Vocabulary and Spelling Handbook
By learning and practicing vocabulary strategies,
you’ll know what to do when you encounter
unfamiliar words while reading. You’ll also know
how to refine the words you use for different
situations—personal, school, and work.
Being a good speller is important when communicating your ideas in writing. Learning basic spelling
rules and checking your spelling in a dictionary will
help you spell words that you may not use frequently.
1 Using Context Clues
The context of a word is made up of the
punctuation marks, words, sentences, and
paragraphs that surround the word. A word’s
context can give you clues about its meaning.
1.1
general context
Sometimes you need to infer the meaning of an
unfamiliar word by reading the entire passage.
After twelve hours without food, I was so
ravenous that I ate four slices of pizza, two bowls
of cereal, and an ice-cream sundae.
You can figure out from the context that ravenous
means “extremely hungry.”
1.2
vocabulary practice
For more practice, go to the Vocabulary Center at
ClassZone.com.
That’s a really cool backpack that you’re wearing.
(slang; means “excellent” or “first-rate”)
I was angry. Heat rose under my skin until I felt
as if searing flames were threatening to engulf
my whole body. ( figurative language; hot skin
and flames symbolize anger)
Specific Context Clues
Type of Clue
Key Words/
Phrases
Example
Definition or
restatement of
the meaning of
the word
or, which is, that
is, in other words,
also known as,
also called
His first
conjecture,
or guess, was
correct.
Example
following an
unfamiliar word
such as, like, as
if, for example,
especially,
including
She loved
macabre stories,
such as those
by Edgar Allan
Poe and Stephen
King.
Comparison with
a more familiar
word or concept
as, like, also,
similar to, in
the same way,
likewise
Despite his
physical
suffering, his
mind was as lucid
as any rational
person’s.
Contrast with a
familiar word or
experience
unlike, but,
however,
although, on the
other hand, on
the contrary
Unlike her clumsy
partner, she was
an agile dancer.
Cause-and-effect
relationship in
which one term
is familiar
because,
since, when,
consequently, as
a result, therefore
Because this
perfume has such
a sharp scent, I
will buy the one
with a subtle
fragrance.
specific context clues
Sometimes writers help you understand the
meanings of words by providing specific clues such
as those shown in the chart.
1.3
86A>;DGC>6
Included in this handbook as indicated: R1.1
(pgs. R69–R72), R1.2 (p. R71), R1.3 (p. R70), LC1.4
(pgs. R72–R75)
idioms, slang, and figurative
language
An idiom is an expression whose overall meaning
is different from the meaning of the individual
words. Slang is informal language in which madeup words and ordinary words are used to mean
something different from their meanings in formal
English. Figurative language is language that
communicates meaning beyond the literal meaning
of the words. Use context clues to figure out the
meanings of idioms, slang, and figurative language.
The mosquitoes drove us crazy on our hike
through the woods. (idiom; means “bothered”)
R68
vocabulary and spelling handbook
For more information, see Vocabulary Strategy: Using
Context Clues, pages 371 and 457.
2 Analyzing Word Structure
Many words can be broken into smaller parts.
These word parts include base words, roots,
prefixes, and suffixes.
2.1
base words
A base word is a word part that by itself is also a
word. Other words or word parts can be added
to base words to form new words.
2.2
roots
A root is a word part that contains the core
meaning of the word. Many English words contain
roots that come from older languages such as
Greek, Latin, Old English (Anglo-Saxon), and Norse.
Knowing the meaning of the word’s root can help
you determine the word’s meaning.
Root
Meaning
Examples
bi (Greek)
life
biography
gramm (Greek)
letter, something
written
grammar
grad (Latin)
step, degree
graduate
man (Latin)
hand
manual
headfod (Old
English)
head, top
headfirst
For more information, see Vocabulary Strategy: Word Roots,
pages 49, 204, 340, 532, and 555.
2.3
prefixes
A prefix is a word part attached to the beginning
of a word. Most prefixes come from Greek, Latin,
or Old English.
