BUILDING SELF-ESTEEM, SELF-CONCEPT, AND POSITIVE PEER RELATIONS
IN URBAN SCHOOL CHILDREN: AN ANALYSIS OF AN EMPOWERMENT
PROGRAM FOR PREADOLESCENT GIRLS
MASTER’S THESIS
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in the
Graduate School at The Ohio State University
By
Marte Erin Ostvik-de Wilde, B.S.
****
The Ohio State University
2008
Master’s Examination Committee:
Approved By:
James L. Moore III, Ph.D., Advisor
Lisa Hinkelman, Ph.D.
R. Michael Casto, Ph.D.
______________________________
Advisor
College of Education and Human
Ecology
Copyright by
Marte Erin Ostvik-de Wilde
2008
ABSTRACT
This study focused on the relationship between self-concept, self-esteem, and relational
aggression in relation to preadolescent girls’ participation in a ten-week empowerment
program. This empowerment group was based on team building, healthy assertiveness,
safety for girls, bullying, conflict resolution, peer relations, body image, leadership, and
career development. The author also discusses counseling needs and strategies, and
implications and recommendations for further research on empowerment intervention
efforts.
ii
Dedicated to Ari,
who believed in me
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank Dr. Lisa Hinkelman for giving me an opportunity to complete a
thesis and for her enthusiasm and continued guidance along the way. I would like to
thank my advisor, Dr. James Moore for his encouragement throughout the process. I also
wish to thank Dr. Michael Casto for serving on my committee and for his support.
I thank all my fellow Counselor Education cohort members for their unwavering
support and encouragement these past two years. They are wonderful people and
excellent counselors. I loved being able to make this journey with them.
A special thanks also goes out to Beth Camp and Erin Vlach who helped a great
deal with the group and thesis work.
Finally, I wish to thank my parents for instilling in me the value of education,
goals, and determination. I would not be where I am today without their continued help
and encouragement. I also wish to thank my brother for his ability to motivate and
inspire, and my sister for her kindness and friendship. I specifically wish to thank my
husband, Ari, who has been the motivating force behind this work. His love kept me
going. Thank you for everything.
iv
VITA
April 11, 1983………………………………….................Born - Farmington, Connecticut
June 2001……………………………………………………………..Miss Porter’s School
June 2005……………………………………....................................B.S. Communications
Boston University
Expected June 2008…………………………..………………..M.A. Counselor Education
The Ohio State University
Inducted to Chi Sigma Iota
Spring 2007…………………………………….......School Counseling Practicum Student
The Ohio State University
September 2007-Present……………………………School Counseling Internship Student
The Ohio State University
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Education
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract........................................................................................................................ii
Dedication…………………………………………………………………………....iii
Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………... iv
Vita………………………………………………………………………………….. v
List of Tables………………………………………………………………………... vii
List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………. viii
Chapters:
1. Introduction…………………………………………………….…………….1
2. Literature Review………………………………………………………….....9
3. Methods…………………………………………………………………..…. 32
4. Results ……………………………………………………………….……….41
5. Discussion………………………………………………………………….... 62
Bibliography………………………………………………………………….………71
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Relational Aggression Survey………………………………75
APPENDIX B: Multidimensional Self-Concept Scale…………….………...83
APPENDIX C: Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventories-Third Edition….……. 91
APPENDIX D: Qualitative Interviews……………………………………… 94
APPENDIX E: Sample Lessons……………………………………………...97
APPENDIX F: IRB…………………………………………………………..101
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
4.1
Demographic Information about Group Participants………………………..43
4.2
Academic Self-Esteem, General Self-Esteem, Parental/Home ………………..47
Self-Esteem, Social Self-Esteem, Total Self-Esteem,
Social Self-Concept, Competence Self-Concept,
Affect Self-Concept, Academic Self-Concept,
Family Self-Concept, Physical Self-Concept, and
Total Self-Concept Means, Standard Deviations, F,
Effect Sizes, and Power Estimates
4.3
Pretest and Posttest Percentages of Participants’ Self-Reports……………….54
of Engagement in Incidences of Relational Aggression
4.4
Rates of Self-Reported Participation in Bullying in relation………………...61
to MSCS
4.5
Rates of Self-Reported Participation in Bullying in relation…………………61
to CFSEI-3
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
4.1
Boxplots of Total Mean Scores on the Culture Free………………….…….48
Self-Esteem Inventory
4.2
Boxplots of Total Mean Scores on the Multidimensional…………………..49
Self-Concept Scale
4.3
Participants’ Self-Reported Involvement in Girl…………………………....51
Bullying
4.4
Participants’ Self-Reported Frequency of Involvement…………………….52
In Girl Bullying
viii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Educators hold a responsibility for promoting knowledge with the expectation that
all children will become productive, happy citizens. However, students need to take on
their own educational career by being able to regulate their own motivation and learning.
According to Albert Bandura (1997), motivation is a “high sense of personal efficacy in a
responsive environment that rewards valued accomplishments, fosters aspirations,
productive engagement in activities, and a self of fulfillment” (p. 21). In order to meet
students’ needs and assist them in becoming productive and self-regulated learners,
school counselors and other helping professionals (e.g., social workers and psychologists)
in a school setting work within a model focused on academic, career, and personal/social
domains.
The social domain offers an opportunity for helping professionals, such as school
counselors, to meet the emotional and mental needs of students, while cultivating their
self-esteem and self-concept. Current research indicates a need for school programming
that addresses self-esteem and self-concept of girls on the cusp of adolescence: “problems
such as declining self-esteem for girls…are often mitigated when girls have access to
supportive relationships with peers and adults” (Roffman, Pagano, & Hirsch, 2001, p.
87). In order to fully understand how school counselors and other educators can assist
girls in becoming successful and confident women, it is important to examine the
1
interactions among girls and the factors that influence the self-esteem and self-concept of
preadolescent girls. As models of human behavior and information facilitators, educators
are in an ideal position to foster resiliency in urban preadolescent girls.
Statement of the Problem
Preadolescence is characterized by self-development through a push for
autonomy. Socially, peers play a critical role in the development of self-concept and
rejection can be a major stressor. Emotional intensity enters all facets of life and selfesteem often plummets during this time (Vernon, 2004). However, although this period
(nine to twelve years old) highlights a multitude of emotional, social, and mental
difficulties, resilient preadolescents are at a threshold of possibility. Beginning in early
adolescence, children begin the shift to abstract thinking. It is during this critical time
that educators, including school counselors, have a unique opportunity to shape and
develop healthy cognitions and positive self-regard.
Girls are in a precarious situation as they are attempting to negotiate the role of
young women while also feeling the connection to childhood. Additionally, they are
influenced by the societal expectations of appropriate behavior for females and in turn
face many difficulties during adolescence, including but not to limited to: body
dissatisfaction, eating disorders, a desire to self-harm, sexual violence, school
absenteeism and truancy, and underachievement (Wilgosh, 2001). In a study addressing
women and girls, Wilgosh (1996b) focused on the following themes: violence against and
by women, women’s image and stereotypes, women and jobs, feminism and affirmation.
She found that societal expectations of girls and women affects their sense of self, thus
negatively impacting their career choices and achievement.
2
Based on previous research concerning self-esteem, self-concept, and peer
relations (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995; Houbre et al., 2006; Murray-Close & Crick, 2006),
this current study hypothesized that an empowerment program for girls will increase their
self-esteem and self-concept, and decrease their self-reports of relational aggression.
Crick and Grotpeter (1995) define relational aggression as “harming others through
purposeful manipulation and damage of their peer relations” (p. 711). Though current
research, including popular literature, includes information on relational aggression, there
is little empirical data linking specific interventions with a decrease in relational
aggression. This research study also aimed to understand the relationship between
preadolescent female empowerment programming and both self-concept and self-esteem.
It focused on an elementary school empowerment program for girls. The empowerment
group was a weekly program that met for ten weeks and emphasized a variety of girlfocused topics with the intention of increasing self-esteem and self-concept, while
decreasing perceived acts of relational aggression.
Research Questions
This research study examined the following research questions and hypotheses.
Research Question 1: Does a ten-week empowerment group influence global selfesteem, academic self-esteem, general self-esteem, parental/home self-esteem, social selfesteem, and personal self-esteem in preadolescent girl participants?
H-0a: There will be no difference in participants’ global self-esteem, academic
self-esteem, general self-esteem, parental/home self-esteem, social self-esteem, and
personal self-esteem.
3
H-1a: Preadolescent girls who participate in a ten-week empowerment group will
have increased levels of global self-esteem, academic self-esteem, general self-esteem,
parental/home self-esteem, social self-esteem, and personal self-esteem at the end of the
group.
Research Question 2: Does a ten-week empowerment group influence global selfconcept, social self-concept, competence self-concept, affective self-concept, academic
self-concept, family self-concept, and physical self-concept of preadolescent girl
participants?
H-0b: There will be no difference in preadolescent girl participants’ global selfconcept, social self-concept, competence self-concept, affective self-concept, academic
self-concept, family self-concept, and physical self-concept.
H-1b: Preadolescent girls who participate in a ten-week empowerment group will
have increased levels of global self-concept, social self-concept, competence selfconcept, affective self-concept, academic self-concept, family self-concept, and physical
self-concept at the end of the group.
Research Question 3: Does a ten-week empowerment group influence self-reports
of relational aggression in preadolescent girl participants?
H-0c: There will be no difference in participants’ reports of relational aggression.
H-1c: Preadolescent girls who participate in a ten-week empowerment group will
report a decrease in acts of relational aggression.
Research Question 4: Is self-concept related to self-reports of relational
aggression among preadolescent girls who participate in a ten-week empowerment
program?
4
H-0d: There is no relationship between self-concept and self-reports of relational
aggression among preadolescent girls who participate in a ten-week empowerment
program.
H-1d: There is a relationship between self-concept and self-reports of relational
aggression among preadolescent girls who participate in a ten-week empowerment
program.
Research Question 5: Is self-esteem related to self-reports of relational aggression
among preadolescent girls who participate in a ten-week empowerment program?
H-0e: There is no relationship between self-esteem and self-reports of relational
aggression among preadolescent girls who participate in a ten-week empowerment
program.
H-1e: There is a relationship between self-esteem and self-reports of relational
aggression among preadolescent girls who participate in a ten-week empowerment
program.
Significance of the Study
The empowerment group emphasized several, interrelated goals. First, the
program examined the impact of a ten-week, small group intervention on preadolescent
girl participants’ self-esteem, self-concept, and peer relations skills. Second, the
empowerment group examined the correlation between self-esteem, self-concept, and
measures of relational aggression. Third, this program allowed the preadolescent girls to
have an opportunity to express themselves in a safe environment and participate in wellconstructed leadership and team building activities. The curriculum emphasized team
building, healthy assertiveness, safety for girls, bullying, conflict resolution, peer
5
relations, how to healthfully consume the media (body image), leadership, and career
development.
Traditional aggression studies have focused on physical aggression, while few
researchers emphasized the relational aspects of aggression. The empowerment group
hoped to add to the limited empirical research available on relational aggression in
preadolescent girls. Using both a cultural and practical approach, this gender-specific
empowerment group focused on the needs of self-reported aggressors and victims. The
program also assessed the relationship between self-esteem and self-concept of
relationally aggressive and non-relationally aggressive girls and participation in an
empowerment group.
The importance of this group and the research associated with it will contribute to
the field of counselor education and to the understanding of aggression and the
preadolescent psyche. Additionally, it examines the relationship between self-esteem,
self-concept and relational aggression. The empowerment program was innovative; it
utilized a mix of activities and concepts. Overall, the program utilized a multitude of
qualitative and quantitative assessments to determine whether participation in a
preadolescent girls’ empowerment group increases self-esteem and self-concept, and
decreases a tendency to participate in relational aggression.
Through a series of lessons focused on empowerment themes, the preadolescent
girls were given an opportunity to change their future. These themes included healthy
body awareness, healthy assertiveness, leadership, career exploration, team building, and
positive peer relations. By improving self-esteem and self-concept, the research literature
suggests that girls can empower themselves and others (Bandura, 1997). As Albert
6
Bandura (1997) once stated: “If they do not believe in themselves, they are unlikely to
empower others with the belief that they can successfully confront and change conditions
that affect their lives adversely” (p. 33).
