TheLanguageofLotusSutra’sParableofMedicinalHerbs
FaridahNoorMohdNoor
Abstract
The Lotus Sutra as a text has been translated into different
languages. In the English language several versions of the Lotus
Sutra exist today. As a Buddhist text, its English translations have a
wider outreach reaching the Occidental beyond its Oriental origin.
Based on Kumarajiva’s translation of the Lotus Sutra, the English
translations are reputed to have kept to its appeal and richness of its
language. This paper looks at the discourse of the Parable of the
Medicinal Herbs from the 2009 translation by Burton Watson. The
corpus consists of the 216 lines of the verse format of the parable. A
discourse analysis of the text revealed the extensive use of literary
devices and binomials to deliver its teachings and the message of
impartiality. It is through these language features that makes it
linguistically appealing to its readers. I wish to caveat that this
attempt to examine this rich and classical text is with the humble
understanding that it will not lend itself to any single interpretation.
Introduction
The Lotus Sutra is one of the most important and influential of all the
sutras or sacred scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism, revered by almost
all branches of the Mahayana teachings, and over many centuries the
object of intense veneration among Buddhist believers throughout
China, Korea, Japan, and other regions of eastern Asia.
BurtonWatson(1993,p.ix)
T
HEKumarajivatranslationoftheLotusSutraishighlyreputedand
remains the version sorted out in both China and Japan. Based on
thistranslation,theLotusSutrawastranslatedmanytimesoverintothe
English language and each attempt is a work to produce the finest
interpretation of its message and meaning. Two versions of Watson’s
translationwerepublishedin1993and2009.Thispaperhaschosenthe
45
46
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
2009 publication as it is the latest. Watson’s translation is also the
workingversionselectedbyTheInstituteofOrientalPhilosophy(IOP)
of Japan and the Soka Gakkai Malaysia (SGM). The selected chapter,
TheParableoftheMedicinalHerbs,isoneofthesevenparablesinthe
collectionoftheLotusSutra.
The Lotus Sutra consists of 28 chapters and it is unique that each
chapter is presented in two formats—prose and verse. Each chapter
beginswithaprosethatintroducesthemainthrustofthechapterandthe
content is then presented in a verse form. This unique dual format of
presentationplacestheLotusSutrainagenreofitsown.
Methodology
ThesourceofthisexploratorypaperisthetranslationbyBurtonWatson
(2009) entitled The Lotus Sutra and Its Opening and Closing Sutras.
ThefocusofanalysiswillbetheversesfromChapterFive(pp.137to
143). The stanzas have in total 216 lines. Each of the verses are
numberedforeaseofreference.
Analysis of the language features will look at the use of language
features, namely, literary devices and binomials. The findings will be
presentedasthelanguageusedin:
A. The Didactic Overtones of the Parable of Medicinal Herbs
B. The Language of Impartiality in the Parable of Medicinal Herbs
Exampleswillbetakenfromthecorpustofacilitatetheillustrationand
discussionofthelanguagefeaturesfound.
Language Features—A Brief Introduction
Thissectionprovidesanintroductiontothemainfeaturesfoundinthis
text. To begin with, the Parable is didactic in nature as it can be
categorisedastextsthatofferinstructionalinformationwithguidancein
moral, religious, and ethical matters. The language features in the
Parablecanbedividedintotwogroups:Literarydevicesandbinomials.
A. Literary Devices
Imagery referstotheuseofliterarydevicessuchasanaphora,epithets,
hyperboles,similes,metaphorsanddescriptivewordstogiveadramatic
effectsothatreaderscanvisualizethroughthementalpicturecreatedin
theirminds.
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
47
I. Anaphorareferstotherepetitionofawordorphraseinsuccessionatthebeginningofseveralverses,clausesorparagraphs.
II. Epithets are figures of speech used as descriptive devices.
Adjectives are added to names of people and places to denote
somespecialqualityofthesepeopleandplaceswiththeaimto
addcolorandvividnesstothenarrative.
