to come by
in the National Park. Between the prevalence
of the tsetse fly, and the continuous development of large farming estates and private
op
hunting
resorts, land available for the Maasai
h
u
is quickly diminishing. Furthermore, road
building, new settlements by other locals, and
bu
tourism are additional factors making the notou
madic lifestyle of herdsmen difficult. This is a
ma
common problem not only in the Serengeti,
co
but across the rest of Africa as well. Moreover,
bu
the Maasai are beginning to dislike their simple life in a hut held together by cow manure,
getting smoke in their lungs, having little or
ge
no healthcare, and no education. Investing in
their schooling system and further education
the
as well as helping them towards a cosmopolitan attitude is the best way to enhance their
ita
possibilities in a modern Tanzania.
po
Un 2012, Dr Markus Borner directed the
Until
FZS Africa Conservation Programme.
FZ
He holds an Honorary Professorship of the
University of Edinburgh and continues
Un
research and conservation work about the
res
Serengeti even after his retirement.
Se
15
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FOCUS | SERENGETI
Anyone travelling to the Serengeti will sooner or later come across a vehicle with
a big sticker showing the gorilla logo of the Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS).
In Tanzania, as well as in many other countries where FZS has projects, the society
is just known as “Frankfurt”. So, what does “Frankfurt” actually do out here in
the savanna?
by Dagmar Andres-Brümmer
S
erengeti National Park is something like the nucleus of today’s
conservation commitment of FZS. Here, in the early 1980s, the
first steps were made towards a fully grown programme consisting of 45 projects and programmes, designed to protect outstanding wilderness areas and national parks. Today, 30 years later, FZS
works in 18 countries on four continents.
It was in 1978 when the young Swiss biologist Markus Borner received a first contract with Frankfurt Zoological Society. Bernhard
Grzimek, who at that time was the director of the Frankfurt Zoo as
well as president of FZS, sent Borner to Rubondo, an idyllic island in
Lake Victoria. Borner was asked to help TANAPA, the Tanzanian National Park authority, to establish relevant infrastructure for Rubondo
National Park. Ever since Grzimek’s first expeditions to Africa in the
1950s, he was convinced that these untouched wilderness areas, together with their unique wildlife, would not perpetuate with more
and more people populating our planet and claiming more and more
land for themselves. His vision proved to be all too true. Grzimek be-
gan to support the African national parks with “his” Zoological Society and with donations he collected from viewers who watched his
TV show “Ein Platz für Tiere” (A Place for Animals). The show was
very well liked by the mostly German audience and their abundant
donations were put towards nature conservation projects in Africa.
By dispatching Markus Borner to Rubondo, Grzimek was taking the
nature conservation activities a step further. He decided that it was
no longer enough to support the African national parks solely with
money, but wanted to provide them with an advising partner. With
his know-how and professional expertise, Borner was to push forward the development and the protection of the parks.
Up until today this has been the fundamental philosophy driving
FZS: As a partner, “Frankfurt” helps where park authorities are lacking capacity or financial funding or when their hands are tied for any
other reason. Working together transparently and responsibly with
local partners is one of our guiding principles – and a major reason
for our success.
Photos: Daniel Rosengren, lNorbert Guthier
Wer in die Serengeti reist, der wird früher oder später einem Fahrzeug mit einem großen
Aufkleber des Gorilla-Logos der Zoologischen Gesellschaft Frankfurt begegnen. In Tansania und in vielen anderen Ländern, in denen die ZGF aktiv ist, wird sie nur „Frankfurt“
genannt. Was aber tut „Frankfurt“ hier draußen in der Savanne der Serengeti?
Africa Regional Office: The FZS office in Seronera, Serengeti National Park.
