Current Status and Future Potential
of the Multi-pollutant Approach to Air
Pollution Control in Japan, China,
and South Korea
○Mark Elder* ・ Naoko Matsumoto* ・ Akira Ogihara**
Mika Shimizu*・ Andrew Boyd*・ Xinyan Lin*・ Sunhee Suk***
Prepared for the 18th Annual Meeting of the Society for
Environmental Economics and Policy Studies (SEEPS), Kobe
Japan, September 21-22, 2013
July 31, 2013
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies
*
**
***
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)
2108-11 Kamiyamaguchi, Hayama, Kanagawa 240-0115 Japan
Kawasaki Environment Research Institute, City of Kawasaki
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)/ Kansai Research Centre
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
Current Status and Future Potential of the
Multi-pollutant Approach to Air Pollution Control in
Japan, China, and South Korea
Contents
I.
Introduction............................................................................................................... 3
II.
Concepts and Classification of Multi-pollutant and Multi-effect Approaches ...... 9
III.
Japan’s VOC Emission Reduction Policy – Implications for the Multi-Pollutant
Multi-Effect Approach ..........................................................................................23
IV.
V.
China’s Multi-pollutant Control – Co-Control of Air Pollution ............................35
Air Pollution Policies Related to the Multi-Pollutant Multi-Effect Approach under
Green Growth in South Korea .................................................................................42
VI.
Conclusion ............................................................................................................49
VII.
Acknowledgements ...............................................................................................52
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
I.
Introduction
1. Purpose of this study
Air pollution is now high on the policy agenda in East Asia following severe air
pollution episodes in late 2012 and early 2013. The Chinese government has been
adopted various domestic measures to strengthen air pollution control, and the State
Council highlighted 10 of these measures in June 2013. Concerns regarding air
pollution have been raised in neighboring countries as well and interest in international
cooperation is growing. For example, the governments of China, Japan, and South
Korea recently agreed to strengthen cooperation on air pollution at the Tripartite
Environment Ministers Meeting (TEMM) among the three countries in May 2013 after
recent severe air pollution episodes in China attracted global attention. Article 8 of the
TEMM Joint Communiqué declares that the ministers agreed to “newly establish the
Tripartite Policy Dialogue on Air Pollution for exchanging information on related
policies, technologies for monitoring, prevention and control technologies, research,
capacity building and international cooperation, and for consideration of future
cooperation.” 1 While this cooperation could take many forms, one possible element
could be to adopt a multi-pollutant multi-effect (MPME) approach (Suzuki (2013).
The purpose of this study is to assess the extent to which selected East Asian countries
are already adopting a multi-pollutant multi-effect (MPME) approach to air pollution
control or certain key aspects of it, and what would be required to further promote
implementation of this approach. In doing so, this study will clarify the different
elements of a MPME approach and compare the extent to which case study countries
have adopted these different components. Finally, it will consider how strengthened
international cooperation might facilitate more advanced implementation of a MPME
approach in East Asia.
The MPME approach is considered necessary in order to deal with an increasing
number of pollutants, the complexity of their interactions, and the growing importance
of secondary pollutants which are formed these complex interactions. A firm
Joint Communiqué, The 15th Tripartite Environment Ministers Meeting Among
Japan, Korea and China, May 5-6, 2013, Kitakyushu, Japan
<http://www.temm.org/sub03/11.jsp?commid=TEMM15> (accessed on 29 July).
1
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Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
understanding of these interactions is increasingly necessary to secure the effectiveness
of air pollution control policies, since the composition of complex air pollution varies
significantly both within and between countries. The MPME approach is based on
scientific assessment of the complex interaction among pollutants as well as their
complex effects on human health and ecosystems, so it enables a more holistic and
integrated approach. This is not only more effective, but it also increases the cost
effectiveness of reduction measures. The traditional approach of addressing each air
pollutant individually is less effective and more costly. A certain level of research
capability is necessary in order to conduct these analyses, and is an important
foundation for the MPME approach.
One of the leading examples of the MPME approach is the Convention on Long-range
Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) centered in Europe. LRTAP has been considered
to be a reasonably successful framework for air pollution control, and Agenda 21 states
that “[Europe’s] experience needs to be shared with other regions of the world”
(Takahashi 2000).
Since East Asia is suffering from increasingly severe air pollution which is also
becoming more transboundary in nature, experts and policymakers have considered
whether LRTAP might also serve as a model for East Asia, although there are few
studies explicitly addressing this question. Of course the nature of air pollution
problems in East Asia and Europe are very different, as are the relevant political,
economic, social, and geographic conditions. Yet, it is possible that certain elements of
the LRTAP approach may be useful for East Asia, even if they are not packaged
together into a complex, legally binding treaty. Therefore, this paper will not take up the
overall question of whether the LRTAP framework could be applied to East Asia.
Instead, it will start by identifying one of the key features of LRTAP – the MPME
approach – which was originally employed in the Gothenburg Protocol adopted in 1999
(Simpson and Eliassen 1999), and examine the extent to which selected key countries
are already adopting certain elements of this approach.
One of the main objectives of this paper is to clarify the different conceptions and
elements of the MPME approach. The LRTAP approach is a commonly accepted
version, but the concept is understood in different ways by different studies and in
different countries. Moreover, when the domestic air pollution policy frameworks of
non-LRTAP countries are analyzed to assess the extent to which they are following an
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
LRTAP-style MPME approach, it becomes readily apparent that there are several stages
even of the LRTAP type MPME approach. In particular, it seems useful to distinguish
between the multi-pollutant and multi-effect aspects.