Basic Assumptions
This study examined self-concept, self-esteem, and relational aggression as it
related to fifth-grade girls who were between the ages of 10 and 11 years old. However,
the research did not examine self-concept, self-esteem, and relational aggression as they
related to students who were in a different age cohort or grade-level in school. The data
for this study was collected from December 2007 to April 2008 in one elementary school
in a Midwestern state in the United States.
For this study, self-esteem was measured by “The Culture Free Self-Esteem
Inventories- Third Edition” (CFSEI-3, Battle, 2002), self-concept was measured by the
“Multidimensional Self Concept Scale” (MSCS; Bracken, 1992), and relational
aggression survey was measured by the Relational Aggression Survey (Randall &
Bowen, 2007). To this end, self-esteem and self-concept were defined as the authors of
the respective scales defined them. Battle (2002) defined self-esteem as “the perception
the individual possesses of his or her own worth, which develops gradually and becomes
more differentiated with maturity and interaction with significant others” (p. 30). Selfconcept, as a construct, was based on behavioral principles and the interaction between
behavior and environment. Bracken (1992) defined an individuals’ self-concepts as
“learned evaluations of themselves that are based upon their past successes and failures,
reinforcement histories, and the ways others react to them and interact with them” (p. 4).
In this study, relational aggression was defined according to Murray-Close and Crick
7
(2006) as “behaviors that harm others through damage to relationships or feelings of
acceptance, friendship, or group exclusion” (p. 475). For the purposes of this study,
relational aggression and girl bullying are considered interchangeable terms.
Limitations of the Study
Although the sample was composed of urban fifth-grade girls, the participants in
this research study were not representative of all urban fifth grade girls or of girls in
general. Due to the small sample size, it was difficult to generalize to the general
population of girls. Further studies are needed throughout different school districts and
populations of girls in order to examine how an empowerment group might relate
differently to self-concept, self-esteem, and relational aggression depending on the
different compositions of samples.
In accordance with threats to validity, the participants may have experienced
pretest sensitization, which was due to the research design including a pretest and a
posttest. In addition, the group may experience selection bias, due to the girls acting as
willing participants. Participants may have experienced the Hawthorne effect, where
study subjects change their behavior or responses due to attention gained from
participating in a study. Further, subjects may react to what they perceive as special
demands of the researcher or the research experience. The girls who opted to participate
may be different from the girls who chose not to participate. More studies in the future
could include comparison groups in order to better understand the relationship between
empowerment groups and their effects on self-esteem, self-concept, and acts of relational
aggression.
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Most researchers consider relational aggression to be a form of peer harassment,
with a traditional aggressor and victim dynamic. According to some studies, peer
victimization and harassment correlate negatively to self-esteem and self-concept (Crick
& Grotpeter, 1995; Crothers, Field, & Kolbert, 2005; Nishina, Juvonen, & Witkow,
2005). Therefore, female empowerment programs centered on positive peer relations are
critical in improving self-concept and self-esteem. Additionally, there is a positive link
between improving self-esteem and self-concept, and taking part in positive body image
programming, improving leadership skills, exploring nontraditional career choices, and
increasing healthy assertiveness (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Kerr & Kurpius, 2004;
Wilgosh, 2001).
Relational Aggression
Female friendships are a critical part of psychosocial development. Gilligan
(2003) proposed that a woman’s sense of self is dependent on a feeling of connectedness
to other girls or women; these female companions become essential elements of identity.
Relational aggression stands in the way of these positive female relationships.
9
Construct
Recently, there has been an increase in information available on relational
aggression, through popular media such as movies, books, and websites. However, the
works of scholars, such as Crick and Grotpeter (2005) and Remillard and Lamb (2005),
have contributed to a boom in research related to relational aggression in school-age girls.
Traditionally, the term aggression denotes physical acts committed against another
person; these include hitting, punching, and kicking. However, recent research indicates
that gender plays an important role in the way young people display aggression. Though
both genders are aggressive, boys tend to exhibit overt, physical aggression, while girls
display signs of relational, manipulative aggression (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). Though
there are a variety of definitions for relational aggression, there is a general consensus
that acts include “sarcastic verbal comments, speaking to another in a cold or hostile tone
of voice, ignoring, staring, gossiping, spreading rumors, “mean” facial expressions, and
exclusion, all acts aimed to damage the target’s social status or self-esteem” (Remillard &
Lamb, 2005, p. 221). Beyond these aggressive acts, relational aggressors tend to exhibit
behaviors such as social exclusion or threatening to drop a friendship in order to get what
they want (Crick, Bigbee, & Howes, 1996).
Aggression is an overarching construct, which includes covert and overt
behaviors. Intent to harm is the common thread among all of the types of aggression.
Crick and Grotpeter (1995) suggest that there are critical differences between the forms
of aggression. Overt aggression is hurting someone with physical aggression and
intimidation. On the other hand, relational aggression is purposefully damaging peer
relationships through manipulation. According to Young, Boye, and Nelson (2006),
10
covert aggression breaks down further into categories of reactive versus instrumental.
Reactive aggression is a response to a threatening situation such as, “I won’t be your
friend if you don’t do things my way” (p. 299). In essence, if aggression were only
denoted by physical acts, then a large percentage of victimized children would not be
identified as targets (Young, Boye, & Nelson, 2006).
Due to the introduction of relational aggression as a construct during the last
twenty years, there is speculation as to the best methods to assess relational aggression.
Peer assessment, teacher ratings, self-report measures, student interviews, and behavioral
observations are all popular techniques. According to Merrell, Buchanan, and Tran
(2006), there is not a single assessment that works above others. However, the more
reputable assessments seem to be a peer nomination format or ranking system, or selfreport measures. Though peer nomination gives multiple assessments, developmental
age and reputation could influence the assessment tool. Since relational aggression is
based on peer relationships, a child’s reputation could influence the manner in which they
view peer behavior. Though Merrell, Buchanan, and Tran (2006) support self-report
measures, they indicate its questionable use with assessing aggressors’ behavior but
determine its effectiveness with victims. This current study utilized a self-report measure
and student interview to properly indicate acts of relational aggression.
Multicultural Considerations
The majority of studies indicate that relational aggression is greater among girls
than boys (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995; Crick, Bigbee, & Howes, 1996; Crothers, Field, &
Kolbert, 2005; Merrell, Buchanan, & Tran, 2006). Leading relational aggression scholars,
Crick and Grotpeter (1995), analyzed gender in regards to relational aggression. Four
11
hundred and ninety one elementary school children participated in a study with the
following scales: overt aggression, prosocial scale, relational aggression scale, and
isolation scale. Results indicated that there was a distinctive difference between girls and
boys. Further, this research indicated that the boys were more likely to be overtly
aggressive, while girls were more likely to be socially aggressive. According to Crick
and Grotpeter (1995), relational aggression is distinctly different from overt aggression,
and both harm girls’ emotional wellbeing and social psyche.
Crothers, Field, and Kolbert (2005) tried to answer the question: “Does gender
identity status relate to girls’ use of relational aggression in their female relationships?”
(p. 350). Results indicated that girls who identified themselves with a more traditional
feminine gender role were likely to perceive themselves as using relational aggression
than those who identified with a nontraditional gender role. Further, Crick and Grotpeter
(1995) speculate that this difference is due to fundamental differences between genders;
boys are more likely to be physically aggressive because they value physical dominance,
while girls focus on relational issues. According to Bern (1981), the difference between
overt and covert aggression also ties directly to gender but for societal reasons. The
author further asserted that girls do not express physical aggression because it was not
socially appropriate according to feminine identity. Relational aggression is a covert way
of expressing anger, being dominant, and resolving conflict. Some researchers believe
that gender relations dictate the manner of aggression girls portray (Reay, 2001). In a
telling study, Raey (2001) categorized her elementary school girls into four self-identified
groups: “nice girls, girlies, spice girls, and tomboys.”
12
Many studies indicate that race also plays a role by which girls display
aggression. The majority of relational aggression studies utilize Caucasian participants.
Although there have been increased efforts to diversify samples, most peer relations
researchers continue to use middle-class, Caucasian samples (Storch, Phil, Nock, MasiaWarner, & Barlas, 2003). For example, Storch et al. (2003) conducted a study with
predominantly Hispanic American (77.6%) and African American populations (15.1%).
Using a variety of psychosocial assessments, Storch et al. (2003), concluded that the
overall rates of overt and relational victimization were higher than those in previous
studies with Caucasian samples. Storch et al. (2003) also reiterated that boys were more
likely to experience overt victimization than girls. However, in studies on peer relations
with older adolescent populations researchers concluded that African American
adolescents may be influenced by peers less than compared to white adolescents (Estell,
Farmer, Cairns, & Cairns, 2002). Evidence for this claim is dependent on the belief that
African American girls are more likely to be assertive or direct when problem solving
(Crothers, Field, & Kolbert, 2005).
Bullying
There are three primary characteristics of bullying: frequency, the intention to
hurt, and an asymmetric relationship between the bully and victim (Houbre, Tarquinio,
Thuillier, & Hergott, 2006). Relational aggression tends to fit two of the three
characteristics: frequency and the intention to hurt. Oftentimes, the relationship between
a relational aggressor and a victim is symbiotic the majority of the time. Children
identified as relationally aggressive tend to be aggressive towards peers who are both
friends and not friends: “It is possible that the problems aggressive children experience
13
within the group context carry over into their friendships (e.g., their friendships may be
highly conflictual)” (Grotpeter & Crick, 1996, p. 2329). Based on the Friendship
Qualities Measure and the Friendship Qualities Questionnaire, Grotpeter and Crick
(1996) concluded that the primary difference between overt and relationally aggressive
children is that overt aggressors used aggression to harm those outside the friendship,
while relationally aggressive children used aggression within the dyadic, friendship
context. In other words, relationally aggressive relationships are based on intimacy,
while overtly aggressive relationships are based on a joint desire to act aggressively
towards others. Overall, the relationship between an aggressor and a victim in a
relationally aggressive relationship versus an overtly aggressive relationship means that
there is a discrepancy between the definition of bullying and relational aggression.
However, many researchers are quick to point out the similarities between
bullying and relational aggression. In a study by Crick, Bigbee, and Howes (1996), when
children were asked about their perception of relational aggression, they indicated its
association with “meanness” or intent to harm (one of the defining characteristics of
bullying). Additionally, both girls and boys associate relational aggressive acts with
anger. According to children, the common characteristic between overt aggression and
relational aggression is anger. Anger is the first component of overt aggression.
According to Crick, Bigbee, and Howes (1996), children associate anger and intent to
harm with relational aggression. Undoubtedly, those victims who recognize these
unhealthy peer relationships as hurtful will suffer negative consequences.
14
Effects
Preadolescents who participate in relationally aggressive acts face social
maladjustment, academic difficulties, depression, somatic symptoms, low self-esteem,
low self-concept, and even suicide (Grotpeter & Crick, 1996). Relationally aggressive
children and victims of relational aggression are often socially maladjusted and therefore
experience considerable social problems. Peer harassment and relational aggression
strongly correlate with depression, social anxiety, loneliness, and decreased self-worth
(Grotpeter & Crick, 1996; Nishina, Juvonen, Witkow, 2005). Specifically, relational
aggression and lack of peer support also cause loneliness (Storch, Phil, Nock, MasiaWarner, & Barlas, 2003).
In addition to social and emotional maladjustment, relational adjustment affects
school functioning. There is a strong relationship between peer relations and academic
achievement; elementary school peer rejection leads to negative academic outcomes such
as dropping out of school (Estell, Farmer, Cairns, & Cairns, 2002). According to a recent
study by Estell et al. (2002), this relationship can be seen as early as first grade. Further,
peer victimization at school does impact school performance (Nishina, Juvonen, &
Witkow, 2005).
More importantly, peer victimization and aggression influence self-concept and
self-worth. Relational aggression tends to result in lowered self-esteem in both genders,
though most frequently in girls (Merrell, Buchanan, & Tran, 2006). Hawker and
Boulton’s (2000) meta-analysis found that peer victimization strongly related to
depression and social and global self-esteem and less strongly with anxiety.