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
pre-
before
preschool
ex-
out, from
extend
re-
again, back
return
For more information, see Vocabulary Strategy: Prefixes,
page 92.
2.4
suffixes
A suffix is a word part that appears at the end of
a root or base word to form a new word. Some
suffixes do not change word meaning. These
suffixes are
• added to nouns to change the number of
persons or objects
• added to verbs to change the tense
• added to modifiers to change the degree of
comparison
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-s, -es
to change the number snack + s = snacks
of a noun
-d, -ed, -ing
to change verb tense
walk + ed = walked
-er, -est
to change the degree
of comparison in
modifiers
wild + er = wilder
fast + est = fastest
Other suffixes can be added to a root or base to
change the word’s meaning. These suffixes can
also determine a word’s part of speech.
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-age
action or process
pilgrimage
-able
ability
enjoyable
-ize
to make
criticize
For more information, see Vocabulary Strategy: Suffixes,
page 421.
Strategies for Understanding Unfamiliar
Words
• Look for any prefixes or suffixes. Remove them
to isolate the base word or the root.
• See if you recognize any elements—prefix,
suffix, root, or base—of the word. You may be
able to guess its meaning by analyzing one or
two elements.
• Consider the way the word is used in the
sentence. Use the context and the word parts to
make a logical guess about the word’s meaning.
• Consult a dictionary to see whether you
are correct.
vocabulary and spelling handbook
R69
3 Understanding Word Origins
3.3
The English language includes many words from
classical mythology. You can use your knowledge
of Greek, Roman, and Norse myths to understand
the origins and meanings of these words. For
example, herculean task refers to the strongman
Hercules. Thus herculean task probably means “a
job that is large or difficult.” The chart shows a
few common words from mythology.
etymologies
3.1
Etymologies show the origin and historical
development of a word. When you study a word’s
history and origin, you can find out when, where,
and how the word came to be.
dra•ma (dräPmE) n. 1. A work that is meant to be
performed by actors. 2. Theatrical works of a certain
type or period in history. [Late Latin drama,
dramat-,
- to do or perform.]
from Greek dran,
for•mi•car•y (fôrPmG-kDrQC) n., pl. -ies A nest of ants;
- arium,
an anthill. [Medieval Latin formic
from Latin
formica, ant.]
2
lock (lJk) n. 1a. A length or curl of hair; a tress. b.
The hair of the head. Often used in the plural. 2.
A small wisp or tuft, as of wool or cotton. [Middle
English, from Old English locc.]
3.4
word families
Words that have the same root make up a word
family and have related meanings. The chart
shows a common Greek and a common Latin root.
Notice how the meanings of the example words
are related to the meanings of their roots.
Latin Root
vid, vis: “see”
English
vision eyesight
Roman
Norse
Achilles’ heel
academy
Thursday
pandemonium
volcano
berserk
muse
cupid
rune
Midas touch
floral
valkyrie
foreign words
French
Dutch
Spanish
Italian
ballet
boss
canyon
diva
beret
caboose
rodeo
carnival
mirage
dock
salsa
spaghetti
video visual portion of a
televised broadcast
4 Synonyms and Antonyms
visible possible to see
4.1
Greek Root
phone: “sound”
English
homophone word that sounds
like another word
phonetics the study of speech
sounds
telephone a device that converts
voice into a form that can be
transmitted as sound waves
For more information, see Vocabulary Strategy: Word Family,
pages 131 and 354.
R70
Greek
The English language has grown to include words
from diverse languages such as French, Dutch,
Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, and Chinese. Many
of these words stayed the way they were in their
original languages.
For more information, see Vocabulary Strategy:
Etymologies, page 282.
3.2
words from classical mythology
vocabulary and spelling handbook
synonyms
A synonym is a word with a meaning similar to
that of another word. You can find synonyms
in a thesaurus or a dictionary. In a dictionary,
synonyms are often given as part of the definition
of the word. The following word pairs are
synonyms:
happy/joyful
sad/unhappy
angry/mad
beautiful/lovely