"Then you should say what you mean,"
the March Hare went on.
"I do," Alice hastily replied, "at least at least I mean what I say - that's the same
thing you know. “
"Not the same thing a bit!" said the
Hatter. "Why, you might just as well say
that 'I see what I eat' is the same thing as 'I
eat what I see!' "
Lewis Carroll
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ...........................1
WHAT IS EFFECTIVE
WRITING? .......................................2
II
Some Principles
Points to Ponder
STRUCTURE ..................................3
STYLE ..............................................4
GRAMMAR ....................................5
VOCABULARY ..............................6
THE SENTENCE AND
THE PARAGRAPH ........................7
WHY SAY ..? WHEN
YOU COULD SAY .........................8
SOME PHRASES WE
COULD EASILY DO
WITHOUT ......................................9
AMERICANISMS ......................10
CLICHÉS .....................................11
FOREIGN
WORDS ......................................12
GENDER .....................................13
JARGON .....................................14
SLANG ........................................15
TAUTOLOGY .............................16
Punctuation
Traps for the Unwary
Recommended Reading
THE APOSTROPHE .................17
BRACKETS .................................18
THE COLON ..............................19
THE COMMA ............................20
THE DASH .................................21
THE EXCLAMATION
MARK ..........................................22
THE FULL STOP .......................23
THE HYPHEN ............................24
THE QUESTION
MARK ..........................................25
QUOTATION
MARKS .......................................26
THE SEMICOLON ....................27
DOUBLE TROUBLE ..................28
PAIRS AND SNARES ................29
WHICH WORD? ........................31
A HUNDRED WORDS
WHICH ARE
SOMETIMES
MISSPELT ...................................33
WORDS THAT ARE
SOMETIMES USED
WRONGLY .................................35
SOME VOGUE WORDS
THAT NEED
WATCHING ................................37
SOME "RULES" THAT
AREN'T REALLY
RULES .........................................39
......................................................41
III
INTRODUCTION
We civil servants spend much of our time either writing or
reading what others have written. But in spite of all the
experience we accumulate in the English language there
can be few of us who can get through half a page or so of
composition without hesitating over at least one of the
many choices presented by the task of putting across
exactly what we want to say.
Do I need a new paragraph here or a new section?
Should I use a comma or a semicolon? Will this word
mean the same to my reader as it does to me? Would it
be better to use a stock phrase here or compose my
own? Such dilemmas bedevil the task of communicating
effectively.
The aim of this booklet is to offer guidance on some of
the more common problems which are likely to arise.
-1-
WHAT IS EFFECTIVE WRITING?
Some people would reply:
Writing is effective when it is
grammatically correct. But consider these
items from local newspapers:
There will be a public
meeting to discuss the proposed
by-pass through Cheam
cemetery. All interested bodies
are invited to attend.
Pierre Joly, 50, was only
slightly injured when attacked by
a fellow-hunter’s Wolfhound.
Police said the dog would be given
another chance.
Both are grammatically correct, and we
know what the authors meant - but they
could not be described as effective.
To lay down rules for effective writing is
very difficult. There is no correct answer
to each problem of English as there might
be in, say, mathematics. Ours is a living
language; it changes and develops. If
enough people were to say we was for
long enough it would replace we were as
the accepted form.
We offer principles to guide rather than
rules to be followed.
Let’s look at some.
-2-
STRUCTURE
The structure of something is the way it is
put together - its arrangement. It is the
difference between a social letter and a
letter from the taxman; between a gettogether and a committee meeting.
Official writing always has an aim and its
structure is the plan to meet that aim.
With letters, minutes and reports the
structure lies in their initial plan. You have
several points to make; what are they and
in what order should they be placed?
Once this is decided you will have a list of
points - brief and explicit - in suitable
order. These will also usually provide the
document's headings.
Headings should be:
n Comprehensive
All your points should be covered.
n Mutually exclusive
It can be confusing to find the same
subject under different headings.
n In logical sequence
Not necessarily in order of
importance; consider alternative
arrangements. Be confident that the
sequence will seem logical
to your reader.
Once you are satisfied with your headings
then the battle for effective writing is
already partly won.
-3-
STYLE
It is important, when writing official
English, to keep your reader firmly in
mind. Write as you would speak - or
would like to speak - if he or she were
present, unhesitatingly and in the manner
that your instinct and experience tells you
is best suited to the subject and the
occasion.
