Chapter -1
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Chapter –I
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
The jumps are the fundamental activities of human beings which
had catered the food gathering and safety need of man kind right from the
ancient times. Competitive jumps had come a long way in the development
of technique and style. They are included in the modern Olympic Games
right from their very start in Athens (1896).
Track & Field consists of running, hurdling, jumping, and throwing
events, held between individuals and teams at indoor and outdoor meets.
The running and hurdling competitions make up the track events, while the
jumping and throwing contests comprise the field events. In many
countries the sport as a whole is called athletics.
The rules of 20th-century competition are quite different from
those of ancient times, the spirit of the sport remains true to its early Greek
roots. The modern Olympic motto Citius, Altius, Fortius (faster, higher,
stronger) best captures track & field competition. Each event determines
who can run the fastest, who can jump the highest or the longest, or who
can throw the farthest.
The high jump is an athletics (track and field) event in which
competitors must jump over a horizontal bar placed at measured heights
without aid of any devices. It has been contested since the Olympic Games
of ancient Greece. Over the centuries since, competitors have introduced
increasingly more effective techniques to arrive at the current form. The
high-jump as we know it today first become popular in the 19th century ,
when professionals performed for payment and were able to clear over
6ft.(1.83m). The Scotsman William Tivendale managed to clear 1.85m as
long ago as 1861. At that time ,the cross-bar or rope stretched betweens
uprights was cleared with the feet together and with the trunk almost erect
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, so the head was a comparatively long way from the horizontal
obstacles.(Wikipedia)
This event did not figure in the Ancient Games, but was commonly
practised by the Celts. The first competition was organized in England in
1840 and regulated in 1865 when each competitor was allowed three
jumps at each height and the crossbar could not be lowered in the event of
failure. Taking off with both feet was forbidden and this rule remains in
force today. Days were on passes the technique and style of jumping has
been developed some important style are given below.
The high jump, through its close relationship with gymnastics, was
practised at the beginning of the 20th century either with run-up from a
standstill. Four versions of the jump from a standstill were included in the
Olympic from 1900 to 1912, and it remained in sporting programmes until
the early 1930s.
Towards the end of the 19th century , an American named Mike
Sweeny proposed the scissors jump as an alternative to the frontal
clearance. The scissors involved passing one leg over after the other at
the same time bending the trunk towards the knees when clearing the bar.
Sweeny technique was successfully taken up by Frenchman Pierre
Lewden who being small adapted it to his physique. This emerged the
style named ‘scissors with return inside’ a scissors kick with internal
overturning. It consisted of the following movement, while the forward
leg was above the cross bar, the other one kicked upwards causing the
chest to rotate towards the direction of jumping and a landing on the feet.
Lewden’s double scissors kick survived for the whole period
between the two world wars, but the advantages of another technique were
already being put forward by a Californian called George Horine during
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this time ; this technique involved approaching the cross bar in the air on
his side with his body parallel to it , while completing a rotation. Hence
the definition of ‘rolling’, known as the ‘western roll’; this name was
derived from the fact that Horine was from the west coast of the U.S.A..
As a result of this technique Horine was the first man to jump above
2m.(6ft.7in.), on 18th may 1912 at Palo Alto in California. Later the
‘western roll’ simply took the name of its inventor.
Towards the middle of the 1930s another American , Dave
Albritton , proposed a redical new technique for clearing the cross bar ,
involving the body being parallel to the bar, but with the stomach
downwards rather than with the body sideways. Thus the ‘straddle’ was
born , which was clearly demonstrated by the Soviet trainer Vladimir
Mihailovic Dyachkov and put to good effect by Valeri Brumel , who took
the world record to 2.28 m. in 1963.
An entirely original and revolutionary method of high jumping was
provided by Dick Fosbury, the most recent of the North American
inventors, who used his technique to win the high jump in the 1968
Olympics. It involves a curved run-up, which places the athletes side on to
the bar from where he jumps and rotates his body so that he crosses the
bar on his back before landing on his shoulders. However, although this
new technique proved to be highly successful, the straddle still showed
itself to be a very effective method when Vladimir Yaschenko jumped
2.35m. in 1978 thus keeping alive the discussions as to the relative merits
of the Fosbury flop and straddle . Fosbury’s technique makes it possible to
use technically in flight all the force produced by the take-off.
