FREEDO
A HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS
with Documents
Deborah Gray White
RUTGERS UNIVERSITY
Mia Bay
RUTGERS UNIVERSITY
Waldo E. Martin Jr.
UNIVERSITY
Bedford
Boston
•
OF CALIFORNIAI
1st. Martinis
New York
BERKELEY
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_
Brief Contents
GHAPTER 1
FromAfricatoAmerica,
GHAPTER 2
African Slavery in North America, 1619-1739
GHAPTER 3
African Americans in the Age of Revolution, 1740-1783
GHAPTER 4
Slavery and Freedom in the New Republic, 1783-1829
GHAPTER 5
Black Life in theSlave South, 1820-1860
GHAPTER 6
The Northern Black Freedom Struggle and the Coming of the Civil War,
1830-1860
264
GHAPTER 7
Freedom Rising: The Civil War, 1861-1865
GHAPTER 8
Reconstruction: The Making and Unmaking of a Revolution,
1865-1885
376
GHAPTER 9
Black Life and Culture, 1880-1915
GHAPTER 10
The New Negro, 1915-1940
GHAPTER 11
Fighting for a Double Victory, 1939-1948
GHAPTER 12
The Early Civil Rights Movement, 1947-1963
GHAPTER 13
Multiple Meanings of Freedom: The Movement Broadens, 1963-1975
GHAPTER 14
The Challenge of Conservatism in an Era of Change, 1968-2000
GHAPTER 15
African Americans and the New Century, 2000-Present
1441-1808
2
54
110
160
210
322
430
492
550
604
662
720
774
xxi
Contents
ix
Pretace
Versions and Supplements
xxxix
Special Features
Maps
xvii
xli
Introduction tor Students
xliii
From Africa to America,
1441-1808
African Origins
4
The History ofWest Africa
Slavery in West Africa 9
The Rise of the Transatlantic
2
5
10
Slave Trade
Europe in the Age of the Slave Trade 10
The Enslavement ofIndigenous Peoples 12
The First Africans in the Americas
14
The Business of Slave Trading
16
The Long Middle Passage
18
Capture and Confinement
20
On the Slave Coast 24
Inside the Slave Ship 26
Hardship and Misery On Board
29
Conclusion: The Slave Trade's Diaspora
Chapter Review
DDCUMENTS:
30
31
Inside the Slave Trade
32
KING AFONSO I (MVEMBA NZINGA), Letter to the Portuguese King Joao III, 1526
+ •
PETER BLAKE,An Account of the Mortality of the Slaves Aboard the Ship James, 1675-1676
•
JAMESBARBOTJR., General Observations on the Management of Slaves, 1700 • ALEXANDER
FALCONBRIDGE,An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa, 1788
DOCUMENTS:
The African Slave Captives
38
OLAUDAH EQUIANO, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus
Vassa, the African, 1789 • BELINDA, The Petition of Belinda, 1782
VISUAL SOURCES:
Trade
European Images of Africans in the Era of the Slave
43
Facsimile of the Catalan Atlas Showing the King ofMali Holding a Gold Nugget, 1375 •
Sebastian Münster, German Map of Africa, 1554 • Willem Janszoon Blaeu, New Dutch Map
xxiii
_______
xxiv
CONTENTS
'ilkJi!iJ!!}IlPrdi. ••••
"I/i;.J
_
of Africa, 1644 • Page from the Cantigas de Santa Maria, 1252-1284
the Magi, c. 1500 • lohn BarbotMeetingwith
the KingofSestro,
• The Adoration of
1691 • Negro's Cannoes,
Carrying Slaves, on Board of Ships att Manfroe, seventeenth century
• Portraits ofWest
Africans, 1679 • African Slaves in the Mines, 1565 • Antislavery Carneo, late eighteenth
century
• Group ofNegros, as Imported to Be Sold for Slaves, 1796
Notes 52 • Suggested
References
53
African Slavery in North America,
1619-1739
54
Slavery and Freedom in Early English North America
56
Settlers, Servants, and Slaves in the Chesapeake
57
The Expansion of Slavery in the Chesapeake
The Creation ofthe Carolinas
64
Africans in New England 66
Slavery in the Middle Atlantic Colonies
70
Slavery and Half-Freedom in New Netherland
Slavery in England's Middle Colonies
73
Frontiers and Forced Labor
62
71
75
Slavery in French Louisiana
76
Black Society in Spanish Florida 77
Slavery and Servitude in Early Georgia
The Stono Rebellion
79
79
