Tilburg University The Trust Game Behind the Veil of Ignorance

Tilburg University
The Trust Game Behind the Veil of Ignorance
Vyrastekova, J.; Onderstal, A.M.
Publication date:
2005
Link to publication
Citation for published version (APA):
Vyrastekova, J., & Onderstal, A. M. (2005). The Trust Game Behind the Veil of Ignorance: A Note on Gender
Differences. (CentER Discussion Paper; Vol. 2005-96). Tilburg: Microeconomics.
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Download date: 14. jun. 2017
No. 2005–96
THE TRUST GAME BEHIND THE VEIL OF IGNORANCE: A
NOTE ON GENDER DIFFERENCES
By Jana Vyrastekova, Sander Onderstal
August 2005
ISSN 0924-7815
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:
(i) Trust game strategy combinations - women (N=80)
20%
15%
10%
5%
1
0%
[0.5,0.67)
0
1
2
3
4
[0.25,0.33)
5
6
7
8
Subject’s transfer as sender
0
9
Subject’s return as
returner
10
(ii) Trust game strategy combinations - men (N=168)
20%
15%
10%
5%
1
0%
[0.5,0.67)
0
1
2
3
4
[0.25,0.33)
5
6
Subject’s transfer as sender
7
8
0
9
Subject’s return as
returner
10
Iljxuh 4= Wuxvw jdph vwudwhj| frpelqdwlrqv vxeplwwhg e| +l, zrphq/ dqg e| +ll, phq1
;
40%
Frequency
30%
Female
20%
Male
10%
0%
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Sender’s transfer
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<
Fraction returned by returner
120%
100%
80%
Female
60%
Male
40%
20%
0%
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Sender’s transfer
Iljxuh 6=
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vhqghu1
Fraction returnedby returner
160%
140%
120%
Female, transfer<5
100%
Female, transfer>=5
80%
Male, transfer<5
60%
Male, transfer>=5
40%
20%
0%
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10
Sender’s transfer
Iljxuh 7=
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43
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