The first women’s high jump contests took place in the USA in
1895. The event made its Olympic debut in 1928 with the first IAAF
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world record dating back to 1932. Like their male counterparts, women
high jumpers have used many styles, from Scissors to straddle to the
Fosbury Flop, in their pursuit of greater heights. The woman to have
jumped highest over her own head is Greece’s Niki Bakoyanni, 1.71m tall
with a best jump of 2.03m. Javier Sotomayor (Cuba) holds the men’s
world record having cleared 2.45m Stefka Kostadinova (Bulgaria) holds
the women’s world record having cleared 2.09m
Marshall Brooks (Great Britain Republic) was the first, to record
the height of six feet in 1876 using a feet first technique. The "Scissors"
was first used by William Page (United States America) in 1874 and was
soon followed by the Eastern Cut-off, developed by Michael Sweeney
(USA). George Horine, in 1912, was the first person to jump 2.00m using
the Western Roll. Until 1936 the rules stated that the crossbar had to be
jumped feet first. In 1925 the IAAF decided that the crossbar supports
should face each other so that simply touching the crossbar would cause it
to fall. In 1941 Les Steers (USA), using the Straddle style, cleared 2.11m.
Further changes to the rules limited the permitted thickness of the soles of
jumpers’ shoes.
The long jump (formerly called "broad jump") is an athletics
(track and field) event in which athletes combine speed, strength, and
agility in an attempt to land as far from the take-off point as possible.
Competitors sprint down a runway (usually coated with the same
rubberized surface as running tracks, crumb rubber or vulcanized rubber)
and jump as far as they can take off from a wooden board into a pit filled
with finely ground gravel or sand. The distance traveled by a jumper is
often referred to as the “mark,” because it is the distance to which the
first mark is made in the sand. More specifically, a mark is the minimum
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distance from the edge of the takeoff board, nearest the landing pit, to
the first indentation made by the competitor. If the competitor starts the
leap with any part of the foot in front of the board, the jump is declared
illegal and no distance is recorded. At the elite level, a layer of plasticine
is placed immediately after the board to detect this occurrence.
Otherwise, an official (similar to a referee) will observe the jump and
make the determination. The competitor can initiate the jump from any
point behind the foul line; however, the distance measured will always be
from the foul line. Therefore, it is in the best interest of the competitor to
get as close to the foul line as possible (Wikipedia).
The long jump was one of the events of the original Olympics in
Ancient Greece. The athletes carried a weight in each hand, which were
called halteres. These weights would be swung forward as the athlete
jumped, in order to increase momentum. It is commonly believed that the
jumper would throw the weights behind him in mid-air to increase his
forward momentum, however, halteres were held throughout the duration
of the jump. Swinging them down and back at the end of the jump would
change the athlete's center of gravity and allow the athlete to stretch his
legs outward, increasing his distance. Most notable in the ancient sport
was a man called Chionis, who in the 656BC Olympics staged a jump
which was equal to 7 meters and 5 centimeters (23 feet and 1.5 inches).
The long jump has been part of modern Olympic competition since
the inception of the Games in 1896. In 1914, Dr. Harry Eaton Stewart
recommended the “running broad jump” as a standardized track and field
event for women. However, it was not until 1928 that women were
allowed to compete in the event at the Olympic level.
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There are four main components of the long jump: the approach
run, the last two strides, takeoff, and action in the air and landing. Speed
in the run-up, or approach and a high leap off the board are the
fundamentals of success. Because speed is such an important factor of the
approach, it is not surprising that many sprinters, notably including Carl
Lewis, also compete successfully in the long jump.
Once a competitor leaves contact with the ground there is nothing
that can be done to alter the flight path of his or her center of gravity.
What will affect the distance of the jump is the body position at landing.
If a competitor was to leave the ground without taking any action to
prevent forward rotation in the air, the body would naturally move into a
facedown position as the velocity of the lower half of the body at takeoff
is greater than the upper half of the body due to the contact with the
ground. The three predominant in-the-air techniques used in the long
jump in order of increasing difficulty of execution are the sail, hang, and
hitch-kick.