III. Hyperboles refer to specific words and phrases used to
exaggerateastatementtoproduceagrandereffect.Realistically,
itmaynotbepracticalbutisabletoconveytheemotionittriesto
emphasize.
IV. Metaphorsareusedtogivenewanddifferentmeaningstotwo
things that are totally unrelated. The use helps to add stylistic
colourandvarietytothetopic.
V. Similes are a form of figurative with the use of the words ‘as’,
‘suchas’or‘like’.
Wheretheabovedevicesarefoundinthetextamentionofthedevice
willbeindicatedtotherightsideoflineconcerned.
B. Binomials
Binomialsrefertopairsofwords,attimes,evenastringofwords,that
maybesynonyms,complementsorantonymsintermsoftheirsemantic
relations. They are referred by different labels such as doublets and
conjoinedlexicalpairs.Theyarepervasiveinmanylanguagesandhave
apreferredwordorderwhichmaybe‘readfaster’intheordertheytend
toappearmorefrequently(Benor,S.&Levy,2006).Theordermaybea
resultofsemantic,phonological,andlexicalfactorsofthelanguagesin
which they are found. Binomials are useful in the study of stylistics,
phraseology, semantics in particular legal language and literary
language.
Structurally, binomials are often connected by conjunctions such as
“and”, “or” and so forth (Sauer, 2015). However, at times they may
appear without conjunctions and are marked with the use of a
punctuation such as a comma. These are referred to as reduced
binomials. In the Malay language, for instance, they do not have
conjunctions at all such as ‘suami isteri’ [husband wife] and may be
referred to ‘opposites’ rather than antonyms (Asmah Hj. Omar -
PersonalCommunications).
The following are examples taken from Chapter 5 to illustrate the
different categories. The following coding is provided in square [ ]
brackets next to the verse to indicate the category of binomials
identified:
48
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
Antonym=[A]
Complementary=[C]
Synonym=[S]
(Note:Binomialsareunderlinedtofacilitatediscussion.Lrefertoline
theyappear.)
1.Examplesofsynonymsare:
Ibringfullnessandsatisfactiontotheworld,[S]
(L.111)
The synonyms are joined with the conjunction and in the above
example.
2.Examplesofantonymsare:
ofkeencapacity,ofdullcapacity[A]
(L.118)
The above are antonyms (keen, dull) and referred to as ‘reduced
binomials’astheyarewrittenwithoutanyconjunctionandseparatedby
apunctuation.
3.Examplesofbinomialswithcomplementarysemanticrelations
are:
thathavegainedgrowthandmaturity[C]
(L.198)
Thepairofwordsaboveiscomplementaryinsemanticrelationinwhich
‘growth’willleadto‘maturity’andtheybelongtoarelatedsubgroup.
The Language Features of the Parable of Medicinal Herbs
Thispaperwillpresentthelanguagefeaturesthatillustratethedidactic
tone of the parable followed by the language of impartiality. The
discussion that follows will focus on the language aspect and will
refrainfrommakinganyin-depththeologicalinterpretations.
Examplesfromthecorpuswillbeincludedtofacilitatethediscussion
ofthelanguagefeaturesfound.Findingsshowthatliterarydevicesand
binomialsarefoundtobeincombinationtodeliverthemessageofthis
parable.
The literary devices and binomials will be highlighted (in bold and
underlined, respectively) to facilitate the discussion. The language
feature found will be noted on the right side of each sentence in each
stanza.
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
49
A. The Didactic Overtones of the Parable of Medicinal Herbs
As a Buddhist text, the Lotus Sutra contains messages from the
teachings of Shakymuni (the Buddha Gautama) on wisdom and
compassion.Thisisexplainedbelow:
The Lotus Sutra reveals Shakyamuni’s vow, formulated in the distant
past,toelevatethelifestateofallhumanbeingstomakethemequalto
himself, and shows that this vow was fulfilled when he preached this
sutra.