Conclusion: Regional Variations of Early American Slavery
Chapter Review
DDCUMENTS:
82
83
Making Slaves
84
The Codification of Slavery and Race in Seventeenth-Century Virginia, 1630-1680 • An Act
for Regulating of Slaves in New Jersey, 1713-1714 • The South Carolina Slave Code, 1740
DDCUMENTS:
British Colonists Debate the Merits of Slavery
90
SAMUELSEWALL, The Selling of Joseph: A Memorial, 1700 • ] OHN SAFFIN, ABrief and
Candid Answer to a Late Printed Sheet, Bntitled, The Selling ofJoseph, 1701 • GEORGIA
SETTLERS,The Settlers' Petition, 1738 • GEORGIA TRUSTEES,Answer of the Trustees, 1739
VISUAL SOURCES:
Nieu Amsterdarn,
c.1586
African Labor in the Making of the Americas
c. 1642-1643
97
• Lucy Parke Byrd, c. 1716 • Canoe for Pearl Fishing,
• Tent Boat, 1769 • Map ofthe Pernambuco
Region in Northeast
Brazil, 1662 •
Slaves Producing Sugar, 1681 • Engraving of a Virginia Tobacco Farm, 1725 • Trade
Card Promoting Virginia Tobacco, eighteenth century
• Tobacco Label, c. 1730 •
Slaves Making Dye from Indigo, 1748 • Processing Indigo Dye, 1757 (detail)
Notes 108 • Suggested
References
109
CONTENTS
x:·'/fii/i!MJi/I!.WiIIiRl;J;/!l$f/Jl!ll;I/Ii!
_____________________________________
African Americans in the
Age of Revolution, 1740-1783
110
African American Life in Eighteenth-Century North America
Slaves and Free Blacks across the Colonies
113
Shaping an African American Culture
114
The Slaves' Great Awakening
The African American Revolution
The Road to Independence
Black Patriots
124
Black Loyalists 128
Closer to Freedom
112
116
120
121
Slaves, Soldiers, and the Outcome of the Revolution
American Victory, British Defeat 131
The Fate ofBlack Loyalists
131
132
135
Conclusion: The American Revolution's Mixed Results for Blacks
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS:
XXV
138
139
The Great Awakening
in the South
140
A Public Letter to Slaveholders, 1740 • JAMES HABERSHAM AND
Papers on David Margate, 1775 • DAVID GEORGE, A Fugitive Slaves
Early Life and Religious Conversion, 1785
GEORGE WHITEFIELD,
WILLIAM
PIERCY,
DOCUMENTS:
African American Patriots
145
A Poem to the Earl of Dartmouth, 1772 • PHILLIS WHEATLEY, Letter
to the Reverend Samson Occom, 1774 • LEMUEL HAYNES, Liberty Further Extended, 1776
PHILLIS
WHEATLEY,
VISUAl SOURCES:
Freedom's Fight
149
Paul Revere, Ihe Bloody Massacre, 1770 • Crispus Attucks, the First Martyr of the
American Revolution, 1855 • Lithograph of the Boston Massacre, 1856 • John Trumbull,
Ihe Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker's HilI, 17th June 1775, c. 1815-1831 (after
the 1786 version) • John Trumbull, George Washington, 1780 • Edward Savage,
Ihe Washington Family, 1789-1796 • Jean-Baptiste Le Paon, General Lafayette at
Yorktown, Attended by James Armistead, c. 1783 • John Blennerhassett Martin, James
Armistead Lafayette, c. 1824 • John Singleton Copley, Ihe Death of Major Peirson,
January 6,1781, 1783
Notes 158 • Suggested
References
159
_
xxvi
CONTENTS
Slavery and Freedom in the
New Republic, 1783-1829
162
The Status of Slavery in the New Nation
Slavery's Cotton Frontiers 165
Slavery and Empire 170
160
The Limits of Democracy
Slavery and Freedom outside the Plantation
163
South
171
Urban Slavery and Southern Free Blacks 173
Gabriel's Rebellion 174
Achieving Emancipation in the North 176
178
Free Black Organizations 179
Free Black Education and Employment
White Hostility 183
The Colonization Debate 186
Free Black Life in the New Republic
181
Conclusion: African American Freedom in Black and White
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS:
189
Slavery's Children
190
A Former Slaves Fight to Free Her Son, 1850 •
Life among the Lowly, 1873
SOJOURNER
TRUTH,
DOCUMENTS:
Free Black Activism
THOMAS
1791 •
1799 •
PEOPLE