The sail technique is one of the most basic long jump techniques
practiced by competitors. After the takeoff phase is complete, the jumper
immediately lifts the legs into a toe-touching position. This is useful for
the novice jumper, as it allows the competitor to move into the landing
position early. The downside of this technique is that it does not counter
the body’s natural tendency to rotate too far forward.
The hang technique works by lengthening the body to make it as
efficiently long as possible. Here both the arms and legs are extended to
reach a maximum distance from the hips. This position is held until after
the jumper reaches the apex of the jump, at which point the athlete will
snap the legs forward into a landing position. This technique helps to
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diminish the tendency to tumble forward or lose the extension of the
body. Generally the competitor is encouraged to flex the knees at a 90
degree angle, which enables the feet to swing with the fastest possible
angular momentum when snapping into the landing position.
The hitch-kick is also known as “cycling” or “running in the air”.
As the name might suggest, this technique relies on a cycling action of the
arms and legs through the air to maintain an upright body position. This
technique takes longer to execute and is therefore generally reserved for
more experienced jumpers. In-the-air techniques are generally selected by
the athlete and coach during training based on an individual athlete’s
skills and experience.
When landing, it is the primary objective of the competitor not to
fall back in the landing pit. The jump is measured from the location in
which the body contacts the sand closest to the takeoff point. For this
reason many jumpers will work on keeping their feet in front of the body
at a maximum distance from the hips. Upon landing, competitors will
often use their arms in a sweeping motion to help keep the legs up and the
body forward. Generally a jumper will bend the knees upon contacting the
ground to cushion the impact on the body. Between 1922 and 1927, the
Americans William De Hart Hubbard (co-holder of the world 100 yards
record of 9.6) and Robert LeGendre introduced the "hitch kick", a running
motion of the legs in mid-air. Variations of this, and the more simple
`hang` technique, remain the norm today. The first women’s long jump
contests took place in the USA in 1895. The first IAAF women’s world
record dates back to 1928 although the event did not make its first
Olympic appearance until London in 1948. Mike Powell (USA) holds the
men’s holds the women`s world record having cleared 7.52m.world
record having cleared 8.95m. Galina Chistyakova (IAAF).
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The triple jump is an athletics (track and field) event, previously
also known as "hop, step and jump", whose various names describe the
actions a competitor takes. The athlete runs down a runway until he
reaches a designated mark, from which the jump is measured. The takeoff
mark is a board, and in modern championships a strip of plasticine or
modeling clay is attached to the board to record athletes overstepping the
mark. The first landing has to be done with the takeoff foot. The next
phase is a step, landing on the opposite foot, and is followed by the jump,
into a sand-filled box, as in the long jump. A "foul" or missed jump occurs
when a jumper oversteps the launch mark (most commonly), misses the
pit entirely, or does not perform the attempt in the allotted amount of time
(usually about one minute) (Wikipedia).
The original triple jump as practised by the Greeks was no more
than three long jumps one after another. The Celts invented a style of
three jumps in a continuous action and this was regulated at the end of the
XIX century, first by the Irish and then by the Americans. Originally a
hop-hop-jump, with the first two hops taken from the same foot, the triple
jump became the hop-step-jump after 1900. The triple jump has been
included in the modern Olympic Games since its first celebration in 1896.
In fact, the first modern Olympic Champion, James Connolly, was a triple
jumper, however, the event at this time consisted of two hops and a jump.
In 1996, a triple jump event for women was added to the Olympics,
having already been included in both the Outdoor World Championships
and World Indoor Championships.
Records of a women’s triple jump contest held indoors in the USA
date back to 1899 and, although it had no official recognition, the event
was staged regularly, particularly in the USA, the USSR and China. The
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first IAAF women’s world record was ratified in 1990 and the event
appeared for the first time in the IAAF World Championships in 1993.
Jonathan Edwards (Great Britain) holds the men’s world record having
cleared 18.29m. Inessa Kravets (Ukraine) holds the women’s world record
having cleared 15.50m
Poles were used as a practical means of passing over natural
obstacles in places such as the marshy provinces of Friesland in The
Netherlands, along the North Sea, and the great level of the Fens of
Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire and Norfolk. The
artificial draining of these marshes created a network of open drains or
canals intersecting each other at right angles. In order to cross these
without getting wet, while avoiding tedious roundabout journeys over
bridges, a stack of jumping poles was kept at every house and used for
vaulting over the canals. In Friesland, where it is called fierljeppen, it has
continued to be a folkloristic activity with annual competitions. Broadjumping with the pole, though the original form of the sport, has never
found its way into organized athletics, the high jump being the only form
recognized.