(http://www.sgi-bel.org/en/history/the-lotus-sutra)
Texts that offer instructional information with guidance in moral,
religious, and ethical matters are considered to be didactic texts. The
analysis shows this didactic feature is exhibited in The Parable of the
MedicinalHerbs.
1. Buddha’s Emergence
The appearance of the Buddha is reiterated in several parts of the
Parable to give prominence to his emergence.The verse section of the
Parable commences with the opening verse with the epithet ‘The
Dharma King’ whose purpose is to preach the Law (Line 4). The
DharmaKingissynonymouswithanothername‘TheThusComeOne’
(Line5).
Example1
TheDharmaKing,destroyerofbeing,
whenheappearsintheworld
accordswiththedesiresoflivingbeings,
preachingtheLawinavarietyofways.
TheThusComeOne,worthyofhonourandreverence,
isprofoundandfar-reachinginwisdom.
[S]
[S]
L.1–6
In Example 1 binomials in Line 5 which are synonyms (honour and
reverence) and Line 6 (profound and far-reaching) call attention to the
tributeandwisdomofTheThusComeOne.
Themetaphor‘cloud’isusedtoillustratetheappearanceitisakinto
(L.59). The metaphor is used to describe the coverage of the ‘cloud’
abovethelandheappearedon.
Example2
TheBuddhaislikethis
50
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
whenheappearsintheworld,
comparabletoa great cloud
thatcoversallthingseverywhere,
Metaphor
‘Cloud’
Hyperbole
L.57–60
The Parable compares the Buddha to a ‘cloud’ in many instances. In
Example3the‘greatcloud’isaprotectivelayerthatcoverseverywhere
andtheentiretyofthegroundbelowit(Line60).
In the following example, the King of Sutras is akin to a beneficent
cloud (L.19) that cools the earth with its the rain. Binomials give a
vividdescriptionofwhataccompaniesthecloudandwhatfollowswith
thearrivalofthecloud.
Example3
Thisbeneficentcloudisladenwithmoisture,
thelighteninggleamsandflashes,
andthesoundofthunderreverberatesafar,
causingthemultitudetorejoice.
Thesun’s raysareveiledandhidden,
aclearcoolnesscomesovertheland;
massesofdarknessdescendandspread-
youcanalmosttouchthem.
[S]
[S]
[C]
L.19–26
Accompanied by bright lightening that gleams and flashes (L.20) and
theresonatingsoundoftherollingthunders(L.20–21)thatreachesfar,
the cloud cools the earth below it. The hot sun’s rays are ‘veiled and
hidden’(L.23)andmassesofdarkclouds‘descendandspread’(L.25)
intheskyaboveandprovideshade.Theuseofbinomialsgivesavivid
descriptionofthiscloudandthecomingoftheKingofSutras.Thus,the
Parable implies the significance of the coming and the effect of the
presencebypaintingapictureofthecloudthatcovers,coolsandprotect
theearth.
The following verse elaborates the wide coverage for the rain, a
metaphor for the teaching or Dharma, is vast and comes ‘down on all
foursides’(Line28)oftheearth.Theuseofbinomialsemphasizesthe
vastness of the area it covers and the rain is not hindered by different
terrains nor ‘remote and secluded places’ (Lines 31–32). Such is the
coveragethatmakesitpossiblefordifferentkindsofplantstoflourish
(Lines33–36).
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
Example4
Therainfallseverywhere,
comingdownonallfoursides,
itsflowandsaturationaremeasureless,
reachingtoeveryareaoftheearth,
totheravinesandvalleysofthemountainsandstreams,
totheremoteandsecludedplaceswheregrow
plants,bushes,medicinalherbs,
treeslargeandsmall,
ahundredgrains,riceseedlings,
sugarcane,grapevines.
51
Metaphor
[C]
[S]
[S]
[A]
L.27–36
2. Buddha’s Proclamation
As part of its didactic nature, the voice of authority is in the selfproclamationinLine69ofExample5below.
Example5
I amtheThusComeOne,
most honouredoftwo-leggedbeings.