188
MADISON
HEMINGS,
194
A Memorial to the South Carolina Senate,
Petition to Congress on the Fugitive Slave Aet,
GEORGE LAWRENCE, Oration on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, 1813 • FREE
OF COLOR OF RICHMOND, VIRGINIA, Petition to Congress on Colonization, 1817
COLE AND OTHER
ABsALoMJoNEs
VISUAl SOURCES:
FREE BLACKS,
AND OTHERS,
The Black Body in Early American Culture
199
Cover ofBenjamin Banneker's Almanac, 1795 • SamuelJennings, Liberty Displaying the
Arts and Seienees} or the Genius of Ameriea Eneouraging the Emaneipation of the Blaeks,
1792 • New Jersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery'sMembership
Certificate, 1792 • Charles White's Illustrations of the Anatomical Features of Animals
and Humans, 1799 • Charles White's Comparisons ofHumans and Other Primates,
1799 • Oliver Goldsmith, A History of the Earth} and Animated Nature, 1774 • The True
Picture ofMary-Sabina, c. 1744 • James Akin, A Philosophie Coek, c. 1804 • Bobalition
Broadside, 1825
Notes 208 • Suggested
References
209
____________________________________
'_a~_~l'~.!:_CONTENTS
Black life in the Slave South,
1820-1860
The Expansion and Consolidation of Slavery
212
Slavery, Cotton, and American Industrialization
xxvii
210
213
The Missouri Cornprornise Crisis 215
Slavery Expands into Indian Territory
216
The Dornestic Slave Trade
218
Black Challenges to Slavery
220
Denrnark Vesey's Plot 221
David Walker's Exile 222
Nat Turner's Rebellion, the Amistad Case, and the Creole Insurrection
Everyday Resistance to Slavery
225
227
Disobedience and Defiance 227
Runaways Who Escaped frorn Slavery
Survival, Community, and Culture
Slave Religion 233
229
232
Gender, Age, and Work 235
Marriage and Farnily 237
Conclusion: Surviving Slavery
Chapter Review
DOGUMENTS:
THOMAS
FRANCIS
1857 •
241
Managing the Slaves
PINCKNEY
Charleston, 1822 •
DOGUMENTS:
240
[ACHATES],
P.
C.
WESTON,
Slave Testimony
HENDERSON,
242
Reflections, Occasioned by the Late Disturbances in
Management of a Southern Plantation, 1857
245
A Fugitive's Story, 1856 • VILET
The Days of Slavery, 1937
LESTER,
Letter to Patsey Patterson,
MARY REYNOLDS,
VISUAL SOURGES:
The Art of the Plantation
250
Detail of aJar by Dave, 1857 • Oak LeafPanelfrorn
Quilt with Star ofBethlehern
a Slave Quilt, 1857-1858
Pattern Variation, c. 1837-1850
• Slave
• Harriet Powers, Bible
Qjlilt, 1886 • Francis Jukes, Mount Vernon in Virginia, 1800 • Scipio Hunted, 'As Men
Hunt a Deer!," frorn Uncle Tom's Cabin, or Life among the Lowly, 1852 • Black Wornen
Slaves frorn Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, an American Slave, Written by
Himself, 1849-1850 • Slave Children in Sunday School frorn Life at the South, or "Uncle
Tom's Cabin" as 1t 15, 1852 • Slave Children and Schoolrnaster frorn Life at the South, or
"Uncle Tom's Cabin" as It 15, 1852 • Slaves Dancing frorn Aunt Phillis's Cabin, or Southern
Life as 1t 15, 1852 • Death ofDinah frorn Frank Freeman's Barber Shop, 1852 • A Child
and Her Nanny, c. 1855 • A Slave Farnily in a Georgia Cotton Field, c. 1860
Notes 262 • Suggested
References
263
_
xxviii
CONTENTS
The Northern Black Freedom Struggle
and the Coming of the Civil War,
1830-1860
264
266
Racial Discrimination in the Era of the Common Man 266
Black Communities in an Era ofExpansion 269
Black Self-Help in an Era ofMoral Reform 272
The Boundaries of Freedom
276
Black Communities Connect 277
BlackActivists andActivism 278
The Abolitionist Movement 282
Forging a Black Freedom Struggle
285
Westward Expansion and Slaveryin the Territories 285
The Fugitive SlaveCrisis 287
Confrontations in Kansas and the Courts 290
Emigration and Insurrection 292
The Slavery Question and National Crisis
Conclusion: Whose Country Is It?