Competitive pole vaulting began with bamboo poles. As the heights
attained increased, the bamboo poles gave way to tubular steel, which was
tapered at each end. Today's pole vaulters benefit from poles produced by
wrapping sheets of fiberglass around a pole mandrel (pattern), to produce
a slightly pre-bent pole that bends more easily under the compression
caused by an athlete's take-off. Different fiberglass types, including
carbon-fiber, are used to give poles specific characteristics intended to
promote higher jumps. In recent years, carbon fiber has been added to the
commonly used E-glass and S-glass prepreg materials in order to create a
pole with a lighter carry weight.
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The ancient Greeks knew Pole-Vaulting and the Cretans used long
poles to vault over bulls. The Celts used to pole vault - but for length. This
event became a vertical jump in Germany around 1775, during gymnastics
competitions. The year 1850 saw the first competition of "running pole
leaping". In 1957 another American, Bob Gutowski, used an aluminium
pole to set a world record of 4.78m, which was broken in 1960 by Don
Bragg (USA) who used a steel pole to clear 4.80m. This period also saw
the introduction of landing mattresses, which meant improved safety for
competitors. The fibreglass pole, which permitted flexion and has
revolutionised vaulting technique, saw the light of day in the USA in
1956. The first world record using this material was set in 1961 by George
Davies (USA) with 4.83m. Although women`s pole vault performances
have been registered since 1911, the event has only been taken seriously with the Chinese in the vanguard - in the last few years.
The approach consists of the vaulter sprinting down the runway in
such a way as to achieve maximum speed and correct take-off position
upon reaching the pit. The pole is usually carried upright to some degree
at the beginning of the approach, then gradually lowered as the vaulter
gets closer to the pit. By doing this the vaulter can use the potential energy
stored from carrying the pole upright to his advantage. It is common for
vaulters to use long, powerful strides at the beginning of the approach,
then accelerate by increasing stride frequency while maintaining the same
stride length. Unlike short sprinting events such as the 100 m in which a
forward lean is used to accelerate, vaulters maintain an upright torso
position throughout the approach because staying as tall as possible is
important to the next phase of the vault.
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The plant and take off is initiated typically three steps out from the
final step. Vaulters (usually) will count their steps backwards from their
starting point to the box only counting the steps taken on the left foot
(vice-versa for left handers) except for the second step from the box,
which is taken by the right foot. For example; a vaulter on a "ten count"
(referring to the number of counted steps from the starting point to the
box) would count backwards from ten, only counting the steps taken with
the left foot, until the last three steps taken and both feet are counted as
three, two, one. These last three steps are normally quicker than the
previous strides and are referred to as the "turn-over".The goal of this
phase is to efficiently translate the kinetic energy accumulated from the
approach into potential energy stored by the elasticity of the pole, and to
gain as much initial vertical height as possible by jumping off the ground.
The plant starts with the vaulter raising his arms up from around the hips
or mid-torso until they are fully outstretched above his head, with the right
arm extended directly above the head and the left arm extended
perpendicular to the pole (vice-versa for left handed vaulters). At the same
time, the vaulter is dropping the pole tip into the box. On the final step,
the vaulter jumps off the trail leg which should always remain straight and
then drives the front knee forward. As the pole slides into the back of the
box the pole begins to bend and the vaulter continues up and forward,
leaving the trail leg angled down and behind him.
The swing and row simply consists of the vaulter swinging his trail
leg forward and rowing his arms down, while trying to keep both arms
and left leg as straight as possible. Effectively, this causes a double
pendulum motion, with the top of the pole moving forward and pivoting
from the box, while the vaulter acts as a second pendulum pivoting from
the right hand. This action results in even more potential energy being
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stored in the pole, all of which will be returned to the vaulter in later
phases. The swing continues until the hands are near the shins and feet of
the vaulter, with the vaulter facing upward in a curled position. The curled
position is also known as "the basket" and is generally held slightly longer
when trying to attain higher heights.