Then look critically at your work and ask
yourself:
n Clarity
Have I said what I meant to say? Is my
meaning clear at first reading? Could any
of my statements be misunderstood?
n Conciseness
Could I make my meaning equally clear
with fewer words?
n Courtesy
Have I adopted an appropriate tone?
Have I avoided obscure and difficult
words?
Brevity, of course, is generally a virtue;
but not if it's at the expense of clarity or
courtesy.
-4-
GRAMMAR
How important is grammar? The sceptic
would argue that grammar is just a set of
rules, that language is simply a tool for
communication and it doesn't really matter
how something is written so long as the
meaning is clear. Who made the rules
anyway? But of course, we civil servants
aren't sceptics and so wouldn't go along
with that argument. And as to who made
the rules, well ... we generally turn to the
authority of Fowler's The King's English
and Modern English Usage, this last
revised by Sir Ernest Gowers; and the
classic The Complete Plain Words by
Gowers (revised 1986).
Incorrect grammar is undignified, leads to
misunderstandings and undermines the
reader's confidence in the writer's
professionalism. It is noticeable, however,
that while most people will readily consult
a dictionary on a question of spelling, they
are slow to refer to a standard work on
English style and usage.
Some of the reasons for this are:
n Grammar is seen as being a
personal thing with no two works on the
subject agreeing. But this is really as
untrue for grammar as it would be for
spelling.
n That the language is developing fast
and books on grammar are soon out of
date. But an up-to-date guide can be as
helpful as a dictionary.
n That specialists are entitled to use
their own words in their own way. But the
truth is that apart from technical terms
there are very few words or phrases which
specialists need to use differently from
other people.
-5-
VOCABULARY
Your vocabulary will vary depending on
whether you are writing to a colleague, an
official in another government department,
a Service officer or a member of the
public. But certain principles apply to all:
n Prefer the familiar to the
far-fetched.
Easy to use, latest and being kept
informed are more readily
understood than user friendly,
state of the art and in the loop.
-6-
n Prefer the single word to
the circumlocution.
Often, scarce and so mean the
same as in several instances, in
short supply and with the result
that.
n Prefer the concrete word
to the abstract.
The reader can more easily
"picture" car and letter than
transportation and
communication.
THE SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH
Short sentences are easier to write and to
understand. As your object is inform your
reader with the least effort on his or her
part - and also on yours - the inference is
clear. Poor writing often results simply
from sentences being too long. A
sensible average might be between 15
and 20 words. Don't overload with
conditions, exceptions and consequences
- these can swamp your meaning and
bore the reader. Vary the length. Several
consecutive sentences with the same
number of words can be monotonous.
The paragraph has two roles:
n It helps the reader follow
your argument by indicating
where you are moving on to
make a new point.
n It breaks up the
appearance of the page and
makes it look more readable.
Too many paragraphs look jerky; too few
give the reader no breathing space.
A formal sentence should consist of at
least a subject and a verb, but need
contain no more, so that Sue laughed is a
grammatical sentence.
-7-
WHY SAY ...?
WHEN YOU COULD SAY ...
a majority of
a percentage of
ameliorate
at the present time
attributable to
by means of
consequently
considerable
facilitate
furthermore
in order to
in the event that
in the neighbourhood of
it is known that
provided that
that being the case
the question as to whether
there is reason to believe
ways and means
whether or not
with the minimum of delay
your attention is drawn
most
some
improve
now
due to
by
so
much
ease, help
also
to
if
about
we know, I know
if
if so
whether
we think, I think
ways
whether
quickly
please note
-8-
SOME PHRASES WE COULD EASILY DO WITHOUT ...
As a matter of fact
At the end of the day
At this moment in time
In the final analysis
In view of the fact that
It should be understood
Last but not least
Other things being equal
The fact of the matter is
To all intents and purposes
What can only be described as
When all's said and done
Now for some points to ponder.
-9-
AMERICANISMS
The English and American language and literature
are both good things; but they are better apart than
mixed.