Ibringfullnessandsatisfactiontotheworld,
Epithet
L.69–70
[S]
L.111
The first excerpt is a confirmation that the epithet ‘Thus Come One’
refers to the Buddha. In other parts of the parable, other epithets used
areDharmaKing(Line1)andtheWorldHonoured-One(Line66).The
proclamation of his status as the ‘most honoured’ among humans
referred to as ‘two-legged beings’ in Line 70. Line 111 is another
proclamationoftheroleintendedfortheThusComeOne.
In Lines 72 and 73 in the next example explains the purpose of
Buddha’semergence.Thisiselaboratedintheexamplebelow:
Example6
Iappearintheworld
likeagreatcloud
thatshowersmoistureupon
allthedryandwitheredlivingbeings,
sothatallareabletoescapesuffering,
gainthejoyofpeaceandsecurity,
the joys of this world
andthe joy of nirvana.
Simile
[S]
[S]
Anaphora
L.72–79
52
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
InExample6above,theappearanceisreferredtobyusingasimile‘like
agreatcloud’(Line73).Hence,thepurposeofthecloudistobringrain
to invigorate beings that are ‘dry and withered’ and provide the
opportunitytoescapesuffering(Line76).TheuseofanaphorainLines
78–79emphasizesthebenefits,namely,‘peaceandsecurity’intheform
ofthebothtypesofhappiness,namely,‘joyofthisworld’and‘thejoy
ofnirvana’(Lines78–79).
3. Declaration of the Oneness of the Dharma
TheparablemakesrepeateddeclarationoftheonenessoftheDharma.
Themetaphor‘rain’isrepeatedlydescribedasbeing‘single’inflavour
to lend emphasis to the message. The declaration is found in the
excerptsinthefollowingexample:
Example7
Whatfallsfromthecloud
iswaterofasingleflavour,
theLawpreachedbytheBuddha
iscomparabletoagreatcloudwhich,
withasingle-flavoured rain,
moistenshumanflowers
sothateachisabletobearfruit.
Descriptive
L.41–42
L.198–202
InLines89–91,thedeclarationismadeinthefirstvoicethatconfirms
the oneness that may lead towards to emancipation referred to as the
Nirvana:
Example8
IpreachthesweetdewofthepureLaw.
ThisLawisofasingleflavour,
thatofemancipation,nirvana.
Metaphor
L.89–91
Therefore, the repetition of the word ‘single’ in the above examples is
intendedtoemphasizeonenessasafeatureoftheteaching.
4. Declaration to Believers and Non-believers
The examples below illustrate the didactical message provided for
believers and non-believers. The following lines describe the two
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
53
differentgroupsofpeople:
Example9
Ifthosewhoarewisehearofit
theycanbelieveandunderstandit,
[S]
butthosewithoutwisdomwillhavedoubtsandregrets [S]
andforalltimewillremaininerror.
L.9–12
The use of binomials describe believers are described as wise who
‘believeandunderstand’themessage(Line10)ascomparedtothenonbelieverswhowillhave‘doubtsandregrets’(Line11)andforeverlive
inerror.
5. Means to the Dharma and Buddhahood
ThisParableprovidesinstructionalwaysandmeanstogaintheDharma
andachieveBuddhahood.
InExamples10and11,allbeings,bothheavenlyandhumanbeings
(Line 80), are addressed.They are reminded to observe and pay attention to the message being delivered. They are to practise in gradual
stages(Lines177–178).
Example10
Allyouheavenlyandhumanbeingsofthisassembly,
listen carefullyandwithonemind!
Allofyoushouldgatheraround
andobservetheoneofunexcelledhonour.
Example11
bypracticing gradually and stage by stage,
allbeingscangainthefruitsoftheway.
[A]
[C]
[C]
L.80–83
[S]
L.177–178
In Example 12 below, it is through ‘practice and learning’ (Line 215)
that the state of Buddhahood can be certainly attained. The complementarybinomialsusedshowsthatasonepractices,onealsolearnsin
theprocess.