297
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS:
295
Elite Black Women Speak Out on Education, Citizenship,
298
and Slavery
DOUGLASS, To Make the Slaves' Cause Our Own, 1832 • ELIZABETH
On the Cultivation of Black Wornens Minds, 1837 • Lucy STANTON, Slavery
and Abolition as War, 1850 • SARA G. STANLEY, A Call to Action! Black Wornen Support
Black Male Vote in Ohio, 1856
SARAH MAPPS
JENNINGS,
DOCUMENTS:
Former Slaves Speak Out on Slavery
HENRY HIGHLAND
1843 •
FREDERICK
VISUAl SOURCES:
GARNET,
303
An Address to the Slaves of the United States of Arnerica,
What to the Slave Is the Fourth ofJuly?, 1852
DOUGLASS,
Minstrel Shows
309
Dancingfor Eels, 1820 • Dancingfor Eels, A Scene frorn the New Play of New- York as
It Is, as Played at the Chatharn Theatre, N.Y., 1848 • Jim Crow, c. 1835 • Zip Coon,
c. 1834 • Coal Black Rose, c. 1830 • The Virginia Serenaders, 1844 • Christy's
Minstrels, c. 1847 • "Oh, Susanna," as Sung by Christy's Celebrated Band ofMinstrels,
c. 1850 • Topsy in Uncle Torns Cabin, 1852 • Ira Aldridge, Shakespearean Actor,
1853 • FrankJohnson, Musician, Bandleader, and Composer (undated) • Boz's
Juba, 1848
Notes 320 • Suggested
References
321
CONTENTS
Freedom Rising: The Civil War,
1861-1865
The Coming of War and the Seizing of Freedom, 1861-1862
War Aims and Battlefield Realities 324
Union Poliey on Blaek Soldiers and Blaek Freedom
326
Refugee Slaves and Freedpeople
Horne Fronts and War's End, 1863-1865
Riots and Restoration of the Union
Civilians at Work for the War 343
Union Victory, Slave Emaneipation,
for Equality
346
Chapter Review
DDCUMENTS:
322
324
328
Turning Points, 1862-1863
332
The Emancipation Proclarnation
332
The U.S. Colored Troops 334
Afriean Americans in the Major Battles of 1863
Conclusion: Emancipation
xxix
and Equality
338
340
341
and the Renewed Struggle
349
350
Wartime Opportunities
and Dilemmas
351
Let Us
Take Up the Sworfl, 1861 • ISAIAH C. WEARS, Ihe Evil
Injustice of Colonization, 1862 • THOMAS MORRIS CHESTER, Negro Self-Respect and Pride
of Race, 1862
ALFRED M. GREEN,
DOCUMENTS:
0
0
0
Black Women at Work during the War
355
Letters to Her Master, 1861-1865 • SUSIE KING TAYLOR, Reminiscences
of My Life in Camp, 1902 • SARAH H. BRADFORD, Harriet Tubman: Ready for Service to
the Union Cause, 1886
Lucy
SKIPWITH,
VISUAl SOURCES:
The Moment and Meaning of Emancipation
362
Watch Meeting-Dec. 31 st- Waitingfor the Hour, 1863 • Wateh Meeting Posteard,
1863 • Reading the Emancipation Proclamation, 1864 • Colored Troops under General
Wild, Liberating Slaves in North Carolina, 1864 • Arrival of a Federal Column at a Planter's
House in Dixie, 1863 • Emancipated Slaves, 1863 • Slave Children, "As We Found
Them" and "As They Are Now;' 1864 • Private Hubbard Pryor, before and after Enlisting
in the U.So Colored Troops, 1864 • President Lincoln Riding through Richmond, April 4,
amid the Enthusiastic Cheers of the Inhabitants, 1865 • Forever Free, 1867 • Freedmen's
Memorial, 1876
Notes 374 • Suggested References
375
XXX
CONTENTS
Reconstruction: The Making and
Unmaking of a Revolution, 1865-1885
376
A Social Revolution
378
Freedom and Family
378
Church and Community
381
Land and Labor
384
The Hope ofEducation
386
A Short-Lived Political Revolution
390
The Political Contest over Reconstruction
Black Reconstruction
393
The Defeat ofReconstruction
390
397
Opportunities and Limits outside the South
Autonomy in the West 400
The Right to Work for Fair Wages 403
The Struggle for Equal Rights
405
Conclusion: Revolutions and Reversals
400
407
Chapter Review . 408
DDGUMENTS:
Letters to the Freedmen's Bureau, 1865-1868
J OSEPH R. J OHNSON, The Need for Hornes, 1865
409
• HENRY BRAM, ISHMAEL MOULTRIE,
AND YATES SAMPSON, ARequest for Homesteads, 1865
• TONEY GOLDEN WILLIAM,
GABRIEL ANDREWS, AND TONEY AxON, The Terms ofWork, 1865 • JAMES HERNEY, A
Request for Furlough, 1866 • CYNTHA NICKoLS, ARequest for Custody, 1867 • MILLY
