CURRENT SCOPES OF CARTOGRAPHY: SMALL DISPLAY
MAP DESIGN
Necla ULUGTEKIN, A.Ozgur DOGRU
Istanbul Technical University, Geodesy and Photogrammetry Department, Cartography Division
ABSTRACT
New technologies have made the maps an important part of everyday life through screen maps
published on the internet and mobile or small display devices. The traditional map design, however,
is not suitable to be applied in the mobile devices due to the restricted mobile devices capability
such as low processing power, limited storage, input capability and display area. This paper aims at
designing better maps for effective display on mobile devices by summarizing some design issues.
These constraints include both cartographical and technical problems.
Cartographically, the map content has to be restructured to make it appropriate to display in small
screen. One of the possible ways to deal with the map design is to simplify the maps according to
the user’s aim and cognitions in order to reduce the unnecessary map information. This method also
helps the cartographer to overcome one of the main problems of the screen map design that is the
limited size of the screen of mobile devices.
In this study small display map design, which is a current scope of cartography, is handled
especially by considering the car navigation systems. In this concept cartographic visualization for
mobile mapping is discussed with related subjects as generalization and multiple representations in
the second part of the study. Besides all of the components of small display map design
(symbolization, colour, text and etc.) are examined in the third part and the study is finalized with
discussion and conclusions on the subject.
Key words: map design, small display cartography, generalization, MRDB.
1. INTRODUCTION
Cartography is the science, art and technology of making, using, and studying maps. Just as the
other disciplines, it is affected by the current technological developments. Cartographers produce
maps for the users and users benefit from the maps to obtain required information. Nowadays, this
relationship became more important because maps are started to be published as not only paper
maps but also digital maps. Mobile mapping technologies and methods, which aim to design maps
for mobile devices (Pocket PC, mobile phones, in-vehicle computers, and etc.), introduced mobile
cartography or small display cartography as a new interest of cartographers. In addition to new
technological capabilities of them, all these devices have different users with various purposes as
navigation, vehicle tracking, data acquisition, and etc. Therefore, map design for mobile devices
needs different and special design considerations in addition to conventional cartographic methods.
Modern mobile devices usually have high portability but, conversely, with low-resolution and small
screens, limited memory storage and low processing power. All these constraints bring about
several common problems to the new mobile mapping applications. Especially, constraints that are
considered for the communication of the information on a small display device are required for
effective presentation of geographical information. In order to overcome this limitations map
content is simplified by using generalization methods. In this position, the aim of the whole process
as navigation or tracking should be well known to determine level of simplification. Multiple
representations which contain different levels of detail of the same world reality are used in such
cases as interfaces [Dogru and Ulugtekin, 2006]. The simplification should not only be applied to
the geographical data but also consider much about how the users interact and understand the map
such that the users needs for navigation [Cheung 2007, Nivela & Sarjakoski 2005].
As mapmaking tools become more available and user friendly for non-cartographers to use due to
advances in technology, the potential of producing poor quality maps increased. Poor quality maps
can lead to poor decision making and misunderstanding of world reality [Arleth 1999]. For
example, when navigation task executed with poor quality maps is considered, it may confuse or
distort navigation by communicating wrong information to the driver. Good quality navigation
maps have the potential to transform complex road data into accessible, understandable, and
convincing information.
2. CARTOGRAPHIC VISUALIZATION FOR MOBILE MAPPING
Scientific cartography has the task to develop and research new methods of cartographic
visualization. For that purpose the knowledge about graphical representation of geoinformation
must be connected with modern digital visualization tools. The main focus in modern cartography
is on understanding the processes and methods of “how to efficiently communicate with spatial
information”. Various demands are stated that the cartographic visualization should meet as
legibility, plainness, and accuracy [Franges 2007]. Apart from that, the cartographic visualization
should meet also the demands that can be posed upon any graphic presentation. Clearness and
aesthetics have the greatest importance for the cartographic visualization. Each of the above stated
demands can be carried out on single ingredient parts of the cartographic presentation, but it is
much more adequate to do it through their purposeful combining. Legibility includes the minimal
sizes for symbol and text, graphic density of map elements and presenting the changes of spatial
data like land use. Plainness includes the conventional rules as the use of blue for water
information, organization of hierarchies and symbolism as road classification and building
combination. It is important that the sign accuracy as well as positional accuracy. Clearness
includes layer arrangement, simplicity, generalization and contrast among the map objects.