Example12
Whatyouarepracticing
54
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
isthebodhisattvaway,
andasyougraduallyadvanceinpracticeandlearning
youareallcertain to attain Buddhahood.
[C]
L.213–216
DifferentlevelsofBuddhahoodthatcanbeattainedareexplainedinthe
verses that follow throughout the parable. In the following example,
three groups of medicinal herbs are defined. This group is further
dividedintoinferior(L.126–127),middling(L.128–135)andsuperior
(L.136–139).
Example13
Shakra,Brahmaandtheotherkingsthesearetheinferior medicinal herbs.
SomeunderstandtheLawofnooutflows,
areabletoattainnirvana,
toacquirethesixtranscendentalpowers
andgaininparticularthethreeunderstandings,
orlivealoneinmountainforests,
constantlypracticingmeditation
andgainingtheenlightenmentofpratyekabuddhasthesearethemiddling medicinal herbs.
StillothersseektheplaceoftheWorld-HonouredOne,
convincedthattheycanbecomeBuddhas,
puttingforthdiligenteffortandpracticingmeditation-
thesearethesuperior medicinal herbs.
[C]
L.126–139
Another group referred to are the small and big trees in terms of their
devotionandreferredtoassonsofBuddha[Line141]:
Example14
Againtherearesons of the Buddha
whodevotetheirmindssolelytotheBuddhaway,
constantlypracticingmercyandcompassion,
knowingthattheythemselveswillattainBuddhahood,
certainofitandneverdoubting-
theseIcallsmall trees.
[S]
[S]
L.141–146
Thosewhoabideinpeaceintheirtranscendentalpowers, Analogy
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
turningthewheelofnon-regression,
savinginnumerable millions
ofhundreds of thousands of living beings-
bodhisattvassuchasthese
Icalllarge trees.
55
Hyperbole
Hyperbole
Metaphor
L.147–153
The use of hyperbole accentuates the many who are saved by ‘turning
thewheelofnon-regression’(Line148).
B. Language of Impartiality in the Parable of the Medicinal Herbs
TheParablehighlightsthemessageoftheimpartialitythatismeantfor
all. Hence, no one is above the other and all are treated equally. This
messageisdeliveredinthelanguagefilledwithimageryandtheuseof
binomials.Thisisexpressedthroughoutthisparableinseveralpartsas
illustratedinthissection.
1. To show impartiality of the Dharma for all
TheParablesendsthemessagethattheteachingisforall.Thismessage
appears in several parts of the Parable. In the following example, the
word‘equality’describestheintendedmessageismeantforall.
Example15
TheequalityoftheBuddha’spreaching
islikearainofasingleflavour,
L.152–153
Example15containsthesimile“likearainofasingleflavour”(L.153)
thatreferstopreachingoftheBuddha.
The use of binomials made up of antonyms clearly illustrates this
impartiality.AntonymsinExample16establishawiderangeofpeople
ofdifferentstatus,forinstance,fromtheeminentandsuperiortothose
lowly and inferior as well as observers and violators of the law. The
Dharmaisneutralandopenforall.Thus,allaregivenequaltreatment.
Example16
Eminentandlowly,superiorandinferior,
observersofprecepts,violatorsofprecepts,
thosefullyendowedwithproperdemeanour,
thosenotfullyendowed,
thoseofcorrectviews,oferroneousviews,
[A]
[A]
[A]
[A]
56
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
ofkeencapacity,ofdullcapacity
L.112–117
2. A Declaration of Being Equal and Impartial
A testimony in Example 17 declares that the Law is preached equally
forall,beittoasinglepersonorgroupswhileExample18containsthe
declaration of being impartial to all and without any favouritism or
personalintentions.
Example17
IpreachtheLawequally;
asIwouldforasingleperson,
thatsamewayIdofornumerouspersons,
L.103–105
Example18
Ihaveno mind to favourthisorthat
toloveoneorhateanother.
Iamwithoutgreedorattachment
andwithoutlimitationorhindrance.