15
Despite the emergence of information on relational aggression, there is little
research available on appropriate and successful interventions. With the numerous
adverse symptoms occurring as a result of relational aggression, it is critical that
educators provide interventions for elementary school girls (Young, Boye, & Nelson,
2006).
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem
Perhaps most importantly, participation in an empowerment group is likely to
increase in self-esteem and self-concept. Many researchers indicate that, although deviant
behavior occurs predominantly in adolescents, self-esteem begins to become established
in early childhood. Due to the heavy correlation between negative self-esteem and
deviant behavior, researchers also believe that interventions should begin in early
childhood (Adler & Figueria-Mcdonough, 2002). As previously mentioned, relational
aggression and peer victimization relate to a decrease in self-esteem, self-concept, and
self-worth (Nishina, Juvonen, Witkow, 2005; Grotpeter & Crick, 1996). School settings
offer an opportunity to provide interventions that promote social behavior and emotional
development:
Although children first learn social and emotional skills
within their families, it is the school setting that provides
the first significant experience for most children with
respect to negotiating social roles, expectations,
hierarchies, and conflicts in larger groups. (Merrell,
Buchanan, & Tran, 2006, p. 347)
16
According to Youth, Boye, and Nelson (2006), school climate (such as inclusion,
tolerance, and respect) and teaching prosocial skills may impact aggressive behaviors.
Theorists and researchers usually regard self-esteem and self-concept as separate
constructs, although they recognize they are often used interchangeably. Albert Bandura
(1997) regards self-concept as a view of oneself that is a combination of other people’s
evaluation of oneself and direct experience.
Pragmatist William James spearheaded functionalism as a division of psychology
in the late 19th century. Although he was student-focused, James stressed that school
curriculum should revolve around the interest of the student (Pulliam & Van Patten,
2003). In regards to self-concept, he further emphasized a multifaceted and hierarchical
sense of self. He organized the self into two categories: the Me-self and the I-self. The
Me-self is the observed self that interprets the world and relationships. This
interpretation then creates an identify of self.
The Me-self is currently regarded as self-concept in the modern world of
psychology. In the following decades, theorists and researchers further defined selfconcept. Currently “The Multidimensional Self Concept Scale” (MSCS; Bracken, 1992)
is one of the leading scales measuring self-concept. The model for the MSCS assumes
that self-concept is an independent construct, not a part of a larger self-system, as many
theorists previously asserted. Bracken (1992) utilized a Venn diagram with global selfconcept in the middle. All of the circles represent the specific domains of self-concept
that overlap and are of equal contribution to the global self-concept, which include
physical self-concept, competence self-concept, academic self-concept, affective selfconcept, family self-concept, and social self-concept.
17
The model for The Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventories-Third Edition (CFSEI-3;
Battle, 2002) assumes that self-esteem develops and becomes more complex with age.
The study of self-esteem began with William James at the turn of the 20th century, and
continued when Abraham Maslow incorporated self-esteem into his hierarchy of needs in
the 1940’s. Numerous other self-esteem assessments exist, including Morris Rosenberg’s
R-ESI, which measures global self-esteem.
Harter (1982) stressed the importance of age in regards to self-esteem. She
asserted that components of self-esteem become more differentiated with age. Therefore,
the intermediate form for the CFSEI-3 contains subscales, because children are “able to
cognitively distinguish among several aspects of self” by middle to late childhood (ages
9-12) (Brunsman, 2002, p. 1). Furthermore, Harter emphasized the importance of a
hierarchical, multifaceted model by extracting the global self-esteem construct from the
more specific domains of self-concept, the CFSEI-3 appropriately assesses all facets of a
person’s self-concept.
Self-Efficacy, Self-Esteem, and Self-Concept
Albert Bandura (1997) defined empowerment as the development of personal
efficacy and the ability to take advantage of opportunities while overcoming various
barriers. Essentially, this means that empowerment is not the giving and receiving of
power. To this end, it gives people the firm belief that they can produce effects of value,
and in turn, give them the means to do it.
Although this study did not measure self-efficacy as a contruct, it is important in
relation to self-esteem and self-concept. Bandura asserts that self-esteem and selfefficacy, though often used interchangeably, are distinctive; self-esteem relates to a
18
general feeling of self-worth, while self-efficacy relates to a personal judgment regarding
one’s capability. Self-efficacy is an important concept for group environment because of
Bandura’s concept of collective self-efficacy.
Collective Efficacy
According to Bandura (1997), collective efficacy is a groups’ shared belief that it
can work together and act in order to produce results. Collective efficacy is not just the
combined efficacy of all of its members; it is a product that is greater than the sum of its
numbers. Positive accurate feedback and group modeling increase collective efficacy, as
well as individual efficacy. Beyond curriculum and themes, a group dynamic based on
appropriate modeling and feedback causes sustainable, constructive changes in selfesteem and self-efficacy.
Due to its many sources, self-esteem is difficult to increase; particularly, as people
age. According to Bandura (1997), some of the sources include cultural stereotyping,
social evaluations, and personal competences. Resilient individuals can make changes by
overcoming adversity; those who lack resiliency cannot change their life situation, nor
can they promote change in other people. People live independently but also live in a
variety of group situations. This gives people a multifaceted character; self-esteem and
efficacy have a similar multifaceted nature. If a single person has a poor sense of self,
they will be unable to motivate members of their group or social system. This can have a
domino type of effect. In essence, a person who does not feel confident in their abilities
will be unable to influence others; low self-esteem and self-efficacy promotes a society of
apathy and fear. Collective efficacy is critical to a healthy sense of self, particularly for
19
preadolescents, because it influences their social and intellectual development (Bandura,
1997).
Peer Relationships
Bandura (1997) emphasized the importance of peer relationships: “peers can
operate as a potent force in the development and social validation of intellectual selfefficacy” (p. 234). There are three primary ways that peer relationships influence a
child’s sense of self: judging and comparison, modeling and tutelage, and influencing
interpersonal affiliations. First, peers judge themselves based on other students; they
compare themselves to their peers and label others. Second, peers who exhibit successful
modeling of skills and behavior boost their peers’ sense of self. Third, a resilient child
usually had a peer or adult who set the course for that child’s successful intellectual and
social development. In addition, Bandura’s theory is important because it showed the
importance of healthy peer relationships within a school environment. According to
Bandura, children who have healthy peer relationships are more likely to experience a
positive school environment that is conducive to learning than those who reject their
peers and, in turn, are rejected by their peers.
Curriculum and Themes
Susan Harter (1982), whose work on self-esteem influenced the model for the
Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventories (Battle, 2002), emphasized the risk many
adolescent girls face. Harter’s primary focus was on boys’ interaction with girls; she
proposed the idea that the primary issue is male’s focus on female’s physical appearance,
as opposed to their words and thoughts. Harter further emphasized that the issues
surrounding gender in the school systems was that schools should emphasize examples of
20
positive images of women and girls. She also asserted, “schools need to restructure
programs such that do not continue to foster negative or debilitating gender stereotypes
about abilities and social roles” (p. 262). Some of these critical issues for girls are body
image, peer relations, career exploration, healthy assertiveness, and safety for girls.
Body Image
Preadolescent girls must negotiate a variety of factors during this critical period in
their life, such as romantic and sexual relationships, school and life transitions, and
gender roles (Choate, 2007). Overall, beyond puberty and its physical changes, girls face
a series of complex and demanding expectations due to their gender. Girls face body
image concerns early in their development. Negative body image, or body image
dissatisfaction, can cause a series of problematic effects on an adolescent’s present and
future, most notably, self-esteem (Choate, 2007).
There are a variety of sociocultural forces that contribute to body image and
eating disorders, such as anorexia or bulimia. A typical message that girls and women
get through media, peers, and parents is the concept of willpower: women can be thin if
they want it enough. If they are not thin, it is because they do not want it enough and are
not doing what it takes (Kater, Rohwer, & Londre, 2002). Unfortunately, this message
can cause body image dissatisfaction among girls and women, at younger and younger
ages. Girls as young as six- or seven-years-old are reporting a desire to be thin and lose
weight through dieting (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006). Previous body image research
focused on older adolescents and women, and further studies are being conducted with
girls on the cusp of puberty. Sinton and Birch (2006) focused on preadolescent girls (age
eleven) and the relationship between the girls’ level of body dissatisfaction and level of
21
appearance schemas. The study determined that preadolescent girls do report body
dissatisfaction, which heightens the possibility of body image dissatisfaction in
adolescence. A growing research consensus has now established that preadolescent girls,
in addition to adolescent girls, experience body dissatisfaction (Sinton & Birch, 2006;
Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Choate, 2007).
Different sociocultural forces, such as media, parents, and peers, dictate the
messages and images girls receive about body image, weight, and dieting.
Unfortunately, body image dissatisfaction can be cycled through generations; mothers,
grandmothers, older sisters, and other important female role models may unintentionally
pass along positive images about dieting and losing weight. Early adolescents and
preadolescents are most susceptible to these negative messages and images (Choate,
2007).
In addition to family members, peers can play an important role in weight and
body image by reinforcing messages heard in various media outlets. Research indicates
that preadolescents who read teen and women’s magazines become more aware of dieting
as an option and internalize the thin ideal (Dohnt & Tiggeman, 2006; Sands & Wardle,
2003). There is a strong link with body image dissatisfaction and low self-esteem
(Choate, 2007). This correlation most likely stems from girls’ inability to reach an
unreachable ideal. Those who have had body dissatisfaction earlier than adolescence
increase the chances of depression, or eating disorders in adolescence (Dohnt &
Tiggemann, 2006; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003; Sinton & Birch, 2006). Additional
studies indicate that girls will base self-worth and identity on appearance (Sinton &
Birch, 2006).
22
Schools are an ideal setting for providing prevention programs for body image
dissatisfaction, while simultaneously promoting positive images of girls and women.
However, most researchers offer a strong word of caution: “Even the best prevention
efforts will fail unless adults are simultaneously educated, impassioned, and empowered
to join students in resisting and challenging a cultural environment that creates body
image problems, unhealthy weight concerns, and disordered eating” (Kater, Rohwer, &
Londre, 2002, p. 204). Interventions that focus on girls’ abilities and talents can decrease
their emphasis on appearance. Decreasing an emphasis on appearance can ultimately
decrease dissatisfaction, which in turn decreases the chance of eating disorders in
adolescence. Additionally, focusing on girls’ abilities and talents may increase girls’
self-concept and self-esteem (Sinton & Birch, 2006). Choate’s (2007) body image
resilience model focused on family and peer support, gender role satisfaction, global and
physical self-esteem, coping strategies and critical thinking skills, and holistic wellness
and balance. Promoting protective factors and focusing on girls’ strength, inevitably, can
create resiliency. Body image interventions can fit within a structured group focused on
empowering women through strength building, team-building, and promoting positive
messages and images.
Peer Relations and Bullying
As with any program that takes place in a school setting, there is an emphatic
need to link the program to academic achievement. There is a strong link between peer
relations and academic achievement: beginning early in their school careers, girls and
boys who participate in unhealthy peer relations may ultimately negatively impact their
academic performance (Estell et al., 2002). Bullies, as well as their victim, are more
23
likely to be depressed, display poor school performance, school avoidance, and drop out
in higher percentages (Murray-Close & Crick, 2006). Merrell, Buchanan, and Tran
(2006) asserted that anti-bullying programs promote social behavior and emotional
development; therefore, they tend to combat problems with relational aggression.
Bullying and relational aggression are negative relationships that take place within peer
relationships. Continuing victims (those who are victims of bullying over time) often
miss school and had fewer friends at school (Smith, Talamelli, Cowie, Naylor, &
Chauhan, 2004).
A meta-analysis on victimization found that it is related to depression, poor social
and global self-esteem, and anxiety (Hawker & Boulton, 2000). Nishina, Juvonen, and
Witkow (2005) utilized two models alternating peer harassment, and psychosocial
adjustment with physical symptoms, as cause versus outcome. The two models focused
on peer harassment as it related to school functioning. Overall, the study results indicated
that peer victimization links to previous psychosocial problems and predicts future
problems (Nishina, Juvonen, & Witkow, 2005). In this study, psychosocial problems
equate to depressive symptoms, social anxiety, loneliness, and self-worth. Overall, peer
relations researchers conclude that bullying and peer harassment cause a variety of social,
emotional, and somatic symptoms. Teaching peer relations and conflict resolution skills
can combat acts of relational aggression and bullying.