16
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
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17
FOCUS | SERENGETI
FOCUS | SERENGETI
In 1983, Markus Borner and his young family moved from their is- essary repairs, thus always guaranteeing their operational readiness.
land home in Lake Victoria to the adjacent Serengeti. Here, his mis- Additionally, FZS has constructed and equipped the park’s visitor
centre and has successfully reintroduced
sion was the same, but the circumstances
rhinos into the Serengeti ecosystem; it has
were difficult – if not to say life threatenoffered education and additional training
ing. At that time the Serengeti was hit by “Above all, ‘Frankfurt’ has
scientists, rangers, and veterinarians.
a wave of poaching and violence. Armed
drastically raised its financial to
FZS has supported the park’s planning
attacks on ranger stations occurred regularly, Borner remembers: “It was uncommitment to fight poaching and management processes and has continously been raising funds.
believable. On my first trip through the
in the Serengeti and other
Serengeti, I saw more poached and dead
rhinos than live ones.” Back then the
protected areas working closely The small house in the park, once allocated to the Borner family, has now becountry was in severe economic crisis.
together with governmental
come the FZS Africa Regional Office
The most important task at the time was
(ARO). All FZS Africa projects are beto ensure the security of the park.
institutions.”
ing coordinated from ARO – the core of
Robert Muir
“Frankfurt” in Africa. Not only has the of“Bernhard Grzimek was one of the piofice grown in the last few years, but also
neers of nature conservation in Africa.
the various tasks have changed during this
He was a founding member of important
institutions, such as Mweka Wildlife College and Pasiansi Ranger period of time and so has FZS itself. Both the staff and the conservaTraining School”, reports Markus Borner who himself was on the ex- tion programme have become international – hardly anyone speaks
ecutive board of TANAPA for many years and always maintained a German at ARO.
tight network in Tanzania.
Today, park management, infrastructure and ranger teams are
well positioned and there are more animals now than during
Grzimek’s era. For three decades, FZS has been active in the Serengeti
– faithfully following one of its most important principles: to ensure
long-term commitment to its partners. During those three decades
“Frankfurt” has put in countless flying hours with its Cessna in order to gather fundamental data on the number of wildlife living in
the park. FZS frequently purchases vehicles for the ranger patrols
and has managed the workshop to keep them running with all nec18
continent. “Above all, ‘Frankfurt’ has drastically raised its financial commitment to fight poaching in the Serengeti and other protected areas together with governmental institutions,” says Robert
Muir, head of FZS’ Africa programme. Robert Muir was appointed
in 2012, following in the footsteps of Markus Borner.
FAME IS NOT ENOUGH
Just over a year ago, Robert Muir moved into the house designated
to the head of FZS’s Africa team. Yet, there are still boxes in the
hallway, waiting to be unpacked, the coating of the walls is unfinished. Ever since Robert started his assignment, he has been on
the go non-stop: meeting ministers in Dar Es Salaam, convincing
donors from the USA and Germany, coordinating with partners
and much more. The extent of FZS’ commitment in Tanzania has
grown immensely.
Serengeti is an icon among all national parks and one of the world’s
most precious wilderness areas. Every year, over one hundred and
sixty thousand visitors come to the Serengeti to marvel about the
abundant wildlife and gorgeous landscape. The park generates millions of dollars through entrance and licensing fees. Nevertheless, this
does not guarantee the park’s protection, nor is the area safe from all
threats. The 2010 discussion about Tanzania’s plans to build a highway
across the Serengeti for example shows that there are still dangers to
be overcome, which could permanently damage the ecosystem. Meanwhile, the park hosts about 120 safari camps. Regions which, just a few
years back, used to be remote areas of the park, are today’s touristic hot
spots. The Serengeti could become a victim of its own fame. Therefore,
“Frankfurt” tries to encourage the park development within a conservation framework, which is seemingly more and more important.
Community conservation: Kaneja Mangaru on duty in the villages around the park.
ALLY TO THE PARKS FOR 30 YEARS
national research programme CREATE (Conservation Research for
East Africa’s Threatened Ecosystems) additionally evaluates whether
small local businesses, such as keeping bees or chickens, are actually in
line with conservation goals in the nearby national park or are counteracting them.
MAJOR ACTION TO STOP POACHING
The Serengeti is also not spared from the dramatic increase in elephant and rhino poaching, which is sweeping across the African
“Right now we are building a new control post for Serengeti
National Park. Here, rangers will be able to monitor the park a lot
better and far more effectively than before, using state of the art
technology for surveillance,” reports Robert Muir. “And just very
recently, after they were released by customs control in Dar es
Salam, we were able to hand over eleven new vehicles to the Wildlife Division and TANAPA to strengthen their anti- poaching activities in Serengeti and Selous.” At the same time, FZS and the parks
work together on improving security plans. Apart from hands-on
support (supplying gear and boosting infrastructure) the greatest
strength of Frankfurt Zoological Society is, and remains, professional advice.