[A]
[A]
[S]
L.99–102
Discussion
InexaminingthetranslationbyWatson(2009),itwasfoundthatliterary
devices and binomials have been extensively used this corpus. The
Parable of Medicinal Herbs was examined for the language used as a
didactic text with the aim to deliver the teachings of the Buddha. Five
main thrusts of the parable have been identified, namely, to announce
thecomingoftheBuddhaandproclaimthepurposeofhisemergence,
to declare the oneness of the teaching, to make a declaration on who
believersandthebenefitstheycangainasopposedtonon-believersand
toexplainthemeanstowardstheDharmaandtoattainBuddhahood.
Asadidactictext,thepresenceof‘cloud’and‘rain’asmetaphorsgive
a vivid picture on the extend of the teaching. The choice of these
metaphors is easy for followers to imagine the intended message in
terms of how the cloud protects the earth below it from the hot sun’s
rays and how the rain provides moisture and cools the earth. The
imageryusedisakintotheprotectionpromisedtothefollowersandthe
benefitstheywillreceive.
The language of impartiality highlighted by the choice of literal
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
57
devicesandbinomialsisintendedtoclarifythateveryoneistreatedalike
by the Buddha and that none is above the other. He is unbiased his
teaching is open to all and the knowledge will be imparted equally
withoutanyshowoffavouritism.
In summary, findings show that binomials made up synonyms,
antonyms and complementary semantic ones are found. The choice of
binomials found in this parable helped to deliver the meaning and
messageonthecomingoftheBuddhaandthewaytoBuddhahood.A
pattern found in this set of corpus is that binomials made up of
synonyms(refertoExample4)tendtoelaboratethespecificcharacteristicsofthemetaphorsused,thatis,thecloudandrain.Synonymsgive
emphasis to the characteristic or quality that is being elaborated.
Antonyms, on the other hand, describes the range of elements under
discussion. For instance, in Example 16, those given equal treatment
doesnotincludeonlythosewhoaresuperiornordoesitexcludethose
whoareinferior.
Acknowledgements
This paper was partly presented at the recent 2015 the 30thAnnual Conference. My
appreciation to the Institute of Oriental Philosophy for opportunity to meet the
researchersandmakethispublicationpossible.IthankProfessorSauerforhisinputon
the binomials. My appreciation goes to Professor Dato’ Christopher Boey in the
selectionoftheparableforthecorpusofthisexploratorystudy.Lastbutnottheleast,I
wish to acknowledge all for the opportunity to explore the language of the English
translationLotusSutra.Formypart,ithasbeenaninsightfulexperienceforme.
Source of Text
Watson, B. 2009. The Lotus Sutra and Its Opening and Closing Sutras. Tokyo: Soka
Gakkai.
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The Lotus Sutra.Retrievedfromhttp://www.sgi-bel.org/en/history/the-lotus-sutra
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58
the language of lotus sutra’s parable
Author Biography
Faridah Noor Mohd NoorisAssociateProfessoratFacultyofLanguages&Linguistics,UniversityofMalaya(UM).SheisDirectorofCentreforCivilisationalDialogue,
UM. She was the Chief Editor of Social Sciences at Unit Lonjakan Pencapaian
Akademik(SocialScience),UM(2011–14).Herresearchareasincludesociolinguistics
and ethnolinguistics apart from intercultural communication. Her recent publications
include a trilogy of indigenous stories from the Mah Meri study—Sebuah Adaptasi
Cerita Orang Asli Mah Meri: Kisah Lumba & Ungka (AnAdaptation ofA Mah Meri
Tale:TaleofTheDolphin&TheGibbon,2014).ForthcomingisMalay Muslims in the
Holy Land: An Ethnolinguistic Study(2015,co-authoredwithAsmahHajiOmar,et.al.).
ShewastheeditorofDimensions Of Shadow Play in Malay Civilisation(2006)anda
co-editorofOccidentalism and Orientalism: Reflections of the East and the Perceptions
of the West(2008),Kamus BIM-English-Malay: A Handshape Dictionary(2014).