J OHNSON, Seeking Information about Her Children, 1867 • J OE EASLEY, Persecution of the
Freedpeople, 1868
DOGUMENTS:
Race, Sex, and the Vote
414
SOJOURNER TRUTH, Equal Voting Rights, 1867
• PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN
EQUAL RIGHTS ASSOCIATION, A Debate: Negro Male Suifrage vs. Woman Suifrage,
1869
• MARY ANN SHADD CARY, Womans Right to Vote, early 1870s
VISUAl SOURGES:
Portrayals of Reconstruction-Era
African Americans
The Birth of a Nation, 1915 • Democratic
Party Broadside,
Supporting
P. Blair Jr. for President
1868
Horatio
Seymour
and Frands
1866
• Campaign
419
Badge
and Vice President,
• Colored Rule in a Reconstructed(?) State, 1874 • The Ignorant Vote, 1876 • The
"Practical" Politicians Love for the Negro, 1885 • The Darktown Fire Brigade, 1887 • A
Literary Debate in the Darktown Club, 1885 • Crumpled, 1886
Notes 428 • Suggested
References
429
xxxi
CONTENTS
Black life and Culture,
1880-1915
Racism and Black Challenges
Racial Segregation
432
430
432
1deologies ofWhite Supremacy
435
Disfranchisement and Political Activism
Lynching and the Campaign against It
437
438
Freedom's First Generation
442
Black Women and Men in the Era ofJim Crow 443
Black Communities in the Cities ofthe New South 447
New Cultural Expressions
451
Migration, Accommodation,
Migration Hopes and
TheAge ofBookerT.
The Emergence ofW
Conclusion: Uplift
Chapter Review
DOGUMENTS:
and Protest
454
Disappointments
455
Washington
456
E. B. Du Bois 458
464
465
Lynching
466
Ihe Lynching of Charles MitchelI, 1897 • Ihe Lyl)ching ofVirgii Jones, Robert Jones,
Ihomas Jones, and Joseph Riley, 1908 • Ihe Lynching ofLaura and Lawrence Nelson, 1911 •
T. THOMAS FORTUNE, Fiendishness in Texas, 1885 • 1da B. Wells, Ihe Case Stated, 1895 •
BOOKER T. WASHINGTON, A Protest against the Burning and Lynching ofNegroes, 1904 •
MARY CHURCH TERRELL, Lynchingfrom a Negro's Point ofView, 1904
DOGUMENTS:
Debt Peonage
475
A GEORGIA NEGRO PEON, Ihe New Slavery in the South, 1904
• W E. B. Du BOIS, Along
the Color Une, 1910 • LETTERTO THE EDITOR, From the South, 1911
VISUAl SOURGES:
Exhibit
The Paris Exposition,
0'American
1900
480
Negroes at the Paris World's Fair
• The Black Village in a Colonial Exhibition, Toulouse,
France, 1908 • Exhibit of American Negroes, 1900
• Occupations
in Georgia, 1900 • Congressional
Medal ofHonor
Winners, c. 1900
Americans Sorting Tobacco, 1900
• Composing
Morning Prayers at Fisk University, 1900
Model Dining Room at the Agricultural
ofNegroes
and Whites
• Mrican
Room of the Richmond Planet, 1900
• Dentistry at Howard University, 1900
and Mechanical
College in Greensboro,
Carolina, 1900 • Atlanta University Students, 1899 or 1900
North
• Baseball Players from
Morris Brown College, 1899 or 1900 • Bazoline Estelle Usher, Atlanta University
Student, 1899 or 1900
Notes 490 • Suggested References
491
•
•
xxxii
CONTENTS
The New Negro,
1915-1940
492
494
Origins and Patterns ofMigration 494
Black Communities in the Metropolises of the North
Mrican Americans and the Great War 500
The Great Migration and the Great War
496
504
Institutional Bases for Social Science and Historical Studies 505
The Universal Negro Improvement Association 507
The Harlem Renaissance 510
The New Negro Arrives
515
Economic Crisis and the Roosevelt Presidency 516
Mrican American Politics 518
Black Culture in Hard Times 523
The Great Depression and the New Deal
Conclusion: Mass Movements
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS:
LANGSTON
526
527
Explorations
HUGHES,
and Mass Culture
in Black Identity
528
Poems, 1921-1925 • GWENDOLYN BENNETT, Poems, 1923-1927 •
How It Feels to Be Colored Me, 1928
ZORA NEALE HURSTON,
DOCUMENTS:
Black Socialism and Communism
534
RANDOLPH, Gur Reason for Being, 1919 • W. E. B. Du BOIS, Negro Editors on
Communism: A Symposium of the American Negro Press, 1932 • ANGELO HERNDON, You
Cannot Kill the Working Class, 1934 • RrCHARD WRIGHT, 12Million Black Voices, 1941
A. PHILIP
VISUAl SOURCES:
Representations