H. W. Fowler
If we took Fowler's recommendation to
heart we would throw out teenager,
commuter, bluff, boom, stunt and
hundreds of other American words which
have found a useful place in our
language. But while so many have been
adopted, British English has a way of
rejecting those it doesn't like. Using such
unassimilated Americanisms can irritate
people, and we don't want to do that;
certainly not in our official writing. A few
such words are:
American
all of the ...
anyplace
back of
British
all the ...
anywhere
behind
American
enlisted men
fix up
prior to
prioritize
terminal
veteran
British
other ranks
arrange
before
give priority to
terminus
ex-serviceman
American English is very fond of the
verbal phrase. But verbal phrases are
only useful if they mean something
different from the simple verb; otherwise
they just clutter a sentence. Examples
are: check up on (check), face up to
(face), miss out on (miss), meet up with
(meet), visit with (visit). All these verbs
do their job better if left alone.
- 10 -
CLICHÉS
The hardest worked cliché is
better than the phrase that fails.
J. A. Spender
We use clichés because we think they
add colour and vigour to our writing. But
they don't really. The sad thing about
them is that they were once good, vivid
phrases which have become threadbare
simply through over-use. Expressions
such as at one fell swoop and the world's
my oyster would have sounded
refreshingly new when Shakespeare first
coined them - but not any more. Should
we then do without clichés? Well, life
would be very difficult if we did, and in any
case, they can be acceptable in the right
place. Just think twice before slipping into
the over-familiar phrase, and then use it
only if you cannot think of a better way to
express what you want to say.
- 11 -
Here are some very tired clichés:
Like a bull in a china shop
Tip of the iceberg
Have an axe to grind
Thin end of the wedge
Go against the grain
Mists of time
Take the rough with the smooth
Powers that be
Leave no stone unturned
Grind to a halt.
FOREIGN WORDS
They spell it “Vinci” and pronounce it “Vinchy”;
foreigners always spell better than they pronounce.
Mark Twain
Some foreign words such as brochure
(French) and arsenal (Arabic) have been
thoroughly absorbed into our language.
Many more - vice versa (Latin), vendetta
(Italian), kudos (Greek) - have become
well-established and are understood by
all. There are others, however, which are
border-line; understood by some but not
all. It is this last group which poses
problems. A reader confronted by a Latin
tag or foreign phrase feels irritated if he or
she doesn’t understand it, and doubtly
irritated if it's been used in the wrong
way.
A few examples are:
ad hoc (Latin)
carte blanche (French)
cri de coeur (French)
fait accompli (French)
glasnost (Russian)
modus vivendi (Latin)
prima facie (Latin)
volte face (French)
for the special
purpose
a free hand
heartfelt appeal
already done
openness,
way of living
at first sight
reversal of
opinion
Before using a foreign word or phrase be
confident your reader will understand and
appreciate it.
- 12 -
GENDER
Know then thyself; presume not God to scan.
The proper study of mankind is man.
Alexander Pope
But what about womankind and the study
of woman? The grammarians among us
might reply to this question by pointing
out, possibly with a smirk, that man
embraces woman. But it's no longer so.
Attitudes have changed over recent years
and writers of official English should
beware of sounding patronising by
assuming that his necessarily includes
hers. The problem is that there is a gap in
our language. We lack sexually neutral
pronouns to do the work of he or she, him
or her and his and hers; all of which
become tiresome if used too often. So we
are forced to resort to unsatisfactory
constructions like Everyone (singular) took
their (plural) turn.
- 13 -
A related difficulty applies to words like
chairman and spokesman. Should we
replace them with chair and
spokesperson? More and more people
are doing so, but the new forms are not
yet standard English. Person would be
greater help to us if only it didn’t carry that
faint overtone of ridicule (“There is a
‘person’ to see you, sir”).
There is no ready solution to the problem
of gender; the important thing is that we
should be aware the problem exists.
I make it a rule only to believe
what I understand.
Benjamin Disraeli
Good jargon consists of the technical
terms used by specialised groups. As an
expert-to-expert form of verbal shorthand
it can save us all a great deal of time.
There is no problem so long as one pilot
is speaking to another about vertical
envelopment or an educator is writing to a
colleague about cognitive domain. It is
only when such terms spill over into
general communication that the writer
should think hard whether to explain them
or, probably the better idea, look for more
understandable alternatives.