INTEGRATING THE LOCAL PEOPLE
In the early years FZS primarily reacted to immediate needs, supplying
the park with basic equipment and training. Now, the Society has become an active partner supporting the park in any strategic questions
regarding conservation, planning and management. The biggest difference between nature conservation programmes of the 1970s/1980s
and those of today is the integration of local people. Modern conservation can only be successful with their active participation. Thus,
community conservation is an integral part of all FZS programmes in
Africa. Serengeti Community Outreach is an FZS programme which
closely cooperates with communities around the Serengeti. The transFZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
Rangers training: For decades the FZS has supported the national park by providing education and gear to the rangers.
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
19
FOCUS | SERENGETI
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KING OF THE
SAVANNAH
Photos & text by Daniel Rosengren
A large part of what we know about lions and
their behavior today has been researched in
the Serengeti. The Serengeti Lion Project was
founded in 1966. Since then, their scientists
and researchers have published more than one
hundred academic publications on lions.
W
i
Sign of physical strength
Project scientists found out that the lion’s
mane is a signal of physical strength,
especially in the African heat. The “hairstyle”
deters rivals and attracts females. Further
studies of the Serengeti Lion Project discovered that lions can recognise each other by
voice, can also count and that the hunting
success of lions depends on the phases of
the moon. In dark nights, during new moon
phases, lions are in their element, because
they can see better in the dark than any
other species.
20
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
hen Serengeti Lion Project was
started by George Schaller, very little was known about wild lions. Everything people knew, or thought they knew,
was based on observations made in zoos.
Since that time, large numbers of students,
PhD candidates and lion-project members
have completed numerous studies gathering
invaluable knowledge on lions in the wild.
It is the second longest ongoing study in
the world of a species of wild animals. Since
1978 Craig Packer has been in charge of the
Serengeti Lion Project. Prof. Packer is based
at the University of Minnesota, USA.
Members of the lion project and of Frankfurt
Zoological Society (FZS) have formed an active scientific community working together
in the Serengeti. For some time now, FZS has
supported the projects with logistical help.
For example, FZS runs the workshop for the
Tanzanian National Park authority TANAPA providing maintenance for vehicles in
the park. In addition, the Society provides
their plane for monitoring flights, enabling
the researchers to radio-track the lions much
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
faster. During these flights huge areas can be
covered in a short time. Additionally, since
the range of the tracking equipment is much
greater from the air, there is a higher rate of
success.
There are currently 20-25 prides of lions totaling about 380 individuals that are being
studied constantly by the project researchers.
A typical pride includes three to six females
with their offspring as well as an alliance of
two to four males.
The lion population in the Serengeti is estimated to between 2,500 and 3,000 individuals. This makes the area one of the most
important remaining strongholds of lions
in Africa. Tanzania has the largest number
of lions in the world. The long-term demographic data of the lions in Serengeti is an
invaluable source of information. Thanks to
decades of continuous monitoring of “their”
lion prides, the scientists were able to gain
important insight about the lion’s group interactions. The studies conducted have answered many questions including why lions
have manes and why they are the only social
cat species on earth.
in the world. The lion population in the Crater is inbred and in urgent need of genetic
variation. But the area between the Crater
and Serengeti is inhabited by pasturaslist
Maasai, who depend on the area to nourish their livestock. Serengeti Lion Project is
working on a sustainable solution for both
Maasai and lions to coexist “peacefully” in
that area. Hopefully, that project will lead
to an exchange in lion genes between the
Crater and Serengeti in the future.
Daniel Rosengren is doing field research for
the Serengeti Lion Project. He is a passionate
wildlife photographer.