of African Americans in Film
540
Al]olson in The Jazz Singer, 1927 • Stepin Fetchit in The County Chairman, 1935 • Bill
"Bojangles" Robinson in Harlem Is Heaven, 1932 • Paul Robeson in The Emperor Jones,
1933 • Paul Robeson in Sanders of the River, 1935 • Nina Mae McKinney in Gang
Smashers, 1938 • Hattie McDaniel in Gone with the Wind, 1939 • Butterfly McQueen in
Gone with the Wind, 1939 • Fredi Washington and Louise Beavers in Imitation of Life,
1934 • Poster for an Early Mrican American Film, 1916 • Edna Mae Harris in Lying
Lips, 1939
Notes 548 • Suggested
References
548
CONTENTS
____________________________________
.dl.iI&'i'.iQNilfi/ilikW!'ilfltlit_i!!i!J!'i!i,
Fighting for a Double Victory,
1939-1948
The Crisis ot World War 11
xxxiii
550
552
The War Begins
553
African Americans Respond to the War
Discrimination
in the Military
557
556
560
Atrican Americans on the Home Front
New Jobs and Wartime Migration
561
Organizing for Economic Opportunity
565
The Struggle tor Citizenship Rights
567
The Right to Vote 569
New Beginnings in Political and Cultural
Desegregating
the Army and the GI Bill
Conclusion: A Partial Victory
Chapter Review
DDCUMENTS:
Life
573
575
577
578
Atrican Americans and the Tuskegee Experiments
579
Classification ofTuskegee Syphilis Study Participants, 1969 • Interview with a Tuskegee
Syphilis Study Participant, 1972 • PRESIDENT BILL CLINTON, The Nations Apology to the
Tuskegee Syphilis Study Participants, 1997 • ALEXANDERJEFFERSON, Interview with a
Tuskegee Airman, 2006 • WILLIAM H. HASTIE AND GEORGE E. STRATEMEYER,
Resignation Memo and Response, 1943
DOCUMENTS:
Testimony trom the Front
586
PRIVATEJOHN S. LYONs, Letter to the Pittsburgh
Courier, 1943 • SERGEANT BEN lUSER
1944 • MRs. CHARLES H. PURYEAR, Letter to the
Crisis, 1945 • PRIVATE FIRST CLASS ROBERT E. THREET, Letter to Truman K. Gibson,
1943 • LIEUTENANT MARGARITTE GERTRUDE IVORY-BERTRAM, Incidents As an Army
Nurse, 1941-1945 • PRIVATE FIRST CLASS GLADYS O. THOMAS-ANDERSON, The 6888th
Postal Battalion, 1944-1946 • THELMA THURSTON GORHAM, Negro Army Wives, 1943
JR., Letter to the Pittsburgh
VISUAl SOURCES:
Courier,
The Struggle tor the Hearts and Minds of Black Americans
through World War 11Propaganda
592
1942-1945 • Good Enough to Die ... but Not Good Enough to
Pitcht, 1945 • Hitler Is Here!, 1943 • Suddenly Popular, 1942 • IfYou Can't Go
Across ... ComeAcross! Buy War Bonds, 1942-1945 • Keep Us Flying! Buy War Bonds,
c. 1942 • United We Win, 1943 • Recruiting Women, 1943 • Why Joe Joined the Army!,
1942 • Pvt. Joe Louis Says ... , 1942
Transfusion
Cartoon,
Notes 602 • Suggested Reterences
603
xxxiv
CONTENTS
The Early Civil Rights Movement,
1947-1963
604
Anticommunism and the Postwar Black Freedom Struggle
African Americans and Truman's Loyalty Program
607
Loyalty Programs Force New Strategies
606
610
The Transformation of the Southern Civil Rights Movement
612
Triumphs and Tragedies in the Early Years, 1951-1956 612
New Leadership for a New Movement
616
The Watershed Years of the Southern Movement
618
Frustrations Mount
622
Civil Rights: ANational
Movement
625
Civil Rights in the North and West
Fighting Back 629
The March on Washington
625
and the Aftermath
631
Conclusion: The Evolution of the Black Freedom Struggle
Chapter Review
DOGUMENTS:
635
636
637
The Murder of Emmett Till
MAMIE TILL BRADLEY,Telegram to President Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1955 • WILLIAM
BRADFORDHUIE, What Happened to Emmett Till's Killers?, 1957 • CHARLES C. DIGGS
JR., Report to the Pittsburgh Courier, 1955 • W. BEVERLYCARTER, Letter to E. Frederic
Morrow, 1955 • E. FREDERIC MORROW, White House Memo, 1955 • J. EDGAR
HoovER, Letter to Dillon Anderson, 1955 • J. EDGAR HoovER, FBI Memo on Communist
Activity, 1956
DOGUMENTS:
We Are Not Afraid
645
ANNE MOODY, Coming of Age in Mississippi, 1968 • CLEVELANDSELLERS,Ihe River of
No Return, 1973 • ANDREW L.JORDAN,Murder in Mississippi, 1955 • ELIZABETH