Bad jargon has come to mean longwinded and involved sentences used for
their own sake. It is a style of writing of
which civil servants have, unfairly
JARGON
perhaps, been accused of being the chief
exponents. Anthony Burgess once
quoted this example:
The proposed implementation
of the project involves the
alignment of disparate elements
which have not singly or
collectively yet been submitted
to the corporate consideration of
the personnel selected at the
appropriate executive level.
At its worst, bad jargon lends itself easily
to evasions and cold-heartedness. Let’s
avoid it as much as we can, especially
when writing to people outside the
Department.
- 14 -
SLANG
Slang is the speech of him who robs the literary
garbage carts on their way to the dumps.
Ambrose Bierce
In Usage and Abusage Eric Partridge lists
16 reasons why people use slang. For
our purposes, though, one or two reasons
why we don't normally use it in official
writing might be more relevant.
New slang flows into the language all the
time, enlivening and stirring up our
speech. Which would be fine if only the
used up slang were disposed of at the
same rate. But it isn't. It hangs around
long after whatever charm it may have
had is gone, just cluttering the national
vocabulary. An example of this is the
expression in the red which goes back to
the days when bank statements showed
overdrawn accounts in red. They no
longer do so, but in the red lingers on.
- 15 -
Different levels of language are
appropriate for different forms of
communication. In speech, unless we are
making a special effort, we tend to use
slang freely, be inexact, ungrammatical
and a bit sloppy. This is fair enough
because the person who speaks like a
leader in The Times usually has to drink
alone. But slang in our official writing is
another matter; it rarely helps
communication. It is mostly either old or
new. If old, then it's stale and boring; if
new, then it may not be understood by
others. Far better to leave slang to
spoken English unless you know your
reader well.
TAUTOLOGY
Listen very carefully, I will say this only once.
‘Allo, ‘Allo
As defined by the Oxford English
Dictionary, tautology is "a repetition of the
same statement." We tend to commit this
fault when we want to be particularly
emphatic. Avoid for instance, associating
most or very with such words as ideal,
unique or perfect, which are themselves
the highest degree possible. Expressions
such as exclusive monopoly or very
unique would be wrong.
member of staff has been taken on.
Here are some examples, the redundant
words are shown in brackets:
They collaborated (together) on the
project.
The work of this branch is not
limited (only) to legal matters.
He is in a position of (lonely)
isolation.
Only one additional (new)
Let's look at punctuation.
We returned (back) to our starting
point.
The reason is (because) there are
none left.
We continued on with our two
(fellow) companions.
- 16 -
THE APOSTROPHE
I'm sick to death of being a bureaucrat. I'd
resign tomorrow if only I knew the procedure.
Punch
This is among the most misused of punctuation marks, often being
left out when needed or put in when not. The commonest mistake is
to insert it in pronouns like yours, theirs or hers.
It should be used:
n to show where a letter has been left out.
don't (do not) shouldn't (should not) there's (there is)
n to denote single ownership or possession - before the s.
a day's journey Marie-Rose's office Newton's Law
n where there is more than one owner - after the s.
The Old Wives' Tale two days' journey monks' habits
Collective nouns such as children, women and people, are treated
as singular and the apostrophe comes before the s.
- 17 -
BRACKETS
It is dull (as well as draughty) to keep an open mind.
Anon
Brackets should be reserved for words or
statements which are independent of the
grammar of the sentence in which they
are placed.
In the search for the missing
file (it was on George’s desk all
the time) we turned up several
interesting items.
They serve to:
n enclose words that tell us
what is happening while
someone is speaking.
“I am leaving (loud applause) to
take up an even more.
important post in London. "
n indicate editorial comment.
In his letter Geoff says, “I came
top in spelling (sic). "
Sic means thus and draws
attention to an error.
n set off a word or phrase that
explains something in the
sentence.
- 18 -
Avoid using brackets more than
occasionally in official writing. They can
clutter your argument and the status of
bracketed statements may be unclear.
THE COLON
Conscience: the inner voice which
tells us someone may be watching.
H. L. Mencken
Fowler considered the colon's special
function was "to deliver the goods that
have been invoiced in the preceding
words". It indicates a fuller pause than the
semicolon and is now used almost
exclusively to precede lists, summaries or
quotations:
The Warsaw Pact comprised
seven countries: the USSR,
East Germany, Poland,
Hungary, Czechoslovakia,
Romania and Bulgaria.