Another form of swing is called the double leg drop. After
executing a normal take-off, the vaulter lets his lead leg drop and swings
with both legs together. In doing this, the weight of the vaulter's lower
body is centered further from his rotational axis, making it more difficult
for the vaulter to swing with as great a speed as with a single legged
swing. For the same reason, a vaulter with constant rotational speed will
load the pole with more energy using a double legged swing than a single
legged swing. Because the slower swing can make it more difficult for a
vaulter to get in position for the rockback, the double leg drop is typically
not taught as the conventional method. A successful double leg drop is
exemplified by French vaulter Jean Galfione.
A third form of swing is called the tuck and shoot. This is
accomplished by tucking both legs in toward the chest rather than leaving
the trail leg extended. This has the opposite effect of the double leg drop:
it shortens the lower body about the rotational axis, making the swing
faster, but lessening the pole-loading effect of the swing. Because a
shorter rotational axis can make it more difficult to use larger poles than
with a longer axis, the tuck and shoot is also not considered the
conventional method. A successful tuck and shoot is exemplified by
American record-holder Jeff Hartwig.
The extension refers to the extension of the hips upward with
outstretched legs as the shoulders drive down, causing the vaulter to be
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positioned upside down. This position is often referred to as "inversion".
While this phase is executed, the pole begins to recoil, propelling the
vaulter quickly upward. The hands of the vaulter remain close to his body
as they move from the shins back to the region around the hips and upper
torso.
The turn is executed immediately after or even during the end of the
rockback. As the name implies, the vaulter turns 180° toward the pole
while extending the arms down past the head and shoulders. Typically the
vaulter will begin to angle his body toward the bar as the turn is executed,
although ideally the vaulter will remain as vertical as possible. A more
accurate description of this phase of the vault may be "the spin" because
the vaulter spins around an imaginary axis from head to toe.
This is often highly emphasized by spectators and novice vaulters,
but it is arguably the easiest phase of the vault and is a result of proper
execution of previous phases. This phase mainly consists of the vaulter
pushing off of the pole and releasing it so it falls away from the bar and
mats. As his body goes over and around the bar, the vaulter is facing the
bar. Rotation of the body over the bar occurs naturally, and the vaulter's
main concern is making sure that his arms, face and any other appendages
do not knock the bar off as he goes over. The vaulter should land near the
middle of the foam landing mats, or pits, face up.
Thus after going through the technical aspects of these four
different types of jumps, we had concluded that these four jumps require
different conditional as well as morphological requirements on the parts of
athletes engaged in them.
The physical educationists have designed test procedure for
evaluating the fitness and physique of young children. The performance
structure for different games and events is being worked out. The general
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physical fitness of top-ranking athletes has been evaluated. Proposals are
coming for the selection of potential athletes with the design of tests and
body size predictions. The idea is to put the interested individual in a
game or event in such a way so that one gives out the best of one’s
abilities. In this connection, the role of physique is of utmost importance.
The physique which includes the evaluation of size, shape and form of an
individual is of prime importance as to know how far an individual can
succeed in becoming a top athlete.
Studies on physique may be useful in choosing a suitable physical
activity for an individual whose main objective is competition. The
hurdlers for, an examples , have been found to have long legs and short
trunk (Cureton, 1951; Tanner, 1964). Hildreth (1958) observed that all
high hurdlers, who recorded times under 14 seconds were over six feet tall
, with the notable exception of one who, thought only 179.1 cm, had the
typically long legs of the negro hurdlers. Longer legs are helpful to take
the necessary long strides over the hurdles without the loss of time that
jumping entails.
The human physique differs in a thousand ways. It can be analyzed
by studying the size, shape and form of an individual. For this purpose, a
set of selected antropometric measurements is taken on an individual. The
intergroup comparisons are made to understand the physical peculiarities
of a population. From such body measurements, it is also possible to
estimate the distribution of fat and development of bone muscle in the
case of athletes and sportsmen where the physical fitness plays a vital role
in the competitive performances. Tanner (1960) examined the physique
and body composition of Olympic athletes at Rome during 1960, and
inferred that the athletes were both born and made.