ECKFORD, Ihe First Day: Little Rock, 1957 • ANGELA DAVIS, With My Mind on
Freedom, 1974
VISUAl SOURGES:
The Media and the Civil Rights Movement
Emmett Till, 1954 • National Guardsmen
Riders beside Their Burned Bus, 1961 • Birmingham Demonstrators
Fire Hoses, 1963 • Birmingham
651
Escorting Freedom Riders, 1961 • Freedom
Demonstrator
Being Sprayed with
Being Attacked by a Police Dog,
1963 • Elizabeth Eckford Walking toward Little Rock Central High School, 1957 •
Demonstrators
Kneeling in Prayer in Albany, Georgia, 1962 • James Zwerg in His
Hospital Bed, 1961 • John R. Salter, Joan Trumpauer, and Anne Moody Sit In at
Woolworth's
inJackson,
Mississippi, 1963 • A Woolworth's Protest in New York,
1960 • Martin Luther KingJr. at the March on Washington
Notes 660 • Suggested
References
661
for Jobs and Freedom, 1963
XXXV
CONTENTS
Multiple Meanings of Freedom:
The Movement Broadens, 1963-1975
662
665
Expanding the Civil Rights Struggle 665
Early Black Power Organizations 666
Malcolm X 668
The Emergence of Black Power
671
Black Power and Mississippi Politics 672
Bloody Encounters 674
Black Power Ascends 676
The Struggle Transforms
Economic Justice and Affirmative
Action
681
Politics and the Fight for Jobs 681
Urban Dilemmas 682
Tackling Economic Injustice 684
686
The Vietnam War and Black Opposition
Urban Radicalism 690
War, Radicalism, and Turbulence
687
Conclusion: Progress, Challenges, and Change
Chapter Review
DDGUMENTS:
Movement
693
694
The FBI, COINTELPRO,
and the Infiltration
of the Black Freedom
695
COINTELPRO Targets Black Organizations, 1967 • PBI Tries to Discredit Stokely
Carmichael, 1968 • COINTELPRO Praises Its Eiforts to Infiltrate TV News, 1968 • PBI
Directs Field Offices to Target the Black Panther Party, 1968 • PBI Uses Pake Letters to
Divide the Chicago Black Panthers and the Blackstone Rangers, 1969 • Tangible Results,
1969 • "Special Payment" Request and Ploor Plan of Pred Hampton's Apartment, 1969 •
State Department Concerns about African Visitors, 1960 • Church Committee Report, 1976
DOGUMENTS:
Black Families, Black Women, and the Moynihan Report
703
The Negro Pamily: The Case for National Action,
Black Rage, 1968 • EDWIN
HARGROVE AND CLAlRE C. HODGE, lobs and the Negro Pamily: A Reappraisal, 1971 •
MICHELE WALLACE, Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman, 1978
DANIEL PATRICK MOYNIHAN,
1965 •
WILLIAM
VISUAl SOURGES:
H. GRIER AND PRICE M. COBBS,
The Black Arts Movement
709
Ernie Barnes, The Sugar Shack, 1972 • Faith Ringgold, The Plag Is Bleeding, 1967 • LOIs
MailouJones, Vbi Girlfrom Tai Region, 1972 • Elizabeth Catlett, Homage to My Young Black
Sisters, 1968 • BarkleyHendricks, October's Gone ... Goodnight, 1973 • BarkleyHendricks,
Iconfor My Man Superman (Superman never saved any black people - Bobby Seale), 1969 •
Raymond Saunders,lack lohnson, 1972 • Raymond Saunders, Red Star, 1970
Notes 717 • Suggested References
718
xxxvi
CONTENTS
The Challenge of Conservatism
in an Era of Change, 1968-2000
720
723
Emergence of the New Right 723
Law and Order, the Southern Strategy, and Anti-Affirmative Action 724
The Reagan Era 726
Opposition to the Black Freedom Movement
The Persistence of the Black Freedom Struggle
729
The Transformation of the Black Panthers 729
The Emergence of BlackWomen 731
The Fight for Education 734
Black Political Gains 736
The Expansion of the Black Middle Class 737
739
The Class Divide 739
Hip-Hop, Violence, and the Emergence of a New Generation
Gender and Sexuality 744
All Africa's Children 746
The Different Faces of Black America
Conclusion: Black Americans on the Eve of the New Millennium
Chapter Review
DOGUMENTS:
749
750
751
Black Americans Debate Affirmative Action
SHELBY STEELE, A Negative Vote on Affirmative Action, 1990 •
Persuasion and Distrust: The Affirmative Action Debate, 1986
DOGUMENTS:
742
RANDALL
The Million Man and Million Woman Marches
KENNEDY,
757
KAREN GA, Mission Statement for the Million Man March, 1995 • ]AMES].