This paper finds that key East Asian countries, including China, are already starting to
shift away from single pollutant approaches. These new approaches have been described
in various ways, and they have not been specifically labeled as an MPME approach.
However, a close examination of these policies and related policy discussions indicates
that the case study countries are considering or implementing certain aspects of the
MPME approach. China, in particular, is on the road to developing a domestic
LRTAP-type MPME framework to address domestic transboundary air pollution
between provinces in the long term. This further suggests that an LRTAP approach
might be implemented domestically by individual countries in stages without the need
for a legally binding agreement. International cooperation would still be helpful to
coordinate common methodologies and promote the development of related
implementation capacity.
This paper focuses mostly on the multi-pollutant aspects, although it addresses
multi-effects aspects to some extent. There are two reasons for this. First, a
multi-pollutant approach is the first priority since it is a prerequisite for a multi-effects
approach. Second, the policy trends in the three case study countries are mostly related
to the multi-pollutant aspect, although the three cases have also made significant
progress in developing research capability related to multi-effects.
2. Overview of the status of Air Pollution in East Asia and need for a
multi-pollutant approach
In the 1990s, Asia surpassed North America and Europe in terms of nitrogen oxide
emissions (Akimoto 2003). As the Asian economies have grown, emissions of air
pollutants from the region have also grown rapidly. A recent study by the Clean Air
Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center (2012), based on the air quality data for
234 Asian cities 2, indicated that, while some improvements in air quality have been
achieved in nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) levels, levels of particulate
matter with a diameter of 10 micrometers or less (PM10) and SO2 continue to exceed
World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines (AQG). The report also
2
This does not include data from Japanese cities.
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Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
identified that there is not enough air quality data to assess particulate matter with a
diameter of 2.5 micrometers or less (PM2.5) and ozone.
Asian countries have made efforts to protect public health from the adverse effects of air
pollution through various policy measures including setting ambient air quality
standards, and adopting emission controls on both stationary sources and mobile
sources. The major targets of those efforts have been primary pollutants, which are
directly emitted from a source in to the atmosphere such as sulphur oxides (SOX),
nitrogen oxides (NOX), and carbon monoxide (CO) (UNECE 2010).
While the efforts to reduce the primary pollutants have led to some improvements, the
current status of the concentrations of secondary pollutants such as ozone and PM
remain unsolved or even getting worse in East Asia. The severity of such pollution is
increasing in China, and excessive high concentration incidents of PM2.5 have
“generated public outcry and many citizens are urging the government to adopt the new
legislation” (Meng 2013). However, the air quality data on ozone and PM2.5 is still at
an early stage of development and there is not enough data for analysis (Clean Air
Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center 2012). Emissions that affect ozone and PM
concentrations in the atmosphere are SO2, NOX, non-methane volatile organic
compounds (NMVOC), ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), organic carbon (OC), black
carbon (BC) and CO.
Therefore, to tackle the emerging secondary pollutant issues, policy measures
encompassing multiple-pollutants are imperative. In addition the multi-effects approach
is also becoming more important as it becomes clear that multiple pollutants have
multiple effects on human health as well as various aspects of the environment.
Linkages between air pollution and climate change are also becoming more important.
Adoption of a more comprehensive MPME approach, combining both multiple
pollutants and multiple effects, will be necessary to increase the cost effectiveness of
reduction measures. These issues are further complicated by scientific evidence of the
long range transport of those secondary pollutants (UNECE 2010), underlining the
desirability of strengthened international cooperation.
3. Research Questions and Structure
Thus, this report addresses the following questions:
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
1) What are the main components of a multi-pollutant multi-effect approach? To
what extent are case study countries already pursuing multi-pollutant and
multi-effect approaches?
2) What kinds of capacities or institutions or administrative mechanisms are
necessary to implementing multi-pollutant multi-effect approaches in countries?
Which ones are currently used, and what kind of gaps exist?
3) What needs to be done (or can be done) from the perspective of international
cooperation in implementing multi-pollutant multi-effect approaches?
Following this introduction, Section 2 reviews the concept of multi-pollutant
multi-effect approach and classifies the main elements of the concept to enable a rough
comparison of the case study countries in terms of the extent to which they are adopting
some elements of this approach. Sections 3 to 5 present case studies from a few Asian
countries to identify their current status in terms of the MPME perspective, and they
draw policy implications for the future application of multi-pollutant approach to the air
quality policy. The final chapter provides a comparative analysis of the case studies and
discusses the possible ways forward for air quality policies in Asia not only from the
viewpoint of domestic policies but also from the perspective of international
cooperation.
References
Akimoto, Hajime. 2003. Global Air Quality and Pollution. Science (302):1716-1719.
CCICED. 2012. CCIED Special Policy Study Executive Report: Regional Air Quality
Integrated Control System Research (Submitted to CCICED Annual General
meeting 2012, December 12-14, 2012).
Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center. 2012. Air Quality in Asia:
Status and Trends - 2010 Edition. Pasig City, Philippines.
Lawrence, Ted, Carl Mas, Sandra Meier, Gary Klieman, and Leah Weiss. 2012.
“Applying the Multi-Pollutant Policy Analysis Framework to New York: An
7
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
Integrated Approach to Future Air Quality Planning”. Northeast States for
Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM).
http://www.nescaum.org/documents/applying-the-multi-pollutant-policy-analysi
s-framework-to-new-york-an-integrated-approach-to-future-air-quality-plannin
g/.