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The measurements of different body dimensions and ratios are of
great relevance to the physical activity, especially in sports. The
anthropometric assessment of physique involves the use of carefully
defined body landmarks, specific positioning of the subject and use of
appropriate instruments. The measurements that are taken on an individual
are highly objective and highly reliable in the hand of a trained
anthropometrist. Malina pointed out that the biological or functional
significance of many dimensions has not yet been adequately established.
Sports science has a long history of studying physique. Sheldon et
al.(1940) used photoscopic and anthroposcopic methods to describe
individual physique as three different Somatotype viz; (i) endomorphy
(fatty: predominance of digestive organs, softness and roundness of
contour throughout the body), (ii) mesomorphy (muscular: predominance
of muscles, bones and connective tissues) and (iii) ectomorphy
(predominance of surface area over body mass linearity. This method has
basic shortcomings i.e., it does not quantify the various body dimensions,
indices and ratios. The body profile technique of
Mc Ardle et al.
describes physique in terms of muscular and non-muscular components.
The diversity in overall body dimensions can be compared among
individuals or groups from that of reference man and reference woman.
The Competitive sports demand event specific physique and body
composition to achieve the success. De Garay et al.(1974) concluded that
top-level performance in a particular event demands a particular type of
body size and shape, if other aspects are being similar. They showed high
correlation between the body profile of an athlete and specific task (event)
in which he/she excelled. Various other studies also suggest that different
body sizes, shapes and proportions are beneficial in different physical
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activities. Hirata (1966) suggested that a nation with people whose
general physique is limited to the characteristics of champions in certain
events must concentrate their sports training on those specific events only.
He also concluded that Japanese with small body-builds are best for
gymnastics, long-distance running, boxing and weight lifting etc. whereas
the Americans who are large and lean are best for basketball, volleyball,
swimming, long jump, short and middle distance running. Carter (1982)
suggested that the athletes who wish to achieve success in sports at a high
level should compare their physique with Olympic athletes. If the athlete's
bodily structure is within the limit of the Olympians, he/she may achieve
high performance subjected to the optimization of other factors. Behnke
and Royce (1996) concluded that long distance runners are characterized
by excessive leanness, relatively small body size and a deficiency of arm
girth compared to chest size and leg length. The anthropometric and
compositional study on cross-country runners revealed that runners are
characterized by a relatively large calf and small biceps and abdominal
girths. Mc Ardle et al. pointed out that athletes generally have physique
characteristics unique to their specific sports. For example field event
athletes have relatively large quantities of lean tissues and a high
percentage of body fat whereas long distance runners have the least
amount of lean tissue and fat mass. He also pointed out that football
players are amongst the heaviest and leanest of all sports men.
Sharma and Dixit (1985) investigated that physique is one of the
most important factors, which becomes pre-requisite for better
performance in games and sports. They compared jumpers with throwers
and found that the jumpers were less meso-morphic and more ectomorphic.
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Body Proportionality is the most important aspect of physique. The
relationship of length to breadth, height to thickness, length-to-length etc.
of various parts of body represents proportions. This importance of
proportion becomes evident, when we want to compare particular body
parts of two persons who are otherwise different in over all size. The
proportions or ratio keeps one measurement constant in all subjects
compared and evaluate the differences in the other measurements. The
body proportion can be studied in various ways, but indices method is best
for determining body proportions.
Body composition is another important morpho-physiological
characteristic.
The methodology for the measurement of body
composition has been explained by several scientists. Fat fold
measurement can provide fairly consistent and meaningful information
related to body fat and its distribution. The sum of 'fat fold' is an indicator
of relative degree of fatness among individuals. McArdle et al. (1991)
pointed out that exercise-induced change in fat fold values can be
evaluated either as absolute or on percentage basis. Peterson (1996)
pointed out that body fat is a very personal datum and it is strongly
recommended that this information be presented discreetly.
Various scientists have extensively studied the body composition of
athletes. Leasy et al, (1965) concluded that physical performance in which
whole body moves, primarily depends on lean body mass (LBM). They
developed regression equation for calculating body composition from
performance in various tests (pull ups, standing broad jump).
Parizkova(1968) pointed out that the proportion of lean body mass to fat is
an indicator of degree of fitness for performance.
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Contrary to these reports, Uppal and Ray(1986) in their study
on strength, body composition and performance of shot put and javelin
throwers, concluded that there was no significant relationship in body
density, lean body mass and body fat percentage to performance.