Actions That Count for More Than Marching, 1995 • RON DANIELS, From
Patriarchy to Partnership, 1996 • Mission Statement for the Million Woman March,
1997 • ]uNE]oRDAN,AGatheringPurpose,
1998 • C.DELoREsTucKER,ADayfor
Women, 1997 • ELIJAH GOSIER, ]ourneys Deserve Praise-to a Point, 1997
MAULANA
LULLEN,
VISUAl SOURGES:
Hip-Hop Culture
764
A Break-Dancer in New York City's Washington Square Park, 1984 • A GraffitiArtist
in Long Island City, Queens, New York,2009 • Run-DMC, 1987 • Still from the
Movie Beat Street, 1984 • Queen Latifah, 1993 • Salt-N-Pepa, 1994 • Damon Dash,
2007 • Suge Knight, 1993 • Lauryn Hill, 1999 • Hip-Hop in Senegal: Positive
Black Soul, 2005 • Street Dancing in Abbas, Morocco, 2008 • Hip-Hop Culture in
Beijing, 2006
Notes 772 • Suggested
References
773
CONTENTS
African Americans and the New Century,
2000-Present
Diversity and Racial Belonging
777
New Categories ofDifference
778
Solidarity, Culture, and the Meaning ofBlackness
Diversity in Politics and Religion
783
788
793
796
Campaign, and Victory
The ObamaAdministration
Obama and Race in America
The 2012 Election
803
796
799
800
Conclusion: The Promise or Illusion of the New Century
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS:
774
785
Trying Times
788
The Carceral State, or "the New Jim Crow"
9 / 11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq
Hurricane Katrina 794
Change Comes to America
Obama's Forerunners,
xxxvii
804
805
The Despair of Hurricane Katrina
806
TRYMAINELEE, A Reporter's Eyewitness Aeeount,. 2005
• KEVIN J OHNSON, "Camp
Greyhound" Outpost ofLaw and Order, USA Today, September 8,2005 • JIM DWYERAND
CHRISTOPHER DREW, Fear Exeeeded Crime's Reality in New Orleans, New York Times,
September 29,2005
DOCUMENTS:
• Photographs
of the Devastation,
2005
815
The Trayvon Martin Case
Photographs of Trayvon Martin and George Zimmerman, 2012 • Protesting the Case,
2012 • THE NATION, Trayvon Martin: Guilty ofBeing Blaek, 2012 • JESSE WASHINGTON,
Trayvon Martin, My Son, and the Blaek Male Code, 2012 • Autopsy Report, 2012 •
Neighborhood Wateh Program Poster, 2012 • Florida's "Stand Your Ground" Law, 2011
VISUAl SOURCES:
First Lady Michelle Obama
824
2008 • Ihe Polities of
Fear,2008 • White House Family Portrait, 2009 • White House Governors' Dinner,
2009 • Miehelle 0, 2009 • Let's Move! Campaign, 2011
Michelle Obama Speaking at the Democratic
Notes 830 • Suggested References
National Convention,
831
xxxviii
CONTENTS
A-1
Appendix: Documents
The Declaration
America
[1863]
ofIndependence
• Amendments
• The Constitution
to the Constitution
Proclarnation
• Presidents of the United States • Selected Legislative Acts • Selected
Supreme Court Decisions
• Selected Speeches and Letters
Appendix: Tables and Charts
AfricanAmerican
Educational
Population
Attainment
A-48
ofthe United States, 1790-2010
States, 1960-2010
African American Regional Distribution,
1-1
G-1
Rates in the United
• Educational Attainment
• African American Occupational
Glossary of Key Terms
• AfricanAmerican
in the United States, 2011 • Unemployment
States by Race and Hispanic Origin, 2005-2010
Index
of the United States of
• The Emancipation
1850-2010
Distribution,
in the United
1900 and 2010 •