He briefly outlined a few of the
problems facing the project:
lack of agreed guidelines;
disputes within management;
shortage of staff; rising costs
and collapsing morale.
Addressing the annual meeting,
the chairman said: ...
The colon can also be used to separate
two statements in order to emphasise the
contrast between them:
Man proposes: God disposes.
- 19 -
THE COMMA
All generalisations are dangerous, even this one.
Alexandre Dumas
The comma tends to be used either too
often or not enough. It marks the shortest
pause in the sentence and, when properly
used, has several functions:
n to mark off less important
statements within a sentence.
The new entrant, who was
rather morose, did not seem to
like her job description.
n to break up a sentence into
parts.
This brief outlines Britain's
defence policy, examines Nato’s
strategy, and then considers
the problems facing the Alliance.
- 20 -
n to separate a list of items.
Andrew's office was fulI of
ornaments, used envelopes,
flower pots and cardboard
boxes.
Where there is a danger of ambiguity or
doubt and should be preceded by a
comma, as in: The train will stop at
Harrow, Pinner, Watford, and Bushey.
Otherwise Watford and Bushey might be
interpreted as one station (like Bushey
and Oxhey).
THE DASH
To be good is noble, but to teach others how to be
good is nobler - and less trouble.
Mark Twain
The dash tends to be overused by lazy
writers who see it as an all-purpose
punctuation mark. It should not replace
commas, colons, brackets, etc. Its main
uses are:
n to show a sudden break or
shift in thought.
I shall be in early tomorrow - if
my train is on time - to help you
prepare for the meeting.
n after a multiple subject.
Integrity, commitment, patience
- these are just three of the
qualities a civil servant should
possess.
n to insert a remark into a
sentence which is already
grammatically complete.
The main reason for the
Minister's decision - and this
has so far not been mentioned
- is that the economic situation
demands it.
Some people like to add a dash after a
colon (:-) but, with the modern trend
towards simplicity, there's really no need
for it.
- 21 -
THE EXCLAMATION MARK
A land flowing with milk and honey?
The cholesterol would kill me!
Punch
This denotes the expression of surprise or
some other emotion. It should be used:
n after emphatic commands,
exhortations and wishes.
Drop it! Come and join us!
Long live the Queen!
n after exclamations beginning
with What or How.
What a day!
How amazing!
Useful though it can be to sports writers,
the exclamation mark, like the dash, has
little place in official writing.
n after a statement considered
surprising by the writer.
They met on Monday and were
married on Friday!
- 22 -
THE FULL STOP
“Where shall I begin, your majesty?”
“Begin at the beginning,” the king said gravely,
“and go on till you come to the end, then stop.”
Lewis Carroll
The full stop is one punctuation mark
which most of us could well use more
often. Even so, if used exclusively it will
give your writing a stilted look, as in:
Please call me at the office
tomorrow. I have something to
discuss. I shall be in by nine. It will
not take long.
This would read better as:
Please call me tomorrow, as I have
something to discuss. I shall be in by
nine and it will not take long.
As well as to end a normal sentence, it
should be used with abbreviations that do
not end with the same letter as the
unshortened form:
Capt.(Captain) ie.(id est) min.(minimum)
But not where the shortened form ends
with the same letter as the complete word:
ft(feet)
St(Street)
Revd(Reverend)
Nowadays it is not the usual practice to
have full stops with such familiar
abbreviations as USA, BBC or RAF.
- 23 -
THE HYPHEN
Like Webster’s dictionary
we’re Morocco-bound.
Road to Morocco
Fowler's Modern English Usage devotes
eleven columns to the hyphen. We won't
detain you so long; but perhaps a few
points would be helpful. The hyphen
should be used:
This department contains sixty odd people would read
strangely without the hyphen.
n with compound adjectives.
face-saving public-spirited
red-hot dark-blue
n where its absence could lead
to misunderstanding.
In India he shot a man-eating
tiger. (He shot a tiger who ate
men.)
In India he shot a man eating
tiger. (He shot a man who was
eating a tiger.)
Some word combinations are
hyphenated when they come before a
noun, but not when they come after.
n where it contributes to clarity.
- 24 -
It is an out-of-date system.
But: The system is out of date.
This is a long-term problem.