LIONS ON THE WEB
Ú Website of the lion project offering a
wide variety of scientific literature:
cbs.umn.edu/lionresearch
Ú You don’t want to miss the series of
short films on the Vumbi pride called
“Serengeti Lion”. Craig Packer
explains the settings.
ngm.nationalgeographic.com/serengeti-lion
The Serengeti Lion Project also monitors the
lions in the Ngorongoro Crater (part of the
Serengeti Ecosystem), an area that contains
the highest concentration of large carnivores
21
FOCUS | SERENGETI
SCHWERPUNKTTHEMA
FOCUS | SERENGETI
| PERU
THE
SERENGETI
OF MY
DREAMS
i
Ongoing Data Collection
Currently 20 – 25 lion prides are being
studied in an area of about 2,500 square
kilometers. In order to find all prides within
the study area on a weekly basis, the
project has fitted one female lion in each
pride with a radio collar. At times, especially
during the wet season, the lions undertake
big journeys and disappear from their
territories and ranges, making it difficult to
track them on the ground. The Frankfurt
Zoological Society provides invaluable aid
in finding the lions by providing tracking
flights. In these flights, huge areas can be
covered in short time and the range of the
tracking equipment is much greater from
the air. Hence the lion project can maintain
an ongoing data collection on the lions
without gaps.
It is not in the distant past, when poachers roamed, killing the rhino
and the elephant, bringing their numbers to a dismal fraction
of their better past;
I see far far away in the future, a new vibrant Serengeti,
that glows in beauty and splendour.
It makes my heart beats race with awe, as I look at it with absolute
gladness, for it looks so different from the one I see today.
It charms my spirit.
by Gerald Bigurube
T
he Serengeti of my dreams has no poachers, poaching has become anathema. The communities around the park do not
want it, the rangers of the park cannot tolerate it; the policemen and the magistrates are against it; the nation of Tanzania abhors it. Poachers have no hiding place any more; they have therefore
switched trade. Poaching has lost its charlatans. Wildebeest and zebra still roam free, doing their annual rounds at ease. Snares and
spears are not a threat any more. Bows and arrows have disappeared
from the scene. The lions still roar and the hyenas whine; the jackals
and the foxes revel in plenty. There is room for everybody.
The rhinos have increased and
travel extensively. They roam all
over the place; the whole park
is their home. There are no
special
speciiall forces
forces any more to
guard them.
i
The Serengeti of my dreams
has
traffic.
has no transit traff
ffic. It is a
sacred place, where people come in as guests. Those
visitors drive around carefully
to enjoy the scenery and
avoid running
over
Applied Evolution Strategies
When and why are lions infanticidal – killing
their own offspring? One major finding of the
project was the infanticidal behavior of lions.
When a new dominant male takes over a
pride, he needs to produce his own offspring
as soon as possible. Only this will ensure
his new position. In non-interrupted cycles
the female will be receptive again when her
cubs are two years of age. By killing the cubs
of his predecessor, the new dominant male
induces the females of the pride to return to
mating condition. What might seem cruel to
us is evolution applied – this strategy allows
the male to spread his genetics.
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
animals. The big trucks have stopped their crazy rushes through the
park. By now, truck drivers have found better, alternative routes to
reach their destinations.
In my dream Serengeti, ecotourism is the name of the game. The
tourist cars are non-polluting, moving around with very little noise.
They change their colours like the magnificent chameleon, blending in with the colours that characterise Serengeti's seasons. Accommodation is made up of eco-friendly facilities. All large concrete
structures have been blasted away and only small camp units dot the
landscape with ten or less visitors at any one place. Generator noises
have long, long gone. This is serenity at its highest level.
The seasons have returned to their normal predictable cycles, and
rains fall and cease at their known right times. The crocodiles of Grumeti hear the wildebeest hoof beats at the appointed time and know
with certainty that the days of feasting have arrived.
The Serengeti of my dreams has no livestock problems. The pastoral neighbouring communities have embraced a new lifestyle. They
have settled at known addresses, they live in modern houses. Their
cattle do not roam anymore. They graze in paddocks and their numbers are reasonably small yet healthy. Loliondo, though small, still
has room for livestock and wildlife. Extreme droughts have ceased
and livestock can graze contentedly all year round.
Yes, my Serengeti is now only a dream; but you know, dreams do
come true. FZS, the Parks and Communities love the dream. They
continue to work together, to bring it to pass. Maybe not during my
lifetime, but some distant day it will come true.
FZS GORILLA | ISSUE 1/2014
Phooto:
Ph
to:
o Daanie
iel Rose
s ng
ngr
gren
22
There is a Serengeti I see far far away in the distance.
Gerald Bigurube has worked for FZS during the past five years,
residing in Serengeti at the Africa Regional Offices (ARO).
He is the former Director General of Tanzania National Parks
(TANAPA) and is now working as a Programme Manager for
FZS’s projects across Tanzania.
23