Aesthetics must be beauty and harmony for all map design elements [Franges 2007].
Once a graphical map image is shown, the users start map understanding/reading procedures.
According to Keates (1982), users understand a map image in four major processes including
detection, discrimination, recognition and identification. Firstly, when a map is displayed, the
human eyes are stimulated and some geographical objects are detected. Then, the discrimination
process makes the users notice different kinds of map objects by the human brain. After that, some
of the objects are recognized and some of them are understood through the identification process.
After all these processes, user understands the content in the map. The map understanding
procedures occur frequently in map reading when there is, typically, a change in the display. These
procedures are usually slow and depended on the experience of the users. Therefore, the refresh of
the map image makes the users to go over again and again the map understanding procedures for
the whole map image including the information has already been read and understood. The more
the information there, the longer time the users need to understand the map content. This situation
should be carefully considered when designing maps for small display devices, because the limited
dimensions of these devices should display optimum data to increase the users’ perception.
Otherwise, the implemented process, for example navigation, can be resulted in accidents because
of time consuming to understand the map content. Zoom levels are currently used to cover this
requirement but it should also be considered that too many zoom levels also increases the load of
the map understanding procedures because a refresh of screen is required to show a new map
image. The increase in the cognitive load of the map understanding procedures may result in the
inconvenient and complicated map. The reduction of the load, therefore, such as reducing the
number of zoom levels and reducing the information in the maps can enhance the readability,
efficiency and effectiveness of the map reading processes [Cheung 2007, Nivela & Sarjakoski
2005].
The main application of mapping for mobile devices is navigation assistance or wayfinding. While
the primary purpose of wayfinding with maps is to get to the destination with as little effort as
possible, the secondary purpose is the creation of a mental map of the route that will aid in finding
the location again without the use of a map. In contrast, when using a mobile device for wayfinding,
the user is directed to a location with minimal mental effort by the user. In addition, the map
presented on the mobile device is often too simplistic to create a functional mental map of the
environment. Because there is little overlap between the map and the environment, the quality of
the resultant mental map is compromised [Peterson 2007]. The process of finding out where user is
helps to form a mental map, a mental conception of where user has been and where user needs to
go. Mobile mapping devices, like navigation systems in general, do not seem to contribute to the
formation of long-term mental maps [Peterson 2007].
Within the navigation system a geographic database is available for semantic and spatial queries
and network analysis. Network analysis use generalization, where results of queries also benefit
from cartographic visualization and symbolization. The process is a feed-back cycle, since the
driver is prompted to take the next action based upon receiving a particular view of the environment
and understanding. A simple flow chart, which starts with the acquisition of the positional data by
the entry of the driver or by the use of spatial or semantic queries executed through geographic
database and ends with the vehicle control, for the system operation is provided in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The Car Navigation System Operation [Dogru et al. 2007].
In this figure, dashed arrow lines represent the human interaction of the system while solid arrow
lines represent the common process of the designed system [Dogru et al. 2007]. System is based on
the interaction of human (user/driver) and machine (system). It uses an input data of location
determined by the user or obtained by semantic or spatial queries executed by the user. The
knowledge discovery from database in car navigation systems starts in this stage while obtaining
the positional data from the geographic data base and it continues through the database
generalization to derive the route data and instruction generation to navigate the driver. Whole
process is interactive; especially vehicle control depending on the instructions displayed to the
driver is the last and the most important part of this interaction since the confidence of the travel
depends on this usable knowledge derived from the final instructions. The mental map of the
selected route to destination is formed by the driver by using final instructions visualized on maps
[Dogru et al. 2007].
2.1. Generalization and Multiple Representations
“Generalization” will appear as a problem in visualization because of working with different scales
as a result of spatial data base content and aim of the map. Although database generalization
emphasizes data content, completeness, and accuracy, while cartographic generalization deals with
symbol conflicts and legibility in map space, the one principle that both have in common is to
preserve the geographic characteristics. Generalization is about representing the spatial relationship
of features and their geographical patterns as faithfully as possible at a given scale, and therefore it
requires to analyze, to recognize, and to manipulate features in such geographic context [Lee 2004].
At the very basic level, each geographic feature is stored as a record (point, line, or polygon) in a
database, usually with a set of geographic attributes. After generalization process, the spatial
relationship may be destroyed and the geographic pattern may be distorted so it is critical to know
or to find how certain features are spatially related with surrounding features and to represent such
contexts properly. Some of the spatial relationships can be modelled and maintained in the
geographic database; others need to be analyzed and computed. In geographic information systems
(GIS) technology, these relationships are maintained through an association known as topology
[Lee 2004].
The thematic or the topographic use of the spatial data effects and changes the design of maps.
Currently, these kinds of design problems are solved with the systems which include the layers with
their automated filters according to scale of screen. An intelligent map allows the display of any
zoom level, automatically adjusting the degree of generalization, and gives the user a possibility of
combining map layers and perhaps of using alternate symbolization. To assure that the resulting
maps have a sufficient cartographic quality, each map layer is associated with look up tables
defining how the layer can be visualized, what symbolization is allowed, what scales the layer can
be applied in etc. [Arleth 1999].
However, presentation of the redundant data in limited dimensions is still considered as
complicated problem [Dogru and Ulugtekin 2006]. Multiple Representation Database (MRDB)
approach, which can be used to store the same real world phenomena at different levels of accuracy
and resolution, can be considered as a solution for this problem together with small display
cartography studies [Dogru, 2004]. A comprehensive description of the MRDB is done in
Kilpelainen (1997) and her studies were resulted in an MRDB model for generalization of geodatabases for topographic maps. Many of researches propose the MRDB as the solution covering
data management, automated generalization, and map production which are accepted as the current
problem of Cartography. Therefore, today MRDB is one of the most important subjects of
concerning disciplines and many studies are executed as an MRDB application for adapting the
previous studies to this approach. Car navigation process is basically one of these applications with
its road map needs in different levels of details (Figure 2) [Dogru 2004; Dogru & Ulugtekin 2006,
Ulugtekin & Dogru 2005].
As it is represented in Figure 2 different representation levels includes different contents according
to their aim. Representation levels for navigation purposes can be classified as base, district,
county, city and the national levels. Small scale maps are used for national and international levels
of the application. A map of this level contains national boundaries and international motorways for
general overview of the application area. If the nationwide navigation is considered, national road
maps consisting international motorways, state roads and city boundaries should be visualized for
general overview. Scale selection depends on the coverage area in this concept. For instance a
general overview of the whole Turkey can be obtained 1:8 000 000 scaled maps while the city maps
with an approximate scale of 1:250 000 are used for viewing the general structure of the city and
origin and the destination of the navigation. Administrative boundaries, motorways, state roads,
railways, airports, and related text are common content of these maps.
Figure 2: Road Maps for Different Representation Levels
Much more generalization is needed while deriving the maps for county level. Point of interests
(POIs) are selected and represented with their symbols while the other buildings are eliminated
(Figure 2). Land use classes are determined as the density of the buildings in the building blocks.
Scale is selected in a range of 1:5000 and 1:10 000 by considering the coverage area. Detailed map
is included in advance, containing all necessary information and covering the selected area as land
use, POIs, district and building block boundaries, all roads and related text. It means that the
content of the maps is not classically related with the scale. All detail maps are designed for a userdependent display of information [Ulugtekin et al. 2004, Dogru & Ulugtekin 2006,].
3. SMALL DISPLAY MAP DESIGN
Cartographers use various tools just as functions, rules and conventions for visualization. The better
cartographic presentation with adequate resolution, well-defined symbols, harmonious use of
colour, good legibility and optimally placed titles and optimal graphic density attracts users and
gives better information. Simplification algorithms used for generalization of the road network are
the example of the functions. Use of the graduated symbols for representing quantity of attribute
data or illuminating from northwest while using shading method for the representation of the
elevations can be considered as the example of rules. On the other hand, representing the object
according to the principle of similarity with the reality or by adopting symbols (water with blue,
mountains with brown and etc.) is a convention of cartography. Also, the same objects should be
presented in the same colour; different colour intensity should be associated according to the
importance of an object, etc. However using all of these known rules can not be sufficient to obtain
the desired result [Franges 2007, Kraak & Ormeling 1996, Nivela & Sarjakoski 2005, Ulugtekin &
Dogru 2004]. Presentation of the information is an important and classical subject of the
cartography. Cartographer works on an unknown spatial data to produce multi purpose maps for
communication of this data.
Although new technological developments submit useful facilities as internet or multimedia for
cartography, they also cause the production of low quality maps. It shows that the development of
the technology and cartographic design do not proceed simultaneously. However, developments on
the GIS software [Hardy et al. 2004, Lee 2004] have caused both new map makers and devices for
producing and presenting maps. This situation has not only increased the map production and
developed its production techniques but also resulted in new design problems [Ulugtekin & Dogru
2004].
Map design includes various factors just as; cognition level, map content, symbols, standards, scale
and accuracy, depending on characteristics of the analyses in the scope of the aim of the map. Most
of these factors are related to each other and they affect themselves. Production cost, time and
aesthetic play a determinative role in all map production processes. Presenting information on
screen is much more limited than on paper. However, presenting numerous comparative data along
with each other becomes easier by using a well designed database. As a result, although screen map
design is more complicated, it has various special facilities just like interaction, animation,
multimedia (audio, video and text). Besides, graphical design and symbols that can not be produced
on paper can be formed on screen by the help of the technology. On the other hand, some
restrictions appear when maps wanted to be presented on hand held devices. The file size of the
map or its download performance is limited with the memory of the devices. Therefore more
generalization is needed for small screen map design according to the aim. Use of vector format can
be another solution these kinds of problems. Scroll bars, activated area or voice are used to reduce
the content of the generalized maps for screens [Worm 2002]. For instance, when hand held devices
used for car navigation are considered, it can not be possible to use pull down menus during
navigation so voice messages help the map user instead of pull down menus. On the other hand pull
down menu technology are generally used while designing maps and the systems for hand held
devices used for personal navigation [Ulugtekin & Dogru 2004].
Map content completely depends on the map scale. If the screen scale reduced too much it will
make the map unreadable so it will be difficult to use such map for data communication. On the
contrary, larger scales cause orientation problems (loss of orientation) for the user. Screen scaling
solutions (static and dynamic scaling) of web cartography are also used for hand held devices.
Static zooming is mechanical increasing in object size in natural scale. Therefore this kind of
zooming can cause orientation and readability problem on large and small scales. Dynamic
zooming technique is frequently used while designing maps for hand held devices. As a result, a
default data representation scale should be determined while designing maps [Ulugtekin & Dogru
2004].
Map title and legend are other components that make a map more understandable. On the other
hand, north arrow is used for orientation if there is no grid. Finally, additional information just as
projection and bibliographic information are other details that differs a map from an ordinary
sketch. Although, all these information is needed for classical maps, hand held devices can not
represent this amount of information because of display area problems. There are more complex
problems for hand held devices in this situation. Their usage conditions, aim and display limitations
affect all component of the maps and most of these elements are not shown on screen [Ulugtekin &
Dogru 2004].
3.1. Symbol Design
As the map scale reduces, the representation of the mapped features becomes more and more
symbolic. There are point, line and area symbols and texts on a map. Symbols are designed by
using graphic variables (position, size, value, texture/pattern, colour, orientation and shape) defined
by Bertin. Each graphic variable has a different information characteristic and they are sometimes
used in screen and classical map design differently [Bertin 1983, Ed 2001, Kraak 2002, Nivela &
Sarjakoski 2005, Ulugtekin & Dogru 2004]. A symbol on a map must maintain a minimum
dimension so it can be printed legibly. Below certain map scale, a symbolized feature may no
longer be measured to scale and will occupy more space than it does on the ground; this causes the
space between features to reduce or diminish and the symbolized features appear collapsed to each
other or overlap. It is necessary to clarify the lost spacing so that features are properly separated and
recognizable. Cartographic generalization deals with symbolized features in map space and resolves
symbol conflicts. For example, a point typification process needs to take into account the point
symbol dimension and to satisfy a minimum spacing between the point symbols; a line
simplification process needs to consider the width of the line symbol [Lee 2004].
Point symbols are examined in three categories which are pictorial, geometric and alpha numerical.
All of these symbols are very simple and understandable. Especially pictorial symbols are
frequently used, because they do not need legend. On the other hand geometric (abstract) and alpha
numeric symbols need legend. Point symbols are mostly used for the presentation of the qualitative
data but it can also be used for the representation of the quantitative data by using them in different
sizes. Moreover the graphic variables shape and colour, can give qualitative characteristics to these
symbols. Most printed maps make use of point symbols or pictograms (icons). When converted to
the screen map, the pictograms become either illegible or big and bulky. In general a pictogram on
a screen map should not exceed 16x16 pixels, as larger symbols will be much to dominating. To
design meaningful pictograms in 16x16 pixels is a task requiring special graphic talents. Hence the
use of iconic symbols in screen maps ought to be limited or avoided because of dimensional
limitations of screens. When map design for hand held (mobile) devices is considered, international
and space saving simple point symbols (especially pictorial) should be used for fast recognition.
Several point symbols with minimum size of 3x3 pixels are produced for hand held devices in
GiMoDig Project [Arleth 1999, Nissen et al. 2003, Ulugtekin & Dogru 2004].
Line symbols are used to represent line objects. Line symbols should be easy recognizable for each
line objects (like road and railway) by using shape and colour. Cartographers do not prefer using
orientation and pattern while designing very thin and diagonal line symbols. Besides animated line
symbols are used to show traffic flows. Minimum size of linear object types is defined to 10x1
pixels for hand held devices in GiMoDig Project [Nissen et al. 2003, Ulugtekin & Dogru 2004].
Unlike buildings, roads even at this large scale may be classified into three categories: main roads
with more than one lane, secondary road with only one lane and minor roads of walkways. These
are already varied by nature in length and width. So a certain font and size may be consistently
applied to each class [Pun-Cheng & Shea 2007].
Area symbols used to represent the area objects and the data based on area. They are designed by
using colour, pattern, shape and orientation. However unconscious use of these graphic variables
causes semantic errors and huge file sizes. So this kind of symbols should be used carefully while
designing maps for hand held devices. In GiMoDig Project minimum size of area object types is
defined to 8x4 pixels, except buildings in outline as template which minimum size is defined to 4x2
pixels [Nissen et al. 2003, Ulugtekin & Dogru 2004].
The texture, which is frequently used for area symbols in classical map design, is not advised for
screen map design for area symbols. While designing screen maps two new variables, transparency
and shade, is used instead of texture.
The screen map designer faces a difficult task; balancing between keeping the screen map simple
and avoiding too empty areas. As solution should be mentioned Arleth (1999); using digital
orthophotos or satellite imagery as background will prevent the problem with “dead” areas [PunCheng & Shea 2007] but this solution is not suitable for the small screen map design.
Lettering is a common problem in map design. Readability, legibility, harmony and a distinct
visual hierarchy are some of the requirements of the lettering of a map. A map without text can not
be considered. At least place names, elevation values and the oıther required textual information
should be represented, otherwise it will be impossible to understand that map. However there are
several rules and conventions for using text on maps. For example the difference between the
natural and the artificial objects is obtained by using italic characters for natural ones. This method
does not give good results on screen maps. The difficulties arise from the limitations of the small
screen, primarily the coarse resolution. Besides it is difficult to label features without introducing a
shadow around text because the background colour of the map is mixed in with the foreground
colours of the text but this method increases the file sizes. The smallest readable text on the screen
is 10 pts. However, visually impaired persons require minimum 12-14 pts. Lighter colour for the
background and darker one for the text should be used for visually impaired people [Arleth 1999,
Ulugtekin & Dogru 2004]. To establish a suitable visual hierarchy between the lettering of
different elements, the designer needs a certain scope of sizes and styles, and consequently has to
make use of small lettering as well. Few fonts, that are currently available, are designed specifically
for the screen. Empirical studies suggest that sans serif fonts (like Verdana or Tahoma) are more
legible in small scales on the screen than antiquas [Arleth 1999]. But it must be noted that even
though a certain font might look nice on the screen (even in small types) when applied horizontally,
the letters can appear quite differently sloping and slanting to follow the features in the map.
Lettering can be switched on and off, according to shifts in theme or scale, it can be applied as “pop
up” labels or spoken “labels” [Arleth 1999]. Especially for hand held devices voice can be used as a
graphic variable instead of text. On the other hand viewing distance affects the text size and font
too. This should be considered as an important detail for hand held devices used for car navigation
systems [Ulugtekin & Dogru 2004].
With some exceptions of minor roads, road names do not normally require short forms or
abbreviations for placement constraints. However name placement of roads suffers from the
problems of overlapping at the junctions and deviation from the road alignment. In the latter case, it
is important that the centerline created for guiding the placement should align with the original road
curvature. Also for long roads, it is necessary to repeat labeling at appropriate intervals [Pun-Cheng
& Shea 2007].
Colour is an important component of the map design to make it more understandable because it
bridges the map features with real objects by using natural colours. However there are several
problems on colour while designing screen maps. First of all, computers show the colours
depending on its graphic card, screen resolution and other hardware quality so hardware affects
colour choice. On the other hand, making a “good” designed map does not mean using various
colours [Ulugtekin & Dogru 2004]. “Contrast” is the key word in this stage. All information has a
different importance on a map so they should be visualized based on their importance level and this
affects colour choice too. Besides, map user is very important for colour choice so some issues
should be considered when symbolizing maps for screen displays. These attentions become more
important for small display cartography. Because the screen resolution of the hand held devices are
lesser than computers and it dramatically affects the colours. Optimal amount of colour should be
used for these kinds of devices for solving this problem [Ulugtekin & Dogru 2004]. Additionally
use conditions are another factor affecting the colour choice. For example various colours can be
used for day or night view of navigation maps or seasonal characteristics of the reality (sunny for
summers and snowy for winters) can also affect this choice.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Small display devices are very special hardware with their display media. Because they are in small
dimensions, the maps that they used for different purposes should be specially designed. Besides,
they are used for spatial applications as navigation so the data used by them should be updated
regularly. Although there are some works for small display design and solving update problems,
serious works should be started and implemented. As mentioned before hand held devices have
difficulties for displaying data effectively due to the small screen size, resolution and other factors.
However, there are methods to expand the design possibilities and overcome some of the
restrictions by using design techniques just like use of colour, generalization of data to be displayed
and the use of audio.
Understanding the data presented in small display media is quite important for the communication
of the information. Some visual tools are used for different applications. Perspective view of
environment is very important for perception of reality in this manner. Zooming tools are also
helpful to increase the perception of the user but in some applications the maps are getting problems
with different zooming steps; symbols or texts must be appeared and disappeared regularly between
different scales. If the step between map scales is too large, the visualization between different
scales is distinctively different. This made it difficult to make a connection between a large scale
and small scale map and to keep track of a specific location at different scales. Although legend is
considered as the main tool to understand the map content, it can not be used for small display map
design because of the lack of the place to locate it.
The designer must have an understanding of the map much more than a graphic, additionally the
designer needs to understand what kind of functionality is desired and needed for effective use of a
small screen map. Problems and solutions concerning the map design will depend on the purpose of
the map, the conditions under which it is to be used, and the qualifications of the intended users.
Solutions and choices in the map design have to take these conditions in consideration as well, and
will in addition depend on the technology and on the knowledge and skills of the designer. As the
commitment to maps and cartography should be the driving force in the development and design of
small screen maps, educating cartographers in usability engineering will be more likely to produce
better interactive map applications, rather than teaching interface designers about maps and
cartography [Arleth 1999]. Technology will go on giving new advises on design to cartography.
“Dynamic interactive multidimensional maps” will join the cartographic theories as new facilities.
5. LITERATURE
Arleth, M., 1999, Problems in Screen Map Design. Proceedings of the 19th International
Cartographic Conference, Vol:1, pp: 849-857, Ottawa, Canada.
Bertin, J., 1983, Semiology of Graphics: Diagrams, Networks, Maps. Traslated by William J. Berg,
University of Wisconsin Press, USA.
Cheung, Y.K., Li, Z., Chen, W., 2007, Simplification of Map Contents for Mobile –Based
Navigations. ICA-The 23th International Cartographic Conference, 4-10 August, (CD). Moskow,
Rusia.
Dogru, A.O., 2004, Multiple Representations For Junction Modeling In Car Navigation Map
Design, MSc. Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Institute of Science and Technology, Turkey
(in Turkish).
Dogru, A.O., Ulugtekin, N., 2006, Car Navigation Map Designing Terms of Multiple
Representation. The 1st International Conference on Cartography and GIS. January, (CD). Borovets,
Bulgaristan.
Dogru, A.O., Demirel, H., Ulugtekin, N., 2007, Adding Value of Car Navigation Visual
Approaches to Knowledge Discovery. ITC, International Symposium of Spatial Data Quality, June,
(CD). Enshede, The Netherlands.
Ed, M., 2001, Cartographic Design Using ArcView GIS. OnWord Press, Canada.
Franges, S., Posloncec-Petric, V., Zupan, R., 2007, Continuous Development of Cartographic
Visualization. ICA-The 23th International Cartographic Conference, 4-10 August, (CD). Moskow,
Rusia.
Hardy, P., Briat, M.O., Eicher, C., Kressmann, T., 2004, Database Driven Cartography from
Digital Landscape Model, with Multiple Representations and Human Overrides. ICA Workshop on
Generalisation and Multiple Representation; 20-21 August, Leicester, UK.
Keates, J. S., 1982, Understanding Maps. Halsted Press
Kilpelainen, T., 1997, Multiple Representation and Generalization of Geo-Databases for
Topographic Maps. PhD Thesis, Finnish Geodetic Institute, Finland.
Kraak, M.J., Ormeling, F.J., 1996, Cartography: Visualisation of Spatial Data. Longman.
England.
Kraak, M.J., 2002, Cartographic Principles. Web Cartography: Developments and Prospects.
edited. by M-J. Kraak & A. Brown. ITC Division of Geoinformatics, Cartography and
Visualisation, Enschede, The Netherlands.Taylor&Francis, London and New York. pp. 53-72.
Lee, D., 2004, Geographic and Cartographic Contexts in Generalization. ICA Workshop on
Generalisation and Multiple Representation; 20-21 August 2004. Leicester, UK.
Nissen, F., Hvas, A., Swendsen, J. and Brodersen, L., 2003. Small-Display Cartography,
GiMoDig Scientific Report http://gimodig.fgi.fi/.
Nivela, A.-M., Sarjakoski, L.T., 2005, Adapting Map Symbols for Mobile User. XXIInd International
Cartographic Conference, 9-16 July, (CD). A Coruna, Spain.
Nivela, A.-M., Brewster, S., Sajakoski, L.T., 2007, Usability Problems of Web Map Sites. ICAThe 23th International Cartographic Conference, 4-10 August, (CD). Moskow, Rusia.
Peterson, M.P., 2007,Maps and the Internet: What a Mess It is and How the Fix It. ICA-The 23th
International Cartographic Conference, 4-10 August, (CD). Moskow, Rusia.
Pun-Cheng, S.C.L., Shea Y.K.G., 2007, Automatic Bilingual Name Placement of 1:1000 Map
Sheets of Hong Kong. ICA-The 23th International Cartographic Conference, 4-10 August, (CD).
Moskow, Rusia.
Ulugtekin, N., Dogru, A.O., 2004, Consideration of Map Design for Hand Held Devices.
International Symposium on Modern Technologies, Education and Professional Practice in
Geodesy and Related Fields. pp: 259-265, 4-5 November, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Ulugtekin, N., Dogru, A.O., 2005, Map Design for Navigational Purposes. ICA-The 22th
International Cartographic Conference, 11-16 July, (CD). A Coruna, Spain.
Ulugtekin N., Dogru A.O., Thomson, R., 2004, Modeling Urban Road Networks Integrating Multiple
Representations of Complex Road and Junction Structures. Proceedings of the 12th International
Conferences on Geoinformatics, pp. 757-764, Gavle, Sweden.
Worm, J., 2002, Web Map Design in practice. Web Cartography:Developments and Prospects.
edited. by M-J. Kraak & A. Brown. ITC Division of Geoinformatics, Cartography and
Visualisation, Enschede, The Netherlands.Taylor&Francis, London and New York. pp. 87-108.
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Necla ULUGTEKIN
Istanbul Technical University,
Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering
Department, Cartography Division.
A. Ozgur DOGRU, MSc
Istanbul Technical University,
Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering
Department, Cartography Division.
Adress: İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi,
İnşaat Fakültesi Kartografya Anabilim Dalı
34469 Maslak/İstanbul-Türkiye
Tel: +90 212 285 3774
Fax: +90 212 285 6587
e-mail: [email protected]
Adress: İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi,
İnşaat Fakültesi Kartografya Anabilim Dalı
34469 Maslak/İstanbul-Türkiye
Tel: +90 212 285 3827
Fax: +90 212 285 6587
e-mail: [email protected]