Agbonjinmi (1998) also reported that measures of body-build and body
composition of female college athletes have negative correlation with
physical fitness index .It is well established that the athletes who are lean
or less fatty but are heavy because of a well developed musculature, are
superior in performance as compared to their fatty counterpart. Athletes
with greater fat percentage have increased energy demand owing to their
inert weight of fat resulting in relatively poor performance.
McArdle et al. pointed out that athletes generally have physique
characteristics unique to their specific sports. For example field event
athletes have relatively large quantities of lean tissues and a high
percentage of body fat whereas long distance runners have the least
amount of lean tissue and fat mass. He also pointed out that football
players are amongst the heaviest and leanest of all sports men. Lohman
(1986) pointed out the errors involved in determining the body
composition in children and youth prior to their age of chemical maturity
(age 15 to 18 year for most). The fat free mass (FFM) is not stable in
growing children and youths because water content decreases and body
solids (bone density) increases in concentration until maturity.
Physique along with physiological factors played a significant role
on the performance of basketball players which was confirmed by
Shamim(2002), who conducted a study on High and Low performance
basketball players in India and observed that the High performers have
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Chapter -I
Introduction
greater stature, sitting height, weight, femur biepic condyler diameter,
humerus biepic condyler diameter, shoulder width, hip width, upper arm
length, lower arm length, thigh length, lower leg length, biceps muscle
girth, calf muscle girth, wrist width, hand length and total arm length.
They
were
more
meso-ectomorphic,
had
better
segmental
proportionalities than their low performing counter parts. Physiologically
high performer had lower heart rate greater vital capacity with no
difference in systolic and diastolic blood pressure than their low performer
counter parts.
Tall stature and long lower extremities have been noticed in all
games and events where jumping is involved, such as volleyball,
basketball, long, high &triple jump, pole vault and goalkeeping. The
height and height plus the reach of the players make the performance in
these games and events much easier for taller men. The proportionately
longer lower extremities seem to help in some way to lift the body up and
on the sides at a greater distance during jumps.
For activities such as high jumps or pole vault, the size seems to
play no role in the actual lifting of center of gravity, but in the case of
taller persons, the centre of gravity is at a higher level which is useful in
crossing a greater height. Probably for this reason the gymnasts are found
to be short(Cureton,1951;Hirata,1966) and the high jumpers tall(Tanner
,1964;Hirata,1966;Correnti and Zauli,1964).
The L.H.&T. jumpers are also tall and possess longer lower
extremities. The lower extremities, however, are not proportionately
longer in these athletics, because the longer arms do not seem to have
much to do in these events. In the case of the taller individuals, such as
high jumpers, the center of gravity is situated at a higher level and this is
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Chapter -I
Introduction
useful in crossing a greater height. The lower extremities of the pole
vaulters are not so long as those of the L.H.&T. jumpers, because
probably like the lower extremities, the pole acts as a lever arm and gives
an up ward and forward thrust to the body while jumping. The lighter
body with less of fat in the case of these of athletes is advantageous
because of the necessity of lifting the body and propelling it forward and
upward for a better performance, creating proportionately greater strength
to body weight. The longer lower extremities with smaller and slender
trunks in them seem to be an asset for the reduction of relative body
weight. Krakower (1935) studied 16 high jumpers and found that the
type of the individual that succeeded in high jump had long legs, a short
body and broad feet.
Wells (1963) conducted a relationship study of the leg strength,
body weight ration and length of the lower limb segment to vertical jump
on 49 male college students, he concluded that none of the relationship
studied proved to be statistically significance. Sodhi (1991) studied 22
track and field champion athlete of the united stated and reported typical
track men to be slight in skeletal frame work with longer fore legs
relatively to thighs, and longer legs relative to the length of the trunk but
were exceedingly well muscled. The jumpers, hurdlers, and vaulters were
relatively slim in skeletal build and were typically taller with longer legs
and shorter trunks. The jumpers, hurdlers and vaulters hade relatively
great leg length, trunk length relatively large foreleg length/thigh length.
The physiological factors limiting one’s performance in sports are
well known. It is the understanding of interaction of all these factors that
helps in designing the way for selecting the children for appropriate game.