Meng, Jiao. 2013. Law amendment urged to combat air pollution, 22 February 2013
[cited 5 March 2013]. Available from
http://www.china.org.cn/environment/2013-02/22/content_28031626.htm.
National Academy of Sciences. 2004. “Air Quality Management in the United States.”
National Research Council.
Secretariat for the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (1999,
revised 2002) Brochure on the Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication
and Ground-level Ozone. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe,
Geneva.
Simpson, D., and A. Eliassen. 1999. Tackling multi-pollutant multi-effect problems -an iterative approach. The Science of The Total Environment 234 (1-3):43-58.
Suzuki, K. (2013). Towards Better Air Quality Management in Asia. Presented at
International Forum for Sustainable Asia and Pacific 2013 (ISAP), July 23,
Yokohama, Japan.
Takahashi, Wakana. 2000. Formation of an East Asian Regime for Acid Rain Control:
The Perspective of Comparative Regionalism. International Review for
Environmental Strategies 1 (1):97-117.
UNECE. 2010. Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution 2010 – Part A: Ozone and
Particulate Matter. Edited by F. Dentener, T. Keating and H. Akimoto, Air
Pollution Studies No. 17. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
Wu, W. (2013, June 15). Ten steps taken to curb air pollution. China Daily. Retrieved
from http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2013-06/15/content_16623955.htm
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
II.
Concepts and Classification of Multi-pollutant and
Multi-effect Approaches
1. The Concept of MPME
There are numerous natural science based studies developing various models to analyze
the interactions between multiple air pollutants as well as multiple effects. These studies
may occasionally make specific policy recommendations based on the results (e.g. for
stricter standards). However, they generally do not address the MPME approach as a
coherent, systematic approach to influence policy, or its explicit incorporation into a
domestic policy or international treaty structure.
Much of the discussion from the policy perspective comes from two sources,
discussions and explanations of LRTAP’s Gothenburg Protocol, and discussions around
USEPA’s efforts to promote a similar system in the US. Discussions of the Gothenburg
Protocol generally consider MPME as an integrated system and it is closely associated
with the legally binding LRTAP treaty. The USEPA uses a different terminology,
calling it a multi-pollutant approach, although its long run intention seems to be similar
to LRTAP’s MPME approach including multi-effects. The term “multi-pollutant”
approach rather than MPME is used by a recent academic study, although multi-effects
are incorporated in the authors’ concept, and it appears to focus more on the scientific
analysis rather than classifying actual policy systems. (Hidy 2011). This section will
infer the key elements of the MPME approach by directly analyzing the components of
the Goethenburg Protocol as well as discussions around USEPA’s efforts in the US.
2. The Gothenburg Protocol
On 30 November 1999, in Gothenburg, a protocol was adopted within the framework of
the LRTAP, which employs “new and innovative multi-pollutant and multi-effects”. In
contrast to earlier LRTAP protocols, which targeted a single substance (e.g., SO2) or one
main environmental effect (e.g., acidification) at a time, the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol
targets four substances (multi-pollutants) —NOX , volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
SO2, NH3)— and three effects (multi-effects) acidification, tropospheric ozone
formation, and eutrophication (Wettestad 2002). The Protocol, aiming to abate the
specified multi-effects, sets emission ceilings to be met by the year 2010 for the four
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Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
pollutants. Those ceilings are mandatory and differ from country to country. The
commitment of each country was decided through negotiation strongly guided by the
results of an integrated assessment model, which estimated the emission reductions
required of each country based on information regarding impacts on ecosystems,
deposition patterns, and abatement costs. The concept map of the multi-pollutant
multi-effect approach in the LRTAP is shown in Figure 1. (Secretariat for the
Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution 1999, revised 2002).
SURFACE
WATERS
TERRESTRIAL
ECOSYSTEMS
SO2
ACIDIFICATION
MARINE
ECOSYSTEMS
NOX
EUTROPHICATION
NH3
VOCs
GROUND-LEVEL
OZONE
YIELD LOSSES
(crop and forests)
HUMAN
HEALTH
MATERIALS
（Source: Secretariat for the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution 1999, revised 2002）
Figure 1.1 Concept map of the multi-effect and multi-pollutant approach in the
Gothenburg Protocol of LRTAP
The MPME approach of LRTAP’s Gothenburg Protocol is considered to be the first
major case of its implementation in a legally binding international treaty (Sliggers and
Kakebeeke 2004). It is has two main dimensions. First, it is a system of scientific
analysis which assesses the interactions among pollutants as well as their effects.
Second, this scientific system is integrated into the Protocol’s implementation
framework, essentially as a policy. There are five main components as follows.
a. Multiple pollutants. The LRTAP members originally chose four pollutants. It
was considered important to consider them together, because their interactions
were important to addressing the targeted effects.
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
b. Multiple effects. The goal of the LRTAP members was to address three main
effects, which in turn impacted various ecosystems, crop yields, materials, and
human health.
c. Models to calculate the interactions among pollutants, as well as their effects.
d. Models to calculate the most cost effective ways to meet the targets.
e. Scientific analysis and models contributed to setting the emission ceilings.
These components are not just a system of scientific analysis, but they are also fully
integrated into the Protocol and its implementation structure, as the designated
pollutants and effects are continually monitored and modeled by implementing bodies.