Career Exploration
In terms of math and science achievement, the gender gap is closing. Bright girls
are taking advanced classes and expressing interest in math and science. However, there
still continue to be wide gender disparities that exist in gender occupations and
24
aspirations. In 2000, statistics from the National Science Foundation indicated that males
in the United State still outnumber female graduates in physical engineering and physical
sciences by two to one. However, perhaps more worrisome, high aspiring and
intellectually capable girls often have low intellectual confidence. The primary risk
factors for career goal achievement are low self-esteem, self-efficacy, poor family
support, poverty, and unsafe behavior (Keer & Kurpius, 2004).
Albert Bandura (1997) believed that girls do not participate in male-dominated
career paths due to a low efficacy. Oftentimes, people reject careers based on inaccurate
information. According to Bandura (1997), “[p]eople typically consider certain
occupational pursuits and stay clear of others based on their conceptions of occupations,
which may be accurate or fanciful” (p. 423). Bandura cited two primary reasons females
have difficulties in a male-dominated field: a lack of female role models in the careers
and a perceived inefficacy (as opposed to actual inability). Overall, he posited that,
although a total overhaul of the media system as a model is ideal, educators need to offer
successful female role models in nontraditional careers and offer information on a range
of role options they could consider appropriate for girls and boys.
According to Gottfredson’s (1981) Theory of Circumscription and Compromise,
both gender and class play a crucial role in career exploration and development. In
particular, low self-concept and individual barriers may lead to a rejection of certain
careers. Female preadolescents and adolescents may reject careers based on a perceived
incompatibility due to the images they hold of themselves. Circumscription is a process
that compares self-image to images of occupations; people then eliminate those that
unacceptable due to an incompatibility (Gottfredson, 1981). The process of compromise
25
is, when individuals recognize that certain career aspirations are not practical and they
must make different choices. Further, the compromise process is often consistent with an
individual’s gender.
Gender plays a critical role in the process of circumscription and compromise
(Gottfredson, 1997). Young girls and women may potentially reject career choices, if the
career is inconsistent with their perception of the female gender role. This compromise is
often the first step, as opposed to the examination of whether a career is accessible on a
practical basis. On a fundamental level, Gottfredson (1981) recognizes that the crux of
career development is dependent on an individual’s self-concept.
Additionally, African American girls tend to face challenges beyond their
Caucasian counterparts. Research concludes that African American girls often have
higher self-esteem but “lack the social support and educational self-efficacy necessary to
persist in math/science major” (Bandura, 1997, p. 88). Once again, Bandura cites a lack
of African American female role models as a deterrent for success. Research further
indicates that many African American female adolescents are not adequately prepared to
enter the workforce at the same rates as adolescents from other ethnic groups (Walsh,
Bingham, Brown, & Ward, 2001).
Theorists point to a variety of factors that may contribute to this lack of
preparedness. The Expectancy Value Theory speculates that environmental and economic
factors cause African American students to devalue school and occupational achievement
(Eccles et al., 1983; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Bandura (1997) first proposed a social
cognitive model of motivation based on efficacy and expectations. The Expectancy
Value Theory stems from this theory. Eccles et al. (1983) identified four components of
26
the Expectancy Value Theory: attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, and cost.
Attainment value is the extent to which a person places importance on doing well.
Intrinsic value is the enjoyment a person gets from an activity or interest. Utility value is
related to career values; this value increases depending on how much the task relates to
future goals. Cost is the negative aspects of performing the task. These four values relate
directly to a person’s self-efficacy in performing that task. The Identity Theory proposes
that the stage an adolescent is at in terms of minority identification causes adolescents to
have low versus high educational and career expectations (Helms, 1994). The Identity
Theory is based on four tenets: (1) individuals internalize racism because society rewards
and punishes individuals based on racial-group classification, (2) race is a critical part of
a person’s psychosocial identity, (3) healthy identity development occurs when a person
choose to internally define him or herself instead of focusing on external definitions, and
(4) maturation occurs through a process of different stages or “ego statuses.” According
to Helms (1994), these ego stages vary according to racial identity. An African American
preadolescent or adolescent may fall into any of the five stages. If they fall into an earlier
stage, such as conformity (preencounter) or dissonance (encounter), this may impact their
ability to participate in the career development process. Therefore, a healthy career
development is based on a healthy racial identity. Finally, Brown (1995) and Gainor and
Lent (1998) support the evidence pointing to subtle and overt discrimination in classroom
and social environments. This discrimination causes African American youth to lose
confidence in their abilities, subsequently narrowing their career and educational choices.
Career interventions for African American girls are threefold: strong identification with a
27
particular profession or area of study, leadership and maturity, and mentoring and
guidance (Kerr & Kurpius, 2004).
Healthy Assertiveness and leadership
Communication experts assert that assertive people are competent
communicators, as opposed to aggressive and passive communicators (Anderson &
Martin, 1995). Competent communicators are assertive and responsive; they are open to
communication and stand up for themselves. Researchers indicate that assertive
communicators are usually empathetic and have positive social skills. Specifically,
assertive people are conversationally sensitive; they have higher self-esteem, private selfconsciousness, and empathy (Chesebro & Martin, 2003). Chesebro and Martin (2003)
state that competent, assertive communicators have cognitive flexibility. Cognitive
flexibility has three key factors: self-efficacy, willingness to be flexible, and awareness
that there are options and alternatives to any given situation.
A key characteristic of leaders is an ability to communicate in a competent
manner. Although there is not a single definition of leadership, there is a consensus that
leadership is a culture-specific concept where a person uses interpersonal influence to
communicate and reach a joint set of goals (Clawson, 1999; Russell, 2005; Sessoms &
Stevenson, 1981). Teaching leadership skills plays a critical role in career interventions
for African-American girls, and girls in general. Ridgeway (2001) emphasizes the
importance of leadership skills, but states that gender influences a person’s ability to lead.
According to Ridgeway (2001), status beliefs are “shared cultural schemas about the
status position in society of groups such as those based on gender, race, ethnicity,
education or occupation” (p. 637). Status beliefs are what influence a man versus a
28
woman’s assertiveness, and their ability and likelihood that they will influence and
emerge as leaders. Essentially, status beliefs cause social hierarchies. Therefore, gender
stereotypes may negatively influence a woman’s perceived self-efficacy. In other words,
status beliefs may create a barrier for women to become leaders and experience career
success. Those women who do assert themselves and hold powerful positions in society
often meet negative biases and stereotypes (Ridgeway, 2001). Fortunately, assertiveness
training and teaching leadership skills to preadolescents sets them up with the tools
necessary to begin to combat these perceived and actual gender barriers.
Safety for Girls
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that one in six women in
the United States report experiencing an attempted or completed rape at some time in
their lives. In 2006, sexual assaults represented ten percent of all assault-related injury
visits to the emergency department by females. Twenty-five percent of females who
have been sexually assaulted before age 12, and sixty percent of female victims were first
raped before age 18. According to the National Violence against Women Survey
conducted by the Department of Justice, statistics indicated that violence against women
is primarily from an intimate partner. Seventy-six percent of children raped before the
age of 18 were victimized by a father or a mother’s cohabiting partner, boyfriend, or date
(Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998). Addressing safety for girls in the context of sexual and
physical assault may empower girls to make positive decisions that will ultimately
influence their future life course. In particular, teaching safety for girls, and in general,
teaching all previously mentioned empowerment topics, through modeling and outcome
expectations, enhances efficacy beliefs and improves performance. School counselors
29
and other educators who model human behavior can show preadolescents girls, “if they
can do it, I can do it.” According to Bandura (1977), modeling needs to be predictable
and controllable and teach positive behaviors. Modeling is most effective when students
can observe others and learn appropriate behavior patterns. Students can then translate
these observable behavior patterns into actions.
Self-Concept, Self-Esteem, and Relational Aggression
African American, low-income urban girls face a multitude of challenges in
preadolescence and early adolescence, such as body image dissatisfaction, sexual
violence and assault, barriers to nontraditional career paths, and peer aggression and
harassment. These various challenges all result in decreased self-esteem, self-concept and
self-worth (Bandura, 1997; Choat, 2007; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995; Nishina, Juvonen, &
Witkow, 2005). Additionally, relational aggression is a pervasive problem in elementary
schools and secondary schools that results in decreased feelings of self-worth and selfconcept (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). Fortunately, giving girls strategies and tools to
combat a variety of female-focused challenges will empower them to take control of their
past experiences, while potentially increasing self-esteem and self-concept.
After-School Programming
This empowerment program offered its programming in an after-school format.
Many children in low-income areas face a window of time after school when they are
unsupervised. Unfortunately, due to overworked parents and guardians, children may
find themselves in unstructured, unsupervised settings. Two to three hours after school
are often unproductive for children, and in worst-case situations, dangerous (Roffmann,
Pagano, & Hirsch, 2001). Low-income children who are in supervised, nurturing settings
30
after school correlate strongly with fewer socioemotional problems. Relationships with
adults who exhibit proper modeling and opportunities for growth are linked to positive
child functioning and increased self-esteem (Roffmann et al., 2001).
31
CHAPTER 3
METHODS
Setting
This study analyzed results from a public elementary school located in an urban
setting, which contains grades kindergarten through five. The total school enrollment
equals 303 students, with a teacher/student ratio of 16:1. The student attendance rate is
93.5 percent, as compared with the K-12 district attendance rate of 94 percent. The
school population breakdown is 93.3% African American and 4% White, and the
remaining 2.7% are not calculated due to there being less than ten students in the student
group.1 The remaining 2.7% could fit into one or more of the following categories:
American Indian or Native Alaskan, Asian or Pacific Islander, Hispanic, or Multi-Racial.
Seventy five percent of the students are economically disadvantaged defined the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, and 18.1% are student population possesses some kind of
disability. This state’s schools are placed on the following range of designations based
on multiple measures. These measures include state indicators such as state academic
achievement test scores, student attendance, and graduation goals (if applicable). The
range of designations are as follows: Excellent, Effective, Continuous Improvement,
1
Adequate Yearly Progress does not require reporting specific student groups’
demographics due to student group size being below minimum number for statistical
reliability.
32
Academic Watch or Academic Emergency. According to the 2006-2007 school year
report card, the school’s designation is Continuous Improvement. On a range of zero to
120, the school’s performance index score is 64.7.
On the statewide achievement test in 2007, the state requirement for proficiency is
75 percent. At this particular elementary school, all school grades (3rd-5th) scored
significantly below the proficient range. Specifically, fifth graders received the following
below proficiency scores: reading, 42.2%; mathematics, 28.9%; science, 33.3%; and
social studies, 22.2% (www.ode.state.oh.us).
Participants
Sixteen girls participated in the empowerment group. One student moved out of
the school district; therefore, this student dropped out of the program before completing
posttests. The breakdown of participants was as follows: thirteen African Americans, one
Caucasian, and one Biracial. The students’ ages ranged from ten to eleven years old at the
time of the program. Participants were ethnically representative of the school from
which the sample was drawn.
The average age of participants in the study was 10.13. The sample included 87.5
percent ten year olds and 12.5 percent eleven year olds. The racial/ethnic make-up of the
sample included 87.5 percent African American participants, 6.25 percent Caucasian
participants, and 6.25 percent Biracial participants. Sixty eight point seventy five percent
of participants lived in single parent households, 12.5 percent participants lived in
blended family households, 12.5 percent lived in two parent households, and 6.25
participants lived in nontraditional family households. Eighty seven point five percent of
participants did not live in a household with a set of biological parents.
33
Instruments
The study utilized the following assessments: The Culture Free Self-Esteem
Inventories-Third Edition (CFSEI-3; Battle, 2002), The Multidimensional Self Concept
Scale (MSCS; Bracken, 1992), the modified Relational Aggression Survey (Randall &
Bowen, 2007), and an individual qualitative interview.
The Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventories- Third Edition
The Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventories-Third Edition took 10-15 minutes to
administer and produced a global self-esteem score and five subscale scores: Academic selfesteem, general self-esteem, parental/home self-esteem, social self-esteem, and personal selfesteem. There are three versions of the instrument: Primary (ages six through eight),
Intermediate (ages nine through 12), and Adolescent (ages 13-18). For this study, the
researcher used the age-appropriate 64 item intermediate form, consisting of a series of
statements to which students can respond yes or no. The CFSEI-3 provides excellent
evidence for reliability and validity. Strong validity indicated through correlations of scores
with other measures of self-esteem, measuring from .51 to .85 for related subscales and .56 to
.90 for self-esteem scores. Test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from .68 to .98, with
most of the scores falling above .75 (Battle, 2002). (See Appendix C)
Multidimensional Self Concept Scale (MSCS)
The Multidimensional Self-Concept Scale (MSCS) took approximately 20-30 minutes
to administer and can be used as an overall assessment of self-concept or as an individual
measure of any of the six dimensions of self-concept that it measures: Social, Competences,
Affect, Academic, Family, and Physical. The 150-item instrument can also work alongside
other measures for a global assessment. It is appropriate for use with grades five through
34
twelve. The MSCS has excellent reliability and validity. Internal consistency is .98, and
alphas for the six subscales ranged from .87 to .97. Test-retest reliability was .90 for the total
scale, while the subscales ranged from .73 to .81. Validity was measured through concurrent
studies, as well as a discriminant study. Substantial correlations were found between the
MSCS scales, the Coopersmith Total Scale (.57 to .73) and the Piers-Harris subscales (.66 to
.77), and the Self-Description Questionnaire-II (.40 to .74). Additional validity is shown
through a discriminant study comparing the MSCS to the Assessment of Interpersonal
Relations (Bracken, 1992). (See Appendix B)
The Relational Aggression Survey
The Relational Aggression Survey took approximately 15-20 minutes to administer
and researchers can use it as a self-report index for those who are aggressors or victims of
relational aggression. The 13-item instrument has not been validated as a psychometric
measure; however, it is developmentally appropriate and includes a combination of
descriptive and relational questions. Participants were given a modified version of the
published survey: the original version is longer and therefore has additional items. As
evidenced by Appendix A, the survey was modified in order to make the language more
developmentally appropriate for the fifth grade participants. (See Appendix A).
Qualitative Interview
Finally, each student participated in a ten minute interview assessing their ability to
respond to hypothetical scenarios. The scenarios revolve around the themes presented in the
program: career development, peer relations, leadership, safety for girls, and healthy
assertiveness. The interview also asked general questions about use of time, role models,
35
demographic information, and general feelings about the empowerment program. (See
Appendix D)
Recruitment of Participants
Prior to recruitment, the researcher received approval to conduct this study from
The Ohio State University’s IRB (see appendix F), and later the school principal signed a
letter of support for the program. Recruitment began with an informational session
available to all fifth grade girls. The researcher provided information about the program
to the students, including topics and themes, practical issues such as location and time,
and consent logistics. The researcher told the students that participation was voluntary.
Interested students received a folder of information including a letter to
parent(s)/guardian(s) explaining the program in detail, a permission slip for
parent(s)/guardian(s) with an informed consent portion, and a release for testing,
participation, and photographs. The folder needed to be returned to the researcher, prior
to participation in the program. Documents included the researchers’ contact information
and an invitation to contact researchers with any questions or concerns. Once a student
returned a permission slip, they received an incentive item: a pink bracelet with the
program name written on it.
Conditions of Testing
The primary researcher contacted the school’s principal and the school’s
leadership intern in order to receive a letter of support. After initial contact, the
researcher met with the school’s leadership intern and discussed the logistical matters of
the program, as well as the educational content. Once the informational session took
place and sixteen girls returned the permission slips by the deadline date, testing began.
36
The primary researcher met with all sixteen girls as a group twice in a period of one
week. The girls took the Relational Aggression Survey (Randall & Bowen, 2007) and the
Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventories-Third Edition (CFSEI-3; Battle, 2002) during the
first meeting. The girls took the Multidimensional Self Concept Scale (MSCS; Bracken,
1992), and began qualitative interviews during the second meeting. The girls who did not
complete qualitative interviews during the second meeting had an opportunity to do the
interview in the next couple of days. All girls took assessments in the similar order and
were given an equal amount of the time to complete the assessments.
Prior to test administration, the primary researcher reminded the students about
confidentiality and that their answers would remain anonymous from each other and from
the primary researcher. The researcher reminded students that participation was
voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.
Each girl was given a folder with all four assessments, along with a checklist of
assessments. The researcher gave directions to the girls and told them to choose a
codename for anonymity purposes. The same codename was used for all of the
assessments, and was later used for all posttest assessments. The girls were given as
much time as they needed to complete the assessments; all of the girls finished the
quantitative assessments during the two hour long meetings. The girls brought their
folder to the researcher after completion; the researcher checked that all assessments were
completed and made a check by the completed assessment. The primary researcher and
two other researchers then individually interviewed the girls. The researchers read from a
pre-written script and utilized a recorder. The researchers did not stray from the script
unless a girl indicated she did not hear part of the text or did not understand the wording.
37
In that case, the researcher would re-read the question or scenario. Those girls who
finished early were given a structured, quiet activity to complete at their desk. Incentives
were provided for students filling out the instruments. All students who completed the
pretests were given a pink water bottle with the group name as an incentive.
Program Lessons
The ten-week empowerment group had individual topics for each meeting: getting
started, team building, healthy assertiveness, bullying, peer relations, body image, safety
for girls, leadership, career exploration, and wrapping up. Topics and activities derived
from information about preadolescent development, research from other empowerment
programming, and statistics about relevant preadolescent issues and concerns. The group
meetings began with a time for socialization and snacks, while the group reviewed the
rules of the program. Most lessons included a time for individual work, small group
work, large group work, and sharing. All of the lessons concluded with a homework
assignment; most homework involved a ten to fifteen minute journaling entry based on a
predetermined topic.
The first session included behavior expectations and group norms. Participants
were given an opportunity to decide the rules of the group amongst themselves.
Participants then wrote and shared autobiographical poems. The teambuilding session
included two teambuilding exercises that included all participants. The focus of the
exercises was to increase the cohesiveness of the group, as well as establish trust among
group members.
The healthy assertiveness, bullying, and peer relations lessons worked together in
order to combat relational aggression and increase healthy assertiveness in participants.
38
Through role play, journaling, and a psychoeducational format, participants learned the
following: the differences between aggressive, assertive, and passive behavior,
appropriate assertive responses to various situations, how to identify bullying and forms
of abuse, how to respond to relationally aggressive situations, and to identify dangerous
school zones and explore solutions.
The body image session focused on using media, such as videos and magazines,
to address societal and media influences on girls’ appearances. A professional female
self-defense instructor attended one meeting in order to work with empowerment
program participants on safety for girls and healthy assertiveness.
Leadership and career sessions emphasized increasing the self-concept and selfesteem of participants through a focus on developing female leaders and encouraging
girls to pursue educational, personal, and career options typically reserved for boys. The
leadership and careers sessions specifically focused on providing examples of successful
African-American female role models; these examples occurred through a guest speaker,
examples in popular media, and educational resources.
The empowerment program wrapped up by creating a contact sheet that members
could write the name of someone they could trust with a variety of difficult situations.
Additionally, girls participated in a strength bombardment, and each had a turn to hear
positive things about themselves from the other group members.
Posttests were administered in an identical manner to pretests. The students
gathered in the same classroom, at the same time of day, during the same day of the week
as the pretests. They were given a folder identical to the one holding the pretests. The
primary researcher re-iterated the confidentiality policy and gave the same directions.
39
During two hour long meetings, the girls took four tests, including the three quantitative
assessments and the one qualitative interview. The same three researchers individually
interviewed the students after they finished the first three assessments. Some students
who were absent or did not complete the assessments in time finished the assessments on
an individual basis in the next week. All students who completed the posttests were
given pink and black t-shirts as incentive items.
Data Analysis
After the data was collected, it was then statistically examined based on the
research objectives. First of all, this study used descriptive statistics to examine students’
demographics, including race/ethnicity and age. The study also used descriptive statistics
to analyze pretest and posttest qualitative interviews. The study compared pretest and
posttest answers on qualitative interview scenarios in order to better understand
participants’ experiences. Second, the study used MANOVA to examine the effects of
the program as it related to the hypotheses concerning self-concept, self-esteem, and
relational aggression. Lastly, correlations were used to examine the relationships among
self-concept, self-esteem, and acts of relational aggression.
40
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
Included are the demographic variables, statistical analysis, and qualitative
interview data concerning participation in the ten-week empowerment group.
Additionally major findings and results are discussed. Here are the research questions
examined:
Research Question 1: Does a ten-week empowerment group influence global selfesteem, academic self-esteem, general self-esteem, parental/home self-esteem, social selfesteem, and personal self-esteem in preadolescent girl participants?
Research Question 2: Does a ten-week empowerment group influence global selfconcept, social self-concept, competence self-concept, affective self-concept, academic
self-concept, family self-concept, and physical self-concept of preadolescent girl
participants?
Research Question 3: Does a ten-week empowerment group influence self-reports
of relational aggression in preadolescent girl participants?
Research Question 4: Is self-concept related to self-reports of relational
aggression among preadolescent girls who participate in a ten-week empowerment
program?
41
Research Question 5: Is self-esteem related to self-reports of relational aggression
among preadolescent girls who participate in a ten-week empowerment program?
Definition of Terms
The results of this study are based on the data collected from participants. Table
4.1 (below) presents the demographic information about group participants. For the
purposes of this study, students self-categorized as African American, Caucasian, or
Biracial.
Participants were also asked to report their household status. For the purposes of
this study, students were categorized into the following groups based on family status
selected: Blended Family Household, Single Parent Household, Two Parent Household,
and Nontraditional Family Household. Blended Family Households are those families
where the student lives with a biological mother and a stepfather. Single Family
Households are those families where the student lives with a single mother. Two Parent
Households are those families where the student lives with a biological mother and a
biological father. One participant indicated a Nontraditional Family Household; her
family consists of a biological aunt and cousins.
42
Age
10
Race/Ethnicity
African-American
Household Status
Blended Family Household
10
Biracial
Single Family Household
11
African-American
Single Parent Household
10
African-American
Single Parent Household
10
African-American
Single Parent Household
10
African-American
Single Parent Household
10
African-American
Single Parent Household
10
African-American
Single Parent Household
10
African-American
Two-Parent Household
10
Caucasian
Single Parent Household
10
African-American
Single Parent Household
10
African-American
Single Parent Household
10
African-American
Blended Family Household
10
African-American
Two-Parent Household
Table 4.1: Demographic Information about Group Participants
43
(continued)
Table 4.1 (continued)
Age
10
Race/Ethnicity
African-American
Household Status
Nontraditional Family
Household
11
African-American
Single Parent Household
44
Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
The MANOVA is an appropriate choice in this particular study; the researcher
chose to utilize the MANOVA in lieu of multiple ANOVAs because of the statistical
analysis that the MANOVA provides. Essentially, the MANOVA not only examines the
presence of overall effects in a study, but also assesses the relative contribution of the
outcome variables to the group differences. This type of analysis allows the researcher to
identify the emerging variables and interpret the underlying constructs (Huberty &
Morris, 1989). While the ANOVA is appropriate when examining conceptually
independent variables, the MANOVA is suitable for understanding variables that may be
interrelated. Additionally, the use of fragmented univariate tests results in an inflated type
I error and ignores the correlations among the variables (Stevens, 2002).
A multivariate analysis of variance was performed on eleven dependent variables:
academic self-esteem, general self-esteem, parental/home self-esteem, social self-esteem,
total self-esteem, social self-concept, competence self-concept, affect self-concept,
academic self-concept, family self-concept, physical self-concept, and total self-concept.
The independent variable was participation in the ten-week girls’ empowerment program,
which is also a dichotomous variable. Effect sizes were generated from the MANOVA,
PARAMETER subcommand, within SPSS. Effect size was estimated by eta, and power
was estimated from the MANOVA program.
Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) report that Wilks’ Lambda is the “the criterion of
choice” (p. 348) for use with MANOVA, as it is the criterion provided in all MANOVA
programs and most research reports. Wilks’ Lambda revealed that the combined
45
dependent variables were not significantly affected by the treatment, F (11, 20) , p <.799.
The results reflected that while girls who participated in the empowerment program had
improvements in general self-esteem, parental/home self-esteem, social self-esteem, total
self-esteem, social self-concept, competence self-concept, affect self-concept, academic
self-concept, family self-concept, physical self-concept, and total self-concept; these
improvements were not statistically significant. (See Table 4.2).
46
Instrument &
Scale
Pretest
(n=16)
M(SD)
9.37(2.41)
Posttest
(n=15)
M(SD)
8.86(3.31)
F(11, 20)
Effect Size
(!)
Power
.083
.003
.059
CFSEIGeneral
9.63(2.47)
10.06(3.24)
.399
.014
.094
CFSEIParental/Home
8.50(2.56)
9.20(2.01)
.844
.029
.144
CFSEISocial
8.75(2.84)
8.93(2.81)
.145
.005
.066
CFSEITotal
36.25(9.09)
37.06(9.46)
.207
.007
.072
CFSEIAcademic
MSCSSocial
101.01(18.64) 103.53(24.63)
.018
.001
.052
MSCSCompetence
104.44(22.81) 104.80(22.02)
.004
.000
.050
MSCSAffect
102.44(15.91) 104.67(17.48)
.043
.007
.055
MSCSFamily
100.44(16.25) 108.13(16.58)
1.30
.022
.197
MSCSPhysical
105.38(14.45) 107.87(15.38)
.200
.004
.072
MSCS-Total
103.68(20.24) 107.20(20.44)
.119
.003
.063
Table 4.2: Academic Self-Esteem, General Self-Esteem, Parental/Home Self-Esteem, Social
Self-Esteem, Total Self-Esteem, Social Self-Concept, Competence Self-Concept, Affect SelfConcept, Academic Self-Concept, Family Self-Concept, Physical Self-Concept, and Total
Self-Concept Means, Standard Deviations, F, Effect Sizes, and Power Estimates
47
Due to the small sample size and various other factors, there was not a
statistically significant change in participants’ self-esteem and self-concept at the
conclusion of the ten-week empowerment group. However, as evidenced by Figure 4.1
and Figure 4.2 (below), there was a total mean score increase from the pretest and
posttest in both CFSEI scores and MSCS scores. Additionally, each individual subscale
of both assessments increased from the pretest to the posttest.
CFSEI- Total Self-Esteem Scores
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
0.00
1.00
Pretest & Posttest
Figure 4.1 Boxplots of total mean scores on the Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventory
48
MSCS Total Scores
140.00
120.00
100.00
80.00
0.00
1.00
Pretest and Posttest
Figure 4.2 Boxplots of total mean scores on the Multidimensional Self-Concept Scale
Relational Aggression Levels
Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4 (below) present the significant results from the
Relational Aggression Survey, which examined the impact of the ten-week empowerment
group on participants’ self-reported engagement in relational aggression. According to
data analysis, 81.3 percent of participants indicated that they had participated in girl
bullying prior to the start of the empowerment group. At the conclusion of the group,
49
when asked if they had engaged in girl bullying since starting the empowerment group,
only 33.3 percent indicated that they had engaged in relational aggression. This change
represents a 48 percent self-reported drop in girl bullying or relational aggression after
participation in the program.
As shown in Figure 4.4, the self-reported frequency of engaging in relational
aggression or girl bullying decreased significantly from the Relational Aggression pretest
to the posttest. Despite the small sample size, these numbers are encouraging: the
number of participants engaging in self-reported daily acts of girl bullying decreased by
50 percent at the conclusion of the group, the number engaging in weekly acts decreased
by 75 percent, and the number engaging in monthly acts decreased by 33 percent.
The Relational Aggression Survey is not a psychometrically reliable or valid
instrument, and these numbers represent self-reporting within a small sample size.
However, there was a marked difference in self-reports of relational aggressive acts from
the start of the empowerment group to the conclusion of the group. The survey asked
participants to indicate the following: (1) whether they had ever participated in relational
aggression, (2) if so, what was the frequency of this participation, and (3) what specific
acts had they committed.
50
Figure 4.3: Participants Self-Reported Involvement in Girl Bullying
51
Figure 4.4: Participants Self-Reported Frequency of Involvement in Girl Bullying
52
Further analysis reveals that nineteen of twenty two specific relational aggression
items decreased at the conclusion of the empowerment group. These items included such
statements as “teased another girl,” “repeated something I heard about another girl,” and
“embarrassed someone on purpose.” There were several items of marked significance
change: the number of participants who marked “rolled my eyes at her” decreased by 67
percent, “wouldn’t let her sit or hang out with the group” decreased by 50 percent, and
“laughed at someone else’s joke about a girl” decreased by 49.2 percent.
53
Variable
Percent in Pretest
Sample
37.5
Percent in Posttest
Sample
28.6
Percent Change
Teased another girl
37.5
7.1
-30.4
Called her names
43.8
14.3
-29.5
Rolled my eyes at
her
81.3
14.3
-67.0
Didn’t invite her to
my party
37.5
7.1
-30.4
Wouldn’t let her sit
or hang out with the
group
50.0
0/0
-50.0
Posted something
mean on the Internet
18.8
14.3
-4.5
IM’d anonymously
12.5
7.1
-5.4
Gossiped about
another girl
25.0
14.3
-10.7
Spread rumors about
someone
18.8
0.0
-18.8
My friends and I talk
about other girls
Table 4.3: Pretest and Posttest Percentages of Participants’
Self-reports of Engagement in Incidences of Relational Aggression
54
-8.9
(continued)
Table 4.3 (continued)
Variable
Percent in Pretest
Sample
56.3
Posttest in Posttest
Sample
7.1
Percent Change
Watched another girl
make fun of someone
12.5
21.4
8.3
Told someone they
were not welcome
50.0
7.1
-42.9
Written a mean note
about someone
50.0
7.1
-42.9
Refused to talk to
another girl
37.5
21.4
-16.1
Repeated something
I heard about another
girl
12.5
14.3
1.8
Emailed someone a
mean message
37.5
28.6
-8.9
Posted mean
messages in a chat
room about someone
12.5
21.4
8.9
Posted mean
message on my space
about someone
31.3
14.3
-17
Made fun of the way
someone dressed
37.5
7.1
-30.4
Laughed at someone
else’s joke about a
girl
-49.2
(continued)
55
Table 4.3 (continued)
Variable
Embarrassed
someone on purpose
Insulted someone
Percent in Pretest
Sample
31.3
Percent in Posttest
Sample
14.3
Percent Change
31.3
7.1
-24.2
56
-17
Qualitative Results
Qualitative results are only used to enrich the quantitative data and provide further
information on the empowerment program.
Emerging Themes
Students perceptions, attitudes, and knowledge were categorized according to the
following themes: (a) acquisition of safety skills, (b), navigating peer relationships, and
(c) overcoming barriers for future success.
“Tell your mother and call the police”: Acquisition of Safety Skills
After participation in the empowerment group, girls indicate an understanding of
dangerous situations and proper safety skills. Girls demonstrated this acquisition of
safety skills through their answers to a hypothetical situation in the qualitative interviews:
the question asked them to consider what they would do if strange older guys offered
them a ride in their car. At the conclusion of the empowerment group, 100 percent of
participants said they would refuse to get into the car. The majority also indicated
various solutions: run away, call for help, tell their parents, or call 911.
Initial pretest data shows participants basic understanding of safety: a car with
strangers is unsafe. Most participants were able to explain that they would not get into a
car, and that they would run away. However, after comparing pretest and posttest data, it
is clear that participants had different answers after the empowerment group. Most
participants had concrete, clear answers in posttest data. They reiterated pretest
comments, such as do not get in the car and strangers are unsafe, but at the conclusion of
the group, they also had concrete answers like call 911, go to the police, or tell a trusted
57
adult. One participant said in posttest interview: “I would tell her mom immediately. And
report it. And report it to the police.”
“Well, I don’t want to fight you”: Navigating Peer Relationships
Most participants described physical aggression or relational aggression as crucial
ways to deal with peer conflict in pretest data. Many seemed unsure as to the correct way
to deal with issues such as rumor-spreading or fighting: when replying to a hypothetical
situation where a participant makes another girl cry, one participant said, “I’d probably
apologize or say something mean.” Interviews given after the conclusion of the
empowerment group indicate an increased understanding of navigating peer relationships.
Fourteen participants, or 93.75 percent of the overall sample size, indicated that they
would talk to a trusted adult or speak directly to the bully or provoker if a conflict arose.
One participant said that if another girl wanted to fight her, she would say, “Well, I don’t’
want to fight you.”
“if you wanna go for something you can “: Overcoming Barriers For future Success
Another qualitative interview scenario asked participants about their ability to
perform in a nontraditional career track. The scenario asks girls what they would do if
their friend had a dream to be a doctor, but her mother told her the friend that she needed
to be a nurse because women cannot be doctors. At the conclusion of the group, 100
percent of the participants indicated that their friend should be a doctor. Among the
answers, girls said, “if being a doctor is your dream, you should go ahead and do it” and
“I would tell my friend to follow her dream and still become a doctor because men or
women can be doctors.” Additionally, girls talked about a general feeling of future
success, and the importance of following their dreams: “I learned that anything is
58
possible for women and that if you wanna go for something you can” and “You can have
any experience if you just believe in yourself.” Additionally, participants acknowledged
that some adults might have strong feelings about girls not participating in maledominated fields. Those participants who stated this concern and acknowledged it as a
barrier, also said they would still do what they felt they could do: “Men and women can
be doctors. You can say what you wanna say, but when I grow up I’ll be a doctor.”
Correlations of Self-Esteem, Self-Concept and Relational Aggression
According to their scores on the MSCS and the CFSEI-3, participants were
categorized as having high or low self-concept and self-esteem, respectively. While all
scores fell within the normal range, for the purposes of this study, participants with low
self-concept are defined as participants with total scores on the Multidimensional Self
Concept Scale (MSCS) in the lowest 50 percent of the range of scores reported.
Participants with high self-concept are defined as participants with total scores on the
MSCS in the highest 50 percent of the range of scores reported. Similarly, participants
with low self-esteem are defined as participants with total scores on the Culture Free
Self-Esteem Inventories-Third Edition (CFSEI-3) in the lowest 50 percent of the range of
scores reported. Participants with high self-esteem are defined as participants with total
scores on the CFSEI-3 in the highest 50 percent of the range of scores reported.
Participants who have high self-esteem and high self-concept reported a
significant change in girl bullying participation from the beginning of the empowerment
group to the conclusion of the group. Participants with high self-esteem and self-concept
reported a 45 percent drop in bullying acts at the conclusion of the empowerment group.
However, participants with low self-esteem and self-concept reported only a 25 percent
59
drop in bullying acts at the conclusion of the empowerment group. This significant
difference between low and high self-esteem and self-concept participants indicates a
possible correlation between self-esteem, self-concept, and one’s ability to learn and
change behavior in regard to bullying and aggression.
60
Prior to
participation in
group:
Prior to
participation in
group.
After
participation in
group.
After
participation in
the group.
I participate in
girl bullying.
I do not
participate in
girl bullying.
I participate in
girl bullying
I do not
participate in
girl bullying.
Girls with High
Self-Concept
on MSCS
8
1
3
4
Girls with Low
Self-Concept
on MSCS
5
2
3
4
Total
13
3
6
8
Table 4.4 Rates of Self-reported Participation in Bullying In Relation to MSCS
Prior to
participation in
group:
Prior to
participation in
group.
After
participation in
group.
After
participation in
the group.
I participate in
girl bullying.
I do not
participate in
girl bullying.
I participate in
girl bullying
I do not
participate in
girl bullying.
Girls with High
Self-Esteem on
CFSEI
8
1
3
4
Girls with Low
Self-Esteem on
CFSEI
5
2
3
4
Total
13
3
6
8
Table 4.5 Rates of Self-reported Participation in Bullying In Relation to CFSEI-3
61
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
This study examined the impact of a ten-week small group intervention on the
preadolescent girl participants’ self-esteem, self-concept, and reported acts of relational
aggression, as measured by the Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventory-Third Edition, the
Multidimensional Self Concept Scale, and the Relational Aggression Survey,
respectively. This study was unique in the respect that it examined the relationship
between participation in a ten-week empowerment program and its impact on self-esteem
and self-concept using psychometrically sound self-concept and self-esteem instruments
normed on a nationally representative sample and based on an empirically-based
theoretically framework. Additionally, the study focused on the relationship between
participation in an empowerment program and self-reported acts of relational aggression.
Summary of Findings
Fifth grade female students who participate in a ten-week empowerment program
indicate a decrease in self-reports of engagement in relational aggression. Further
findings show a strong correlation between girl bullying and levels of self-esteem and
self-concept within the sample. Essentially, levels of self-concept and self-esteem within
the group, in comparison to relational aggression, represent a dialectical relationship.
Girls who report engaging in girl bullying at the conclusion of the group experience low
62
self-esteem and low self-concept in comparison to the group. Inversely, girls who report
a low level of girl bullying at the conclusion of the group experience high self-esteem and
high self-concept in comparison to the group. For various reasons, participation in a tenweek empowerment program does not increase self-esteem and self-concept in a
statistically significant manner.
Limitations of the Study
The results of this study cannot be generalized to other elementary school students
that were not sampled because the sample was not randomly sampled. Studies are needed
in various regions of the United States in order to examine how self-concept and selfesteem might relate differently to participation in an empowerment group based on
different cultures and demographics.
Additionally, it is difficult to relate the current study to other studies on relational
aggression in preadolescent or adolescent girls. Due to the lack of multicultural diversity
in most relational aggression study samples, evidenced by majority Caucasian participant
samples, this study offers new information and research to a growing topic. According to
Buckley and Carter (2005), African-American adolescents’ self-esteem remains relatively
constant until adulthood. The current study supports this notion that African-American
youth have consistent levels of self-esteem over time.
Self-esteem and self-concept represent rigid constructs that have unyielding
tendencies over time. Therefore, the age group, sample size and length of program
represented barriers for increasing self-esteem and self-concept. A ten-week program is a
short amount of time to alter such concrete constructs. Further research should focus on a
longer empowerment program with more time spent on each specific topic of
63
empowerment. Additionally, research is needed with larger sample sizes in order to
properly analyze the effects of an empowerment program on self-esteem and selfconcept. Furthermore, preadolescent girls are at the cusp of puberty and transition into
adolescent. As such, many girls may experience a sharp decrease in self-esteem and selfconcept in early adolescence. Most girls in this particular sample size levels of selfesteem and self-concept within the average range prior to the start of the program.
Therefore, there was less opportunity for a statistically significant increase in these
constructs.
In order to conduct a power analysis to determine sample size requirements more
precisely, information regarding effect size is required. The researcher was unable to
conduct a power analysis, as each of the constructs of interest were not previously
examined specifically in this context. Therefore, specific effect size information is not
available. However, an estimation of effect size information was available by consulting
Cohen’s (1988) sample size planning tables. In general terms, sample size and effect size
information can be garnered by examining the type of effect size anticipated. The
utilization of a product moment correlation allows a researcher to select a desired level of
power, and effect size as measured by r, and determine completely the number of paired
observations required in the sample (Cohen, 1988). The sample size tables are primarily
used for planning experiments and determining sample size information. Specifying
a2=.05 and a desired power level of .80, a medium effect size (r = .30) requires 85
subjects (Cohen, 1988).
Overall, it is possible that this empowerment group could have had a more
significant impact on self-esteem and self-concept if the sample size was larger.
64
However, despite a lack of statistically significant data in regards to self-esteem and selfconcept, there were increases in five of six subscales of self-esteem and self-concept from
pretest to posttest. It is important to note that the school setting offers obstacles for larger
sample sizes and random sampling.
Implications
Results of the present study provide evidence for the inverse relationship between
self-reported engagement in relational aggression, and self-esteem and self-concept. As
hypothesized, relational aggression appears to have a clear relationship with self-esteem
and self-concept. These findings contribute uniquely to our understanding of girl bullying
and peer relationships at the preadolescent period of development.
As predicted, participation in a ten-week empowerment program appears to be
characteristic with a decrease in self-reports of relational aggression. Results indicated
that as a group, girls were less likely to participate in acts of relational aggression after
participation in an empowerment program. Interestingly, through qualitative interviews,
study participants expressed an understanding of relational aggression and its association
with negative consequences and impact on peers.
Qualitative interviews showed participants’ appreciation of the all-female format,
as well as a true appreciation for the group content and purpose. Specifically, one
participant indicated “I think (name of empowerment group) is amazing and I think it’s
good for young ladies to go to because young ladies these days have real
problems…expressing themselves and letting themselves just breathe and just let their
problems out and stuff.” The ability to express themselves in the group seemed to be a
common thread among participants’ responses in the qualitative interviews, with such
65
quotes as “I like how I could express feelings…that I could express my feelings that I
can’t express to other people” and “I can tell everybody my feelings because I know they,
they’re like true friends.”
Oftentimes, girls indicated an appreciation of positive female relationships:
according to one participant, “when ladies work together sometimes you can discover
you have a lot in common.” Girls are usually not taught how to have healthy relationship
with other girls. An all-girl group format teaches girls how to interact with one another
in an appropriate manner. Coed schools should consider implementing small-scale single
sex programming in order to facilitate healthy female peer relationships and empower
girls to become female leaders in society. For example, schools could bring in female
role models who experience success in a professional setting in order increase girls’
career self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-concept. Another way to give girls an
opportunity to interact in an all-female format it to hold all girl assemblies once a month
or split the classroom once a month and provide single-sex interventions. Though this
may appear to be an antiquated education format, it serves two primary functions: expose
girls to a variety of female role models and nontraditional career options, and create a
single-sex environment where girls can practice healthy peer relationships.
The current study suggests that girls’ self-esteem and self-concept influences their
ability to decrease acts of relational aggression. According to results, girls who report
participation in girl bullying at the conclusion of the group tend to have lower self-esteem
and self-concept in relation to the sample. Inversely, girls who report no participation in
girl bullying at the conclusion of the group tend to have higher self-esteem and selfconcept in relation to the sample. This may suggest that girls who do not have high self-
66
esteem and self-concept will be unable to learn how to establish healthy relationships
with girls and stop participating in relational aggression. As previously mentioned,
relational aggression is based on intimacy, not a collective aggression against others.
Relational aggression usually takes places within a friendship dyad, and involves
emotional and mental manipulation and harm as opposed to physical harm. Qualitative
interviews confirm girls’ perception on relational aggression or girl bullying: “you have
to quit bullying other children cause you never know if you hurt them on the inside.”
Despite numerous school-wide or classroom specific bullying interventions and
programming, bullying continues to be an extensive problem in our schools. Most
bullying programs are based on behavioral interventions: “if this bullying happens, this is
what you can do.” Elementary schools focus on friendship building and conflict
resolution as early as kindergarten and first grade. Anti-bullying programs strengthen
their focus in late elementary school and middle school. Anti-bullying programs usually
then evolve into anti-violence programming in high school. Despite some evidence
supporting these types of anti-bullying interventions, bullying continues to be a pervasive
problem for most students: 70 percent of school-age students experience some form of
bullying (Canter, 2005). This study’s results may suggest that regular bullying
programming is not a sufficient response for school bullying, and relational aggression in
particular. Due to preadolescents’ developmental age, it is difficult for them to translate
their experiences to other children’s experiences and to translate a single situation to
other similar types of situations. Programming focused on specific behaviors and
outcomes may not be the best approach for educators. Therefore, this researcher
advocates a more holistic approach to bullying and relational aggression intervention.
67
Girls are much more likely to display relational aggression, as opposed to physical
aggression. According to this study’s results, relational aggression is closely related to
self-esteem and self-concept. Therefore, in order to reach girls, it is essential that
bullying programs focus on increasing self-esteem and self-concept, and boosting
confidence. This holistic approach may increase the effectiveness of bullying programs
in schools.
The Role of Educators and School Counselors for Empowering Preadolescent Girls
Educators and school counselors have an opportunity to teach girls positive peer
relations, while increasing their self-esteem and self-concept. Based on the current
study’s results, higher self-esteem and self-concept may correlate with preadolescent
girls’ ability to learn positive peer relations and decrease their participation in relationally
aggressive acts. Therefore, educators and school counselors should offer a holistic
approach to relational aggression interventions. Educators and helping professionals
within a school building need to collaborate on behalf of increasing students’ self-esteem
and self-concept. Students who believe in their own abilities and have a positive selfregard may have an easier time acquiring peer relations and conflict resolution skills.
Though primarily behavioral interventions have some value, the current study points to
the significance of providing a holistic approach to anti-bullying and anti-relational
aggression programming. Raising self-esteem and self-concept can occur in many
formats, however preadolescent girls benefit greatly from empowerment programming.
Educators and school counselors should use the Multidimensional Self Concept
Scale (MSCS) subscales and the Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventories-Third Edition
(CFSEI-3) subscales as a foundation for empowerment programming. Self-esteem
68
subscales included academic self-esteem, general self-esteem, parental/home self-esteem,
social self-esteem, and personal self-esteem. Self-concept subscales include social selfconcept, competence self-concept, affect self-concept, academic self-concept, family selfconcept, and physical self-concept. By increasing these areas of self-concept and selfesteem, educators and school counselors are setting girls up for success.
Through team building exercises and creating positive group dynamics, educators
can create a safe and supportive environment in their classrooms, after school programs,
or small counseling groups. Furthermore, educators can work collaboratively with
teachers, administrators, and other school staff members to implement school-wide
relational aggression programming. By utilizing properly trained helping professionals
and educators, preadolescent girls would benefit significantly from learning
empowerment topics such as building positive peer relations, healthy assertiveness and
leadership skills, and nontraditional career exploration and development.
Overall, teachers and helping professionals are in a unique position to set girls up
for future career, personal, social and academic success. Through systemic change and
collaboration, educators can create a positive environment for girls. Within a co-ed
classroom, teachers can assist girls in developing their strengths and encouraging
leadership skills. Schools can also offer some single-sex programming within a co-ed
environment in order to teach girls how to relate to on another outside of the context of
heterosexual relationships and competition amongst one another.
Directions for Future Research
Prospective research seems to have many avenues to explore. First of all, more
research needs to be done in different cultures, diverse populations, and larger sample
69
sizes in order to analyze how empowerment programming impacts girls’ self-esteem and
self-concept. Additionally, future research can further study the relationship between
relational aggression and levels of self-esteem and self-concept. It would be beneficial to
understand the development of relational aggression in association with self-esteem and
self-concept over time. Therefore, longitudinal studies focusing on late elementary
school through late high school would be a valuable addition to available literature.
Conclusion
In summary, results of the present study provide support for the hypothesis that,
on average, girls decrease self-reports of relational aggression after participating in a ten
week empowerment group. Additionally, the study shows a correlation between high
self-reports of relational aggression and low self-esteem and self-concept. Conversely,
there is a correlation between low self-reports of relational aggression and high selfesteem and self-concept. They also indicate that further study of empowerment program
and its impact on the self-esteem and self-concept of preadolescent girls is warranted,
particularly, in a longer format. It will be important in future research to develop our
understanding of the relationship between empowerment programming and its impact on
the preadolescent psyche and their peer relationships.
70
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APPENDIX A
RELATIONAL AGGRESSION SURVEY
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5TH GRADE SURVEY
Name _________________________________________________________________
Grade _________________
Age __________________
Ethnicity/Race _____________________
Who is your teacher? _____________________________________________
This survey is about GIRL BULLYING. Girl bullying happens between girls. These
girls can be friends, just classmates, or enemies.
Here are some examples of GIRL BULLYING:
Talking behind someone’s back
Picking on someone or teasing someone
Not allowing another girl in your group
Instant messaging something mean about another girl
Not letting a girl play with you during recess
Saying something mean to a girl
Not inviting a girl to your birthday party even though she is your friend
************************************************************************
DIRECTIONS: Please put a check mark next to the best answer. If there is not an answer
that you think works best you may use the blank space to write your response.
************************************************************************
1. Have you ever participated in girl bullying?
____________ NO, I HAVE NEVER PARTICIPATED IN GIRL BULLYING.
____________ YES, I HAVE PARTICIPATED IN GIRL BULLYING.
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2. If you answered YES to question 1, then how often do you participate in girl bullying?
____________ DAILY
____________ WEEKLY
____________ MONTHLY
3. What role did you play in girl bullying?
____________ I HAVE NEVER BEEN INVOLVED IN GIRL BULLYING.
____________ I BULLIED ANOTHER GIRL.
____________ ANOTHER GIRL BULLIED ME.
____________ I WATCHED A GIRL BULLY OTHER GIRLS.
4. What kind of girl bullying have you done? Check next to the types of girl bullying you
have done before. You can write a check on as many blanks as are true.
____________ NAME CALLING
____________ LEFT OUT ANOTHER GIRL ON PURPOSE
____________ TEASED
____________ GOSSIP
____________ THREATENED
____________ TEST MESSAGES, EMAILS, OR INSTANT MESSAGING
____________ HITTING, SLAPPING, PUSHING
____________ PICKED ON SOMEONE BECAUSE OF THE WAY THEY LOOK
____________ MADE FUN OF SOMEONE BECAUSE OF THEIR RACE OR
RELIGION
____________ CALLED SOMEONE A LESBIAN OR GAY TO BE MEAN
____________ SPREAD RUMORS ABOUT SOMEONE
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____________ THREE WAY CALLS
____________ OTHER (EXPLAIN) ____________________________________
____________________________________
5. Where did the girl bullying happen? You can write a check on as many blanks as are
true.
____________ ON THE WAY TO SCHOOL (ON THE BUS, WALKING IN)
____________ IN THE HALLWAY
____________ IN THE LUNCH ROOM
____________ ON THE PLAYGROUND
____________ IN A CLASSROOM
____________ IN THE RESTROOM
____________ ON THE INTERNET
____________ ON THE PHONE
____________ OTHER (WHERE?) ________________________
6. Have you ever been involved in or seen girl bullying happen? Check as many blanks
that are true.
____________ NO, I HAVE NOT BEEN INVOLVED IN OR SEEN A GIRL BET
BULLIED
____________ MY FRIENDS AND I TALK ABOUT OTHER GIRL
____________ TEASED ANOTHER GIRL
____________ CALLED HER NAMES
____________ ROLLED MY EYES AT HER
____________ DIDN’T INVITE HER TO MY PARTY
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____________ WOULDN’T LET HER SIT OR HANG OUT WITH THE GROUP
____________ POSTED SOMETHING MEAN ON THE INTERNET
____________ IM’d ANONYMOUSLY
____________GOSSIPED ABOUT ANOTHER GIRL
____________ SPREAD RUMORS ABOUT SOMEONE
____________ LAUGHED AT SOMEONE ELSE’S JOKE ABOUT A GIRL
____________ WATCHED ANOTHER GIRL MAKE FUN OF SOMEONE
____________ TOLD SOMEONE THEY WERE NOT WELCOME
____________ WRITTEN A MEAN NOTE ABOUT SOMEONE
____________ REFUSED TO TALK TO ANOTHER GIRL
____________ REPEATED SOMETHING I HEARD ABOUT ANOTHER GIRL
____________ EMAILED SOMEONE A MEAN MESSAGE
____________ POSTED MEAN MESSAGES IN A CHAT ROOM ABOUT SOMEONE
____________ POSTED MEAN MESSAGE ON MY SPACE ABOUT SOMEONE
____________ MADE FUN OF THE WAY SOMEONE DRESSED
____________ EMBARRASSED SOMEONE ON PURPOSE
____________ INSULTED SOMEONE
____________ I DID NOTHING
____________ OTHER (WHAT?) ___________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. Have girls ever bullied you?
____________ YES, ALL THE TIME
____________ YES, SOMETIMES
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____________ ONLY A COUPLE OF TIMES
____________ NO, NOT REALLY
8. Have you ever missed school because a girl was a bully towards you?
____________ YES
____________ NO
9. If you were ever bullied, what did you do?
____________ I LAUGHED IT OFF
____________ I PANICKED AND RAN
____________ I GOT EMBARRASSED
____________ I ACTED LIKE IT DIDN’T BOTHER ME
____________ I STOOD UP FOR MYSELF
IF YOU STOOD UP FOR YOURSELF, HOW DID YOU DO IT?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
____________ I TRIED TO STAY AWAY FROM THOSE GIRLS
____________ I DID NOT COME TO SCHOOL
____________ I JUST DEALT WITH IT BY MYSELF
____________ I MADE NEW FRIENDS
____________ I DID NOTHING
10. Did you ever tell anyone about girl bullying?
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____________ I HAVE NEVER EXPERIENCED GIRL BULLYING
____________ YES, MY FRIEND
____________ YES, A TEACHER
____________ YES, AN ADULT I TRUST
____________ YES, MY PARENT
____________ YES, MY SISTER/BROTHER
____________ NO, I DID NOT TELL ANYONE
____________ NO, THERE IS NO ONE TO TELL
____________ NO, TELLING IS NOT COOL
____________ NO, EVEN IF I TOLD NO ONE WOULD DO ANYTHING
11. Do you think your school is doing everything it can to deal with girl bullying?
____________ YES
____________ IN SOME WAYS
____________ NO
12. Do you have any suggestions for your schools that you think could help?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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13. Is there anything else you would like to share or any ideas you have about girl
bullying?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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APPENDIX B
MULTIDIMENSIONAL SELF CONCEPT SCALE
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APPENDIX C
CULTURE FREE SELF-ESTEEM INVENTORIES- THIRD EDITION
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APPENDIX D
QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS
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Pretest Interview
Student ID:
Age:
Ethnicity:
GPA:
1. Who do you live with?
2. What do you want to be when you grow up?
3. Who are your role models and why?
4. When you get out of school what do you do for the rest of the day? What do you
do on the weekends?
5. It is about 7:00 at night and you and your friend are playing outside. Your friend
sees a car circle the block and then it stops in front of you. The guys in the car ask
if your friend wants a ride somewhere. Your friend really wanted to go to another
friend’s house, but it is too far to walk. What would you tell her to do?
6. Your friend is going to a family get together over the holidays. She doesn’t want
to go because her uncle will be there and he always makes her feel uncomfortable.
She tells you that he calls her nicknames and asks if she has a boyfriend. What
would you tell her to do?
7. Your friend hears a rumor about herself that is untrue and hurtful. The girl who
she thinks started the rumor is in her next class. What would you tell your friend
to do?
8. Your friend is upset because she told her mom about her dream to become a
doctor. Her mom told her that women should be nurses and only men are doctors.
What would you tell your friend?
9. A boy is bothering you in class. He keeps teasing you and getting you in trouble.
Another girl in the 5th grade spread a rumor saying you like this boy and you
kissed him. It is not true! What do you do?
10. You and your friend are in a fight. You tell all of your other friends about the
fight and tell them not to let this girl sit with you at lunch. One day at lunch she
wants to sit with all of you and you start talking loudly and saying mean things
about her to your friends. She starts crying. What do you do?
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Posttest Interview
Student ID:
1. It is about 7:00 at night and you and your friend are playing outside. Your friend
sees a car circle the block and then it stops in front of you. The guys in the car ask
if your friend wants a ride somewhere. Your friend really wanted to go to another
friend’s house, but it is too far to walk. What would you tell her to do?
2. Your friend is going to a family get together over the holidays. She doesn’t want
to go because her uncle will be there and he always makes her feel uncomfortable.
She tells you that he calls her nicknames and asks if she has a boyfriend. What
would you tell her to do?
3. Your friend hears a rumor about herself that is untrue and hurtful. The girl who
she thinks started the rumor is in her next class. What would you tell your friend
to do?
4. Your friend is upset because she told her mom about her dream to become a
doctor. Her mom told her that women should be nurses and only men are doctors.
What would you tell your friend?
5. A boy is bothering you in class. He keeps teasing you and getting you in trouble.
Another girl in the 5th grade spread a rumor saying you like this boy and you
kissed him. It is not true! What do you do?
6. You and your friend are in a fight. You tell all of your other friends about the
fight and tell them not to let this girl sit with you at lunch. One day at lunch she
wants to sit with all of you and you start talking loudly and saying mean things
about her to your friends. She starts crying. What do you do?
7. What did you like about the empowerment group?
8. What did you learn from being a part of the empowerment group?
9. If you could change something about the group, what would it be?
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APPENDIX E
SAMPLE LESSONS
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Sample Lesson
Goals/Objectives:
! To increase healthy assertiveness in participants
! To identify bullying and the forms of bullying
! To identify forms of abuse
! To learn a new way to respond to relationally aggressive situations
Goals Addressed:
! To increase healthy assertiveness in participants
! To develop female leaders and role models
! To increase the interpersonal, activities, and self-defense self-efficacy of the
participants
! To develop female leaders and role models
! To allow girls to express themselves in a safe environment
! To examine the correlation between self-esteem and self-reported measures of
relational aggression
Materials Needed:
• Journals
• Large rule poster
• Pencils/Pens/Markers
• Food
• Bullying Quiz
• Abuse worksheet
• Drama Squad Materials
Procedure:
1. Introduction (10 minutes)
a. Welcome the girls back as they arrive and allow them to eat.
2. Ask the girls to share the bullying picture they did for homework. Have them
take the bullying quiz. (15 minutes)
a. Then split them into groups and have them looks at pictures of different
girls and boys. Who is a bully? Would you change them? How?
3. Emotional Versus Physical Abuse (10 minutes)
a. Talk about the differences between emotional and physical abuse-connect
this to bullying. A bully can be a father, a sister, a friend. How does
emotional and physical abuse look? How are they different?
4. Drama Squad: Act it Out (25 minutes)
a. Split the members into groups and have them act out relational aggression
situations and suggest alternative ways to deal with it.
5. Homework/Journaling
a. Ask the girls to write for 5 minutes about what “Sugar and Spice and
Everything Else” means to them. Have you heard it before? What does it
mean? Is it an accurate statement for girls?
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Sample Lesson
Goals/Objectives:
! To learn and understand the differences between aggressive, assertive, and
passive behavior
! To acknowledge and verbalize own assertive rights
! Recognize past experiences where members acted aggressively, assertively, or
passively
! Learn appropriate assertive responses to various situations
Goals Addressed:
! To increase healthy assertiveness in participants
! To develop female leaders and role models
! To examine the correlation between self-esteem and self-reported measures of
relational aggression
! To allow the girls an opportunity to express themselves in a safe environment
Materials Needed:
• Journals
• Large rule poster
• Pencils/Pens/Markers
• Food
• Hypothetical situations
• My Assertive Rights Worksheet
• Mirror Mirror Worksheet
Procedure:
6. Introduction (10 minutes)
a. Welcome the girls as they arrive and share food!
b. Share journal homework from the previous work.
c. Introduce the lesson; we are going to be talking about conflict situations
and our reactions/actions in these situations. We are going to talk about
passive, aggressive, and assertive reactions to these situations. While an
assertive response is often positive, other reactions have a time and place
to be used. A victim in a conflict situation does whatever they need to do
at the time to get through it. We don’t want to judge actions to say one is
inherently better than another. We have probably all used each of these
forms of behavior at some point.
7. Hypothetical Situations (15 minutes)
a. Use hypothetical situations worksheet to further explain the differences
between assertive and aggressive behavior.
b. Break girls into pairs or groups to discuss what they would do in each
situation.
8. Discuss My Assertive Rights as a group (10 Minutes)
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a. Are there any rights students would add? Are these rights supported in
your school? In your community? Sometimes we have rights that are not
available in practice, that is when we may need to use our assertive
behaviors in order to have our rights supported.
i. For example, although we have the right to be treated with respect,
we are not always treated respectfully by those around us.
ii. Teach the use of “I statements”
1. I feel …
When you …
Because …
I need you to … OR Please…
b. Although we need to protect our rights, we also need to be sure we are
not infringing on the rights of others.
9. Mirror Mirror (20 minutes)
a. Members will use a worksheet to show what “I show others…” and “What
other see…”
b. Members will share with each other as a group.
10. Journaling/Homework
a. Give journaling homework assignment to girls. Ask girls to draw a
picture of what a bully looks like.
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APPENDIX F
IRB
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