Vital capacity is the maximum volume of the air that can be
expired with a maximum effort after a deep inspiration. The vital capacity
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Chapter -I
Introduction
varies with the type of work an individual does and the use to which he
has put his respiratory apparatus. Athletes, swimmers, divers etc have a
higher vital capacity it is also increased by practice. Vital capacity is
maximum in the standing position. In sitting and supine postures there is
muscular hindrance to maximum expiration of lungs.
Shamim and Singh (2002) carried out a study to ascertain the
difference between physical and physiological variables of high and low
performance basketball players and found that the high performance
basketball players had greater height, weight, lower leg, thigh, upper arm
and lower arm length. High performance basketball player had better body
proportionality in relation to mechanical advantage. They also had lesser
heart rate and greater vital capacity. However there was no significant
difference in the blood pressure of high and low performance basketball
players.
The “pulse” is the wave of increase pressure propagated
centrifugally with each ventricular ejection, at an increasing velocity
being amplified with distance with in the major conducting arteries. The
pulse does not occurs synchronously in all arteries nor is the extent of rise
the same every where. It is important to distinguish between the
transmission of pressure wave and the velocity of blood flow. Radial pulse
is generally chosen since it is easily accessible and lies against the bone.
Since examination of the pulse provides valuable information as to the
state of the circulatory system and general condition of athletes therefore
it’s of great importance in cardio-respiratory research. Griffin(1968)
made a study on heart rate of female field hockey and basketball players.
He concluded that playing field hockey was more demanding in terms of
heart rates than playing the basketball.
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Chapter -I
Introduction
The general physical fitness of top ranking athletes has been
evaluated. Proposals are coming up for the selection of potential athlete
with the designs of tests and the body size predictions.
The review of literature is showing a gap in line of comparing the
physical and physiological aspects of four different jumping groups. The
present study is an attempt in this line.
The researcher also desires a scientific basis of selection of athletes
and sportsmen. One may not take it guaranteed that every child can be
trained to be an Olympian, for there are a few persons who have a
combination in the development of each requisite factor of the highest
degree. The idea is to put the interested individual in a game or event in
such a way so that he gives out the best of his abilities.
Statement of the Problem
The objectives of the study had lead us to state the problem as“A study on anthropometrical and physiological characteristics of
Indian elite male athletes of different jumping events”
Hypothesis: It was hypothesized that significant differences would be observed
in the anthropometrical and physiological characteristics of athletes
engaged in different jumping events.
Delimitation: In light of resources available the study is delimited to –
1. Elite Indian Male Athletes of following events:
1.
Long jump
2.
High jump
3.
Triple jump
4.
Pole vault
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Chapter -I
Introduction
2. Anthropometrical characteristics
a). Anthropometrical parameters: - stature, sitting height, weight,
femur and humorous bi-epicondyle diameter, shoulder width, arm length,
leg length, biceps muscle girth, calf muscle girth, thigh muscle girth and
ankle width.
b) Somatotype (Heath and Carter Method)
c) Body indices: • Sitting height –stature index
• Ponderal index
• Thigh length-lower leg length index.
• Total arm length index
• Hip width stature index and Shoulder width- stature index.
3. Physiological Characteristics
1.
Resting Pulse Rate
2.
Resting Blood Pressure
-
Systolic blood pressure
-
Diastolic blood pressure
3. Vital Capacity
4. Resting Respiratory Rate
5. Body Composition
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Chapter -I
Introduction
Significance of Study
The identification of talent through means and method of sports
medicine, physiology, biochemistry, psychology and anthropometry
however, has not proved to be satisfactory. These sciences are able to
determine certain biological and physical parameters. e.g. VO2 Max, heart
rate, age etc. These parameters reflects only one part of human
performance. A sports man had to pass through various stages to come up
to the highest level of competition. This study will help to assess the
possible anthropometric and physiological factors as a whole in
determining the performance structure of the four jumping groups. As
without assessing appropriate physical and physiological qualities in the
athletes there are no positive results from training.
This study will provide guidelines to understand the different
anthropometrical and physiological traits of Indian top class jumpers of
different jumping events. Thus it will help the Coaches Physical education
teacher to counsel the potential or talented sports man at an appropriate
age to select the right jumping event as per their inherited physical and
physiological qualities. This may help in fulfilling our dream of producing
world class jumpers.
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