But: The problem is long term.
THE QUESTION MARK
You’re the chap who sold me the time-share
flat last week aren’t you? Well, tell me about
it again, I get so depressed.
Anon
This is one of the simpler punctuation
marks. Even so, it can pose a few
problems.
It’s used after a direct question:
Are you serious?
But not after an indirect question.
I asked him if he was serious.
Sometimes writers wrongly believe it’s not
needed after a request made in the form
of a polite question.
Will you please note I shall be away
all next week?
There are some sentences which sound
like questions but aren't.
I wonder if I might speak to the
person in charge.
The question mark should not be used as
a derogatory comment.
He tried to explain his strange
behaviour by saying he had
personal (?) problems.
- 25 -
QUOTATION MARKS
“One of the expressions she employed was ‘feckless idiot’, sir.”
“Feckless idiot?”
“Yes sir.”
I couldn’t make it out. My Aunt Agatha has often said that
same sort of thing about me, but she has known me from a boy.
P. G. Wodehouse
Some people are understandably
confused by the seemingly haphazard
way in which publishers use either single
(‘) or double (“) quotation marks. Either is
correct. The important thing is to be
consistent. Current practice does,
however, seem to lean towards double
marks, with single marks being reserved
for inside quotations. They indicate:
n titles of books, plays, films,.
n words under discussion.
n spoken words, as in the
passage above. Note that
each change of speaker calls
for a new paragraph. Note also
the quote within quotes.
n words being used in an
unfamiliar or special way.
Chomsky regarded language
as a “cordoned off” territory.
- 26 -
“The Mousetrap” is the longestrunning play in London.
“Allude” means refer indirectly
and requires “to” after it.
THE SEMICOLON
I often quote myself; it adds spice to my
conversation.
G. B. Shaw
The semicolon marks a longer pause than
a comma, but a shorter one than a full
stop. It is useful:
n as a means of avoiding
confusion in lists.
The guests included: Mr
Papadopoullos, leader of the
expedition; Major Fielding, his
chief assistant; Captain Buck,
the technical adviser; ... and so
on.
n between statements which
are too closely related to be
separated by a full stop.
The idea of breaking down old
economic barriers is both bold
and potentially fruitful;
moreover it is now possible.
n to emphasise a contrast.
On this occasion I will let your
proposal go ahead; but in future
I expect to be consulted first.
If you are uncertain about the semicolon,
avoid it; but it can be a very effective
punctuation mark.
- 27 -
Double Passive Verbs
Watch out for ...
Double Superlatives
Wrong: Schooldays are the most
happiest days of your life.
Right: Schooldays are the happiest
days of your life.
Double Comparatives
Wrong: I was more happier then than
at any time since.
Right: I was happier then than at any
time since.
DOUBLE TROUBLE
Wrong: Now that the system is
attempted to be modernised.
Right: Now that there is an attempt to
modernise the system.
Double Past Tenses
Wrong: I would have liked to have
gone.
Right: I would have liked to go.
Double Negatives
Wrong: I wouldn't be surprised if it
didn't start to rain.
Right: I wouldn't be surprised if it
started to rain.
- 28 -
PAIRS AND SNARES
adverse (unfavourable)
averse (opposed)
complementary (balancing)
complimentary (admiring)
affect (to influence)
effect (result, to bring about)
defective (faulty)
deficient (lacking)
agree to (a plan, a proposal)
agree with (a person)
economic (on business lines)
economical (sparing)
alternate (every other)
alternative (instead of )
envelop (to cover)
envelope (stationery)
apposite (appropriate)
opposite (facing)
exceedingly (outstandingly)
excessively (too much)
appreciable (noticeable)
appreciative (grateful)
flaunt (to show off )
flout (to disregard)
beside (next to)
besides (as well, also)
forbear (to refrain from)
forebear (ancestor)
biannual (twice a year)
biennial (every two years)
ingenious (clever)
ingenuous (without guile)
canvas (a cloth)
canvass (to seek support)
insidious (cunningly harmful)
invidious (offensive)
- 29 -
intense (strong)
intensive (concentrated)
prescribe (to recommend)
proscribe (to ban)
judicial (relating to law)
judicious (wise, sensible)
principal (chief, head)
principle (rule)
licence (a permit)
license (to authorise)
stationary (not moving)
stationery (office supplies)
luxuriant (abundant)
luxurious (in luxury)
stimulant (a drug)
stimulus (an incentive)
masterful (dominating others)
masterly (decisively skilful)
summon (to call)
summons (a legal command)
negligent (not careful)
negligible (not worth noticing)
swat (to hit an insect)
swot (to study hard)
perquisite (additional benefit)
prerequisite (prior condition)
titillate (to arouse mildly)
titivate (to smarten oneself )
practicable (can be achieved)
practical (useful)
turbid (muddy, swollen)
turgid (inflated, pompous)
precipitate (over-hasty)
precipitous (very steep)
venal (corruptible)
venial (pardonable)
- 30 -
WHICH WORD?
Aeroplane or airplane or aircraft?
Great Britain or United Kingdom?
We say aeroplane; the Americans say
airplane. The RAF use aircraft, a useful
word because it is both singular and plural
and includes helicopters, which aeroplane
and airplane do not.
Great Britain is England, Scotland and
Wales; the United Kingdom adds Northern
Ireland to these.
Fewer or less?
A tirade is always abusive and may be
directed at one or more persons. A
harangue need not be abusive, merely
prolonged or tedious; it does however
require at least two listeners.
Fewer refers to things which can be
counted; less to things which cannot. The
common error is to use less when fewer
would be correct. I drink fewer (not less)
cups of tea these days.
- 31 -
Harangue or tirade?
Imply or infer?
Outline or summary?
Imply means to hint or suggest: "He
implied that I was a fool".
Infer means to deduce: "I inferred that I
hadn't made a good impression."
A speaker implies; a listener infers.
An outline is an indication of the overall
form of a project or plan. Its purpose is to
convey the general idea, possibly to
obtain approval. A summary is a
shortened version which includes
essential detail.
Oral or Verbal?
People tend to use the term verbal
agreement to mean an agreement which
is not written down. But all agreements
using words, whether written or spoken
are verbal agreements; verbal means
words. An agreement spoken but not
written down is an oral agreement.
Strategy or tactics?
Strategy is broad policy; tactics are shortterm ways of achieving the long-term plan.
- 32 -
A HUNDRED WORDS
WHICH ARE SOMETIMES MISSPELT ...
accessible
accessory
accommodate
acquiesce
admissible
advantageous
advisory
aerial
agreeable
allege
asymmetric
audible
auxiliary
battalion
benefited
bicycle
bulletin
- 33 -
buoyant
bureau
calendar
camouflage
campaign
coherent
conscientious
conscious
curriculum
deferred
desultory
deterrent
eligible
embarrassment
equipped
erroneous
existence
expedient
fallacy
feasible
forfeit
Gibraltar
governor
gradient
graffiti
grievous
harass
humorous
hygiene
illegible
inaugurate
independence
indispensable
infallible
inference
innocuous
inoculate
instalment
instil
intractable
irrelevant
liaison
lieutenant
maintenance
manoeuvre
maritime
medieval
mortgage
negligible
noticeable
obsolete
occasion
occurred
omitted
Ottawa
overrated
parallel
permissible
persistent
precedent
professor
profited
querulous
questionnaire
reconnaissance
referee
rhetoric
rhythm
satellite
secede
separate
sergeant
serviceable
soliloquy
stupefy
supersede
targeted
threshold
transferable
transient
tunnelling
twelfth
ultimatum
- 34 -
WORDS THAT ARE SOMETIMES USED WRONGLY ...
Aggravate
Billion
This does not mean the same as irritate or
exasperate.
It means to make a bad situation worse.
In Britain a billion used to mean a million
million. But now the American definition
of a thousand million is generally
accepted.
Alibi
An alibi is a claim to have been elsewhere
when an incident took place. It is not an
alternative word for an excuse.
Beg the question
To beg the question doesn't mean to
avoid giving an answer. It is to assume
the truth of something which has not yet
been proved.
- 35 -
Chronic
Means lingering, lasting, long-established.
It does not mean bad, intense or severe.
Complex
Presently
This word describes something made up
of many parts. It is not another word for
complicated.
This means soon, not at present.
Dilemma
It is a common error to use transpire as if
it meant happen or occur. What it means
is to become known.
A dilemma is an awkward choice between
two or more options. It is not a synonym
for problem.
Transpire
Leading question
A leading question is one so phrased as to
prompt the desired answer. It is not a
searching or the most important question.
- 36 -
SOME VOGUE WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING ...
Words are sometimes plucked from
decent obscurity where they performed a
useful if limited role, and taken up by the
fashionable world. They then enjoy a
period of flashy fame; but somehow their
meaning becomes indistinct.
Some examples are:
Escalate
Escalate is a suitable word to describe the
progress of warfare through its
conventional states into tactical and global
conflict. But it looks a bit silly when used
simply as an alternative for increase or
accelerate.
Format
This word once had a precise meaning for
printers: the shape and size of a book
(e.g. quarto or octavo). It now tends to be
used as another word for form,
arrangement, plan, layout and design.
- 37 -
Paradigm
Scenario
Once a perfectly good, if pretentious,
word meaning pattern or role model, this
word caused no harm when used by
university professors. But it has now
entered the areas of business and
management and is seen by some as
being a useful alternative for example.
This is a useful word in the cinema and
TV industries, where it describes an
outline of the script for a film or play. But
its meaning has been extended to include
any projected sequence of events or plan
of action. Just to complicate things there
are also alternative scenarios.
Proactive
Syndrome
Emerging from the jargon of educational
psychology, proactive has been warmly
adopted by the world of management.
The proactive person is a go-getter and
self-starter who makes things happen; the
reactive person waits for events to dictate
his or her course of action.
To a doctor syndrome describes a group
of symptoms occurring together to
produce a particular medical condition.
To the non-medical world syndrome
means ... Well, what does it mean?
- 38 -
SOME RULES THAT AREN’T REALLY RULES.
A surprising number of people hold fast to
"rules" they learned early in life which
really fall into the category of "advice to
beginners" rather than "rules".
A few such are:
And and But
Contrary to what is still sometimes taught
And and But may be used to begin either
a sentence or a paragraph. And why not?
If we followed the "rule" we would deprive
ourselves of two of the most useful words
for connecting sentences smoothly.
Elisions
There are situations (like exams) where
elisions (don't, wouldn't, it's) should be
used sparingly. It is also true that they
lend themselves best to an informal style
of writing. But to shun elisions completely
in our official writing can have the effect of
making it appear ponderous and remote.
Like
Some people have the idea that it is
ungrammatical to use like in the sense of
- 39 -
such as. But many writers take a more
relaxed view; Kingsley Amis with his
novel “Take a Girl Like You“, for example.
Using like in the sense of as if, however,
is ungrammatical.
Repeating words
It is both natural and good that we should
try to avoid repeating the same word too
often and too closely together. But more
important than variety is clarity. By being
over-concerned with finding new words to
describe the same thing we can end by
confusing our reader; there are few exact
synonyms in English.
Split infinitives
When another word comes between to
and the verb (to boldly go, to carefully
consider), that is a split infinitive. These
used to be considered the cardinal sin of
good English; but there are some
instances where they may be justified.
For example: He was asked to discreetly
drop a hint would have a different meaning
if changed to He was discreetly asked to
drop a hint.
Tail-end prepositions
A preposition expresses the relationship of
one word with another (of, for, below).
There is a supposed rule that sentences
should not end with them. But the fact
that many sentences do naturally end in
this way has always been a feature of
English. Often the preposition needs to be
at the end. She is the most suitable
person I can think of could not be
rephrased as She is the most suitable
person of whom I can think.
- 40 -
RECOMMENDED READING.
MOD Manual 2
Joint Services Publications (JSP) 101
The King's English, by H. W. and F. G. Fowler
Modern English Usage, revised by Sir Ernest Gowers
Usage and Abusage, by Eric Partridge
The Complete Plain Words, by Gowers (revised 1986)
- 41 -
If you are considering further learning, the Defence Academy
can offer services in:
n Leadership and Change Management
n Core Competences
n Finance and Resource Management
n Equality and Diversity
n e-Iearning via the Defence Learning Portal
n Defence Electronic Learning Centres
n Ashridge Virtual Learning Resource Centre
n Blended Learning
Plain Campaign’s winner of
“Inside Write Award” - 1992
First issued Oct 1991
Reprinted April 2010
For further infomation go to
www.da.mod.uk/cmt