Modeling of the transboundary flows of air pollution contributed to setting the reduction
targets, which were finally determined by political negotiations, and the targets were
legally binding, but these aspects of LRTAP are analytically separate from the MPME
aspect.
It is also important to emphasize that MPME analysis is necessary to optimize the
effectiveness and costs of reduction strategies. It can more accurately determine
acceptable levels of pollution for human and environmental health, help to evaluate
pollution management priorities, help to balance between environmental and human
health priorities and other tradeoffs.
The scope of the MPME approach of the Gothenburg Protocol is considered to be quite
broad. Nevertheless, it is by no means comprehensive. After the Gothenburg Protocol, it
was decided to extend the multi-pollutant, multi-effect approach further and try to link
the transboundary air pollution problem with the health risks of air pollution at the local
level (Sliggers and Kakebeeke, 2004). In 2012, following years of wide-ranging and
intense negotiations, the parties agreed to amend Gothenburg Protocol to include
emission reduction commitments for fine particulate matter (PM) for the first time.
3. United States
While LRTAP developed its secondary pollutant protocols alongside the development
of an MPME approach, the United States already established reduction goals and
strategies for complex chemicals like Ozone and PM2.5 before an MPME approach was
articulated. The National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) is the national
regulatory framework for air pollution control in the United States and limits for Ozone,
NO2, and Sulfur were set simultaneously in 1971. While NAAQS determines air quality
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Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
standards, planning and implementation of reduction strategies are delegated to state
governments. The implication of this division for management of a secondary pollutant
like Ozone is that the national framework only minimally acknowledges the
significance of primary pollutants when calculating secondary pollutant reduction goals.
The Ozone NAAQS contains minimal discussion of VOCs or NOx so the root cause of
Ozone production and reduction is lacking in focus (2009). Conversely the NOx
NAAQS only evaluates the inherent toxicity of NO2 and its role in O3 formation is not
discussed. Finally, the simultaneous evaluation of pollutant goals is hindered because
the NAAQS review process accommodates one pollutant per year. This precludes any
evaluation of synergies between pollutant combinations (Hidy 2011).
While this division of responsibility and top-down delegation of ambient standards has
resulted in administrative rigidity in the United States, the relative autonomy of state
and municipal authorities in carrying out State Implementation Plans (SIPs) allows for
reduction goals beyond those mandated by the federal government, an encouragement
of cost effective solutions, and the freedom to implement novel reduction strategies
such as MPME. 3 Autonomy of reduction strategies at the state level is advantageous
because comprehensive and effective management of secondary pollutants often
requires a localized strategy.
The US Environmental Protection Agency has tried to consider how the MPME
approach could be implemented in the US since the 1990s. Since the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1990, the traditional approach has been one pollutant at a time (USEPA
2008) although multiple pollutants were covered. In 2004 National Academy of
Sciences (2004) called for “modifying current air quality management practices to
integrate assessment, planning, and implementation efforts across all air quality and
environmental issues—that is, a multi-pollutant (and multimedia) focus” (USEPA 2008).
Napolitano, et. al. (2009) describe a series of unsuccessful efforts to develop a
multi-pollutant approach for the electric power sector by Congress from the 1990s, and
the EPA’s regulatory efforts in the 2000s, which were overturned by the courts; the
For an example, see New York State Department of Environmental Conservation,
Division of Air Resources, (2009). A Conceptual Model for the Development of An Air
Quality Management Plan for the State of New York. D. o. A. Resources; Wesson, K., et
al. (2010). "A Multi-pollutant, risk-based approach to air quality management: Case
study for Detroit." Atmospheric Pollution Research: 296-304; and New York State
Energy Research and Development Authority, (2012). Applying the Multi-Pollutant
Policy Analysis Framework to New York: An Integrated Approach to Future Air Quality
Planning. Albany, NY.
3
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
article tries to persuade stakeholders that a multipollutant approach will be more cost
effective.
Although the USEPA uses the term “multi-pollutant” approach, rather than the term
MPME, it is clear that the USEPA’s approach includes both multi-pollutant and
multi-effects aspects. USEPA’s efforts to develop this approach include both modeling
development and pilot projects in various cities such as Detroit (USEPA 2008). Thus,
the US is currently developing the scientific analytical capability for an MPME
approach, and it is in the process of integrating it into domestic air pollution policies,
but this process still appears to be in relatively early stages.
4. Synthesis Definition and Application to Policy
Among the varying definitions, a common theme is an understanding of interactions
between anthropogenic pollutants in the atmosphere and their effects on human health
and ecosystems. Even if modelling and reductions strategies exist for several different
pollutants individually, they may not necessarily be integrated in an MPME approach
without equal consideration of the interactions and synergies between pollutants. The
extent to which it is actually used in policy decisions varies, as does the scope of
pollutants and effects covered, and the depth and sophistication of the scientific
analysis.
Now it becomes clear that countries or groups of countries considering whether to adopt
this approach can choose to select only certain components, or they may modify the
components; it is not necessary to adopt the entire system all at once. First, countries
may begin with scientific studies and developing models first, before integrating them
into a domestic policy or international treaty framework. Second, alternatively,
countries without sufficient scientific capability may adopt a policy system based on a
scientific MPME framework (or parts of such a framework) developed elsewhere. Third,
countries might select different pollutants. Fourth, countries might focus on different
effects. Fourth, countries might use a variety of models, or again, instead of developing
their own models, they may directly adopt a MPME-based policy system (or parts of it)
developed elsewhere. Fifth, countries might introduce the MPME approach in a
stepwise manner, rather than all at once, starting with a subset of pollutants, application
to a specific industrial sector, or pilot areas such as a cities or subregions.
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Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
Finally, multi-pollutant and multi-effect aspects are analytically separate, and countries
may adopt aspects of the multi-pollutant approach before progressing on the
multi-effects aspects. In particular, countries may integrate multi-pollutant aspects into
actual policy before relying on multi-effect types of analysis, and governments may
support multi-effect research capability before integrating it into the policymaking
process. A more detailed classification of the different elements of multi-pollutant and
multi-effect approaches is made in the next section.
5. Phases of Transition
The transition from a single pollutant control approach to a multipollutant approach is
summarized in a four step process which is presented below in Table 1.1. The transition
from a single-effect approach to a multi-effect approach in the LRTAP example is
illustrated in Table 1.2 and the combination of multi-pollutant and multi-effect phases
are compared in Table 1.3. This can be considered to illustrate a possible pathway to a
more comprehensive and unified MPME approach.
5.1. Transition from a Single Pollutant to a Multi-pollutant Approach
Single Pollutant Control Phase 1 – Managing Direct Toxicants and Simple Secondary
Pollutants Individually
Domestic air pollution regimes typically began with a focus on primary pollutants with
direct negative effects on environment or health. These pollutants known as direct
toxicants include NO2, Sulfur, VOC, Heavy Metals, and Hazardous Pollutants (HAPs) 4.
Slightly more complicated are secondary pollutants formed from only one
anthropogenic precursor. These include NOx or SOx in the formation of acid
deposition.
Single Pollutant Control Phase 2 – Managing Complex Secondary Pollutants Through
One Primary Pollutant
Secondary pollutants including Ozone and PM2.5 are more complicated to control
because they are formed from multiple anthropogenic precursors. Management
frameworks historically begin addressing the problem partially through single pollutant
management of the precursors (Hidy 2011). LRTAP’s VOC Protocol (1991) took this
Examples include the London Smog and regulations of criteria air pollutants in the
United States.
4
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
approach for ozone management by focusing on VOC control. Reductions in one
primary pollutant are not coordinated with the others. Japan’s recent VOC reductions
for the purpose of Ozone control also follow this approach.
Multipollutant Control Phase 1 – Managing a Secondary Pollutant through Multiple
Primary Pollutants
Effective control of secondary pollutants with multiple anthropogenic precursors such
as Ozone and PM2.5 requires a significant increase in understanding of atmospheric
chemistry and adjustment of administrative capacity to identify and compare multiple
scenarios for abatement. In this phase, reduction of a secondary pollutant is dealt with
comprehensively by controlling the corresponding primary pollutants.
The 1991 VOC Protocol acknowledged the limitations of a single pollutant approach to
Ozone control by mandating later negotiations to incorporate NOx and VOC
simultaneously in Article 2.6 (LRTAP VOC, 1991 Article 2.6). Article 2.6 provided a
formal basis for the simultaneous evaluation of NOx and VOC in what became the
Gothenburg Protocol. 5 While the prioritization of Ozone showed that a single pollutant
approach was inadequate, it also led to a new policy framework to address multiple
effects because its primary pollutant NOx is also a component of acidification. NOx
was first addressed by LRTAP in the 1988 protocol to abate acidification. A subsequent
revision expanded the protocol to incorporate critical levels for ozone as well as
eutrophication (Sliggers and Kakebeeke 2004). The Gothenburg Protocol was therefore
expanded to incorporate the already existing multi-effect framework. The inertia of
MPME resulted in inclusion of sulfur for acidification and Amonia (NH3) (Sliggers and
Kakebeeke 2004). It is clear from this development that the challenge of managing
Ozone as a secondary pollutant with multiple anthropogenic precursors initiated an
MPME framework. The multi-pollutant and multi-effect approaches were merged in the
Gothenburg Protocol.
Phase 1 control of PM2.5 requires a complex understanding of the pollutant’s regional
specificity. As this mixture pollutant can have variable composition, a detailed analysis
of the prominent primary pollutants and the photochemical interactions that lead to the
specific mixture must be well documented. Korea is an example where much of this
The text of the Gothenburg Protocol is available at
http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%20Multi.e.pdf
(accessed July 30, 2013).
5
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Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
preliminary knowledge is understood leaving much potential for comprehensive
implementation of MPME.
Multipollutant Control Phase 2 -- Managing Multiple Secondary Pollutants and
Toxicants In an Integrated Way
In this phase, reductions in all designated secondary pollutants as well as direct
toxicants are planned simultaneously. Adequate comparison between different control
strategies must be conducted without constraint to a particular outcome (Hiddy, 2011).
While an Integrated Assessment Model can synthesize the diverse scientific knowledge
needed to form policy decisions, iterative discussions are necessary between policy
makers and scientific communities to compare geographically specific priorities and
political realities with multiple reduction scenarios (Sliggers and Kakebeeke 2004).
Nevertheless, while the Gothenburg Protocol was a major advance compared to the
LRTAP VOC Protocol, it still did not cover all air pollutants comprehensively. It was
not until the Gothenburg Revision of 2007 that the more variable secondary particulate
matter (PM2.5) was addressed. The possibility of including greenhouse gasses was also
discussed, but these are still not incorporated into the Gothenburg Protocol.
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
Table 1.1 Transition from a Single Pollutant to a Multi-pollutant Approach
Control Strategy
Description
Example
Direct Toxicants (NO2, Sulfur,
VOC, Heavy Metals),
Managing one or more primary pollutants
Single
precursors for simple secondary
Phase 1
individually
Pollutant
pollutuants (Nox and Sulfur for
Control
acid control)
Managing complex secondary pollutants through
VOC or Nox for Ozone control
Phase 2
one primary pollutant
Multi
Managing a secondary pollutant through multiple
VOC and Nox for Ozone control,
primary pollutants
Sulfur for PM2.5 control
Managing multiple secondary pollutants and
Simultaneous Ozone and PM
toxicants in an integrated way
management
Phase 1
Pollutant
Control
Phase 2
5.2. Transition from Single Effects to Multiple Effects
The transition from a single-effect to a multi-effect approach is mainly related to the
desirability of addressing multiple negative impacts of air pollution, including various
health and environmental impacts, and the fact that individual pollutants may have more
than one kind of negative impact.
It is very important to note that movement towards a multi-effect approach requires
significant advances in scientific capacity, since combining the analysis of interactions
between pollutants with analysis of multiple effects is highly complex. Moreover,
analysis of the geographic movement of pollutants is also necessary to analyze multiple
effects.
Example of the transition to multiple effects in the LRTAP Gothenburg Protocol
There are two other dimensions to the multi-effect aspect which are often discussed in
terms of the Gothenburg Protocol. The first is the extent to which related scientific
knowledge was actually incorporated into the policy and/or international agreement.
The second is the type of reduction targets that can be supported by the scientific
analysis. These aspects of LRTAP’s transition are summarized in Table 1.2.
17
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
Table 1.2 Transition from Single Effects to Multiple Effects in LRTAP
Stages of Effects
Type of reduction strategy
Degree of importance/input
into policy
Single Effects
Flat Rate
(Effects Supported)
Limited
(LRTAP 1985 Sulfur
Protocol)
Transition from Single to
Critical Loads
Multiple Effects
Higher
(LRTAP VOC Protocol
(Effect Based)
1991 & Sulfur Protocol
Revision 1994)
Multiple effects
Risk-based (advanced)
Highest
(Gothenburg Protocol 1999
& LRTAP NOX Revision)
The first phase of the single effect approach can be classified as effects supported. The
state of scientific knowledge is sufficient to identify some cause-effect relationship, but
it is not well developed enough to help create a detailed or geographically specific
strategy. Therefore, in the case of the first Sulfur Protocol of 1985, the member
countries agreed to equal or “flat rate” reductions. 6 The role of science in setting the
targets was limited.
The second phase can be described as effects supported. In this phase, the level of
scientific capability is higher, and it can play a more direct role in supporting the policy.
In the case of LRTAP, it led to the critical load approach. It could be used to analyze
The text of the protocol, “Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or Their
Transboundary Fluxes By at Least 30 Per Cent,” is available at
http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/lrtap/full%20text/1985.Sulphur.e.pdf
(accessed July 30, 2013)
6
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
single or multiple effects. By the next Sulfur Protocol of 1994, it was economically
unfeasible to require flat rate reductions and politically unviable to suggest reduction
goals without a firm scientific basis. This transition from “effects-supported” to
“effects-based” was predicated on establishing quantitative values for establishing an
acceptable level of pollution. These values, referred to as “critical loads” for ecosystems
and “critical levels” for human health (both will hereby be referred to as critical loads),
vary depending on the specificity of the region and are therefore reliant on
geographically referenced data. In the case of LRTAP, critical loads were synthesized
with emissions inventories, dispersal models, and reductions technology data in the
Task Force on Integrated Assessment Model to create multiple reduction scenarios.
These were presented to the Working Group on Strategies and were gradually refined
through an iterative discussion with the taskforce (Sliggers and Kakebeeke 2004). In the
case of LRTAP this meant that an effects-based strategy yielded different reduction
goals for each country based on the integrity and pollution tolerance of the effected
ecosystem. The 1994 Sulfur Protocol was the first instance of an effects-based reduction
strategy (Sliggers and Kakebeeke 2004).
The third phase, multiple effects, requires an even higher degree of scientific and
modeling capability to analyse the multiple effects of multiple pollutants. The
Gothenburg Protocol is considered the first example of this stage. The scientific analysis
played a major role in the overall structure and direction of the protocol. Although in
the end, the actual targets were decided based on political considerations, the use of
differentiated targets as well as the final target values were strongly informed by the
scientific analysis. Recent advanced science is moving in the direction of a more risk
based methodology for setting targets, but a critical load approach may also be used
with a multi-effect approach.
5.3. Combination of multi-pollutant and multi-effect aspects
The incorporation of interlinkages between greenhouse gasses and air pollutants,
including air pollution’s effects on climate change as well as climate change’s
amplification of pollution effects is a further step that can be incorporated in an MPME
approach. This would require a combination of both multi-pollutant and multi-effect
aspects.
Table 1.3 below illustrates how different phases of single/multiple effects progressed
with the transition to a multi-pollutant approach in LRTAP. It shows that in LRTAP, the
advancement of the multi-pollutant aspect generally progressed along with the transition
19
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
to multi-effects. The table also illustrates the possibility to add greenhouse gasses to the
list of designated pollutants, thereby expanding the multi-pollutant approach, as well as
moving to a risk-based approach for addressing effects, which has not yet been adopted
by LRTAP.
Table 1.3 Progression of MPME Implementation in LRTAP
Y axis denotes coverage of pollutants while X denotes the range of effects
Effects
Supported
Effect Based
LRTAP Sulfur
Protocol (1 9 8 5 )
LRTAP Sulfur
Re vision (1 9 9 4 )
Mult Effects
Based
Climate
Risk Based
Pol l utant Control
S1
S2
M1
M2
1
Direct Toxicant or acid
component
1
O3 or PM component
2
O3 or PM component
LRTAP VOC
Protocol (1 9 9 1 )
LRTAP NOX Re vision
Gothe nburg
Protocol (1 9 9 9 )
2+
O3, PM, Acid, component,
Toxicant etc.
Climate
Gothe nburg
Re vision (2 0 0 7 )
It is important to understand that the adoption of a multi-effect approach is analytically
separate from how the extent to which the effects analysis (regardless of single or
multiple effects) is used in the in the target setting process, or the nature of which
targets are adopted. Countries could develop capabilities of multi-effect analysis
without closely integrating it into the policymaking process. Likewise, a country could
decide to incorporate multi-effect analysis into the policymaking process but use flat
rate reduction targets or critical loads rather than a risk-based approach.
Countries without their own capability to conduct effects based analysis – regardless of
single or multiple effects – may adopt generic standards (such as critical loads) based on
such analysis recommended by organizations such as the United Nations World Health
Organization or from critical levels established for unrelated geographic contexts. This
may be adequate as a first step, but eventually analysis based on local conditions will be
necessary in order to maximize the cost-effectiveness of reduction strategies.
6. Necessary Implementation Capacity
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
Based on the example of the Gothenburg Protocol, considerable implementation
capacity is needed to implement the MPME approach, either as a system of scientific
analysis and/or as a policy system. This includes both scientific/technical capacity as
well as policy institutionalization.
Scientific capacity includes not only highly skilled human resources, but also the
relevant scientific equipment and modeling capability. Monitoring and data are also
essential. EU scientists developed this capability over many years, and it involves
several research institutes and universities. Data collection is institutionalized through
EMEP. Analysis of effects, particularly on human health and particularly in East Asia,
are still not fully understood, and advanced research on these topics is underway in
many areas. This kind of scientific capability is not easy for developed countries, and is
quite challenging for developing countries, which may need more international
assistance with capacity building.
The level of policy institutionalization is also high in the case of the Gothenburg
protocol, with a legally binding treaty. LRTAP implementation is also supported by the
EU, UNECE, as well as the member countries’ domestic legal frameworks. This level
of institutionalization may be difficult to reproduce in other regions.
References
Hidy, G. M. B., J.R.; Demerjian, K.L.; Molina, L.T.; Pennell, W.T.; Scheffe, R.D, Ed.
(2011). Technical Challenges of Multipollutant Air quality Managment, Springer.
Mauderly, J. S., Jonathan (2009). "Is There Evidence for Synergy Among air Pollutants
in Causing Health Effects?" Environmental Health Perspectives(January 2009): 1-6.
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Department of Air
Resources. (2009). A Conceptual Model for the Development of An Air Quality
Management Plan for the State of New York.
New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. (2012). Applying the
Multi-Pollutant Policy Analysis Framework to New York: An Integrated Approach to
Future Air Quality Planning. Albany, NY.
21
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
Sliggers, J. K., Willem (2004). Clearing the Air: 25 Years of the convention on
Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution. E. C. F. Europe. New York, United Nations.
Wesson, K., et al. (2010). "A Multi-pollutant, risk-based approach to air quality
management: Case study for Detroit." Atmospheric Pollution Research: 296-304.
UNECE. (2012). Press Release: Parties to UNECE Air Pollution Convention approve
new emission reduction commitments for main air pollutants by 2020. May 4
http://www.unece.org/index.php?id=29858 (accessed on July 29, 2013)
US Environmental Protection Agency. 2008. “The Multi-polltant Report: Technical
Concepts and Examples.”
http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/specialstudies/20080702_multipoll.pdf.
USEPA (2009). Integrated Review Plan for Ozone National Ambient Air Quality
Standards Review. E. M. A. G.-N. C. f. E. Assessment. Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
III. Japan’s VOC Emission Reduction Policy – Implications
for the Multi-Pollutant Multi-Effect Approach
1. Introduction
Japan successfully reduced air pollutant emissions in the 1970s and 1980s, and has
managed to keep the ambient air concentrations leveling off since then (OECD 2010).
The emission reduction measures including ambient air pollution standards and
emission standards were basically based on the single-pollutant approach, with the
standards and targets basically set for individual pollutants.
A need to adopt a new approach to incorporate a multi-pollutant perspective in the air
quality policy had not been widely recognized after the severe air pollution settled down,
while experts in the area of air pollution started to feel the need to address the issue
from multiple aspects. In the previous study by the author, one of the reasons identified
for the little interest in a multi-pollutant approach was the lack of urgency to employ
new policy approach in the air pollution control as Japan's regulations on individual air
pollutants have been considerably successful (Matsumoto 2012).
Meanwhile, there seem to have emerged a new policy trend for a multi-pollutant
approach in Japan, while not drawing so much public attention. An indicative change is
the restructuring of the expert committees under the Central Environment Council.
While the emission reduction of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) had been
deliberated within the Expert Committee on VOCs under the Atmospheric Environment
Committee, the VOC committee itself announced a recommendation to dissolve the
Committee and set up a new committee to comprehensively examine policies related
not only to VOCs but also to photochemical oxidants PM2.5 (VOC Expert Committee
2012). One of the backgrounds of this recommendation was the extremely low
attainment rate of EQS for photochemical oxidants (0% for the fiscal year 2010),
regardless of the significant reduction attained in the VOC emission, a precursor of
photochemical oxidants, from stationary sources.
This chapter focuses on the VOC emission reduction policy that seems to have played
an important role in the transition from single-pollutant approaches to a multi-pollutant
23
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
approach, and address the common research questions of this report, including: the
extent Japan already pursuing multi-pollutant multi-effect approaches; institutions that
are necessary to implementing multi-pollutant multi-effect approaches in Japan; and the
current status of such institutions and existing gaps.
2. Air pollution control during 1960-1990s
Japan experienced severe air pollution during the era of the rapid economic growth.
Problems related to human health and visibility became prominent and worse especially
since late 1950s. In order to address the problems, the Japanese national government
enacted the Air Pollution Control Law in 1968 and adopted various measures to reduce
emissions from both stationary and mobile sources. First, the country established
statutory ambient air environmental quality standards (EQS) for five major pollutants,
namely, sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), suspended particulate matter
(SPM) 7, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and photochemical oxidants. Second, stationary sources
were addressed through regulatory measures including strict emission standards and
total emission control programs launched for the specified areas with severe air
pollution. Third, to reduce mobile sources in the major urban areas, the Law Concerning
Special Measures to Reduce the Total Amount of Nitrogen Oxides Emitted from Motor
Vehicles in Specified Areas (Automobile NOX Law) was enacted in 1992. In 2001, by
adding particulate matter (PM) as another regulated pollutant, a new law was
established (Law Concerning Special Measures for Total Emission Reduction of
Nitrogen Oxides and Particulate Matter).
Local governments also played important roles in emissions reduction. Pollution
Control Agreements (kogai boshi kyotei), launched during the era of severe industrial
pollution, took the form of highly decentralized agreements between local authorities,
private firms and local residents’ groups. The local agreements often substantially
preceded rather than complement national regulation both in terms of stringency levels
and in types of pollution addressed (Tsutsumi 2001; Welch and Hibiki 2002). Local
governments in the designated areas of the national laws also supported national efforts
to curb emissions, such as the developing and implementing Total Emission Reduction
Plans stipulated in the Automobile NOX Law.
7 SPM defined in the Japan’s Basic Environment Law is particulate matter suspended in the atmosphere
with a diameter of 10 micrometers or less.
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
As a result, the compliance rates of the ambient air EQS have improved considerably
for SO2, NO2 and CO (OECD 2010). However, even in the early 2000s, the compliance
rates of the EQSs for SPM and photochemical oxidants remained low. Regarding SPM,
attainment rates of the EQS were 52.6% at ambient air pollution monitoring stations and
34.3% at roadside air pollution monitoring stations in the fiscal year (FY) 2002 (April 1,
2002 - March 31, 2003). As for photochemical oxidants, the frequency of
photochemical oxidant warnings, which are issued when one-hour value of the
concentration of photochemical oxidants is more than two times higher than the EQS
and was forecasted to continue due to weather condition, increased over years and the
total number of warnings during FY 2002 was 184 days in 23 different prefectures,
which was still equivalent to the level of mid-1970s. 8
Facing the stagnant high concentrations of SPM and photochemical oxidants, some
policy changes took place. First, SPM was added as a pollutant regulated in the major
urban areas which had been under the regulation by Automobile NOX Law, and the law
was replaced with a new law titled as the Law Concerning Special Measures for Total
Emission Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides and Particulate Matter).
Second, a policy to address VOC emissions from the stationary sources was adopted.
VOCs are one of the substances affecting the formation of both SPM and photochemical
oxidants. The precursors of the secondary particles of SPM include VOCs from
factories and vehicles, SOX and NOX as well as biogenic VOCs and SOX from volcanic
activities. Photochemical oxidants are formed through photochemical responses
between the VOCs and NOX compounds in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight
(especially ultraviolet). In addition, VOCs are found to be involved in the formation of
SPM from inorganic compounds such as SOX and NOX, through the formation
mechanism of the photochemical oxidants. 9
Despite the important roles that VOCs play in the formation of SPM and photochemical
oxidants, Japan had not introduced VOC emission regulation except for the vehicle
emission regulation on hydrocarbon and efforts by some pioneering local governments
to regulate stationary sources from the perspective of photochemical oxidants reduction.
8
Cabinet Decision on a Bill to Control the Emission of VOCs (MOEJ Press release)
<http://www.env.go.jp/en/press/2004/0308a.html > (accessed 7 December 2012).
9 Review Committee on VOC Emission Reduction (2003) Emission reduction of VOCs - results of a
series of considerations.
25
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
3. VOC emission reduction policy
(1) Policy process
Under the circumstances described in the above, VOC emission reduction increasingly
drew attention as a common precursor of SPM and photochemical oxidants. In February
2004, the Central Environment Council submitted to the MOEJ an opinion report on the
emission control of VOCs. 10 The report warned of urgent need to address the serious
ambient levels and health effect concerns related to SPM and photochemical oxidants,
and thus emphasized the need to reduce the emissions of VOCs, which are precursors of
SPM and photochemical oxidants, from the stationary sources in a comprehensive
manner. It proposed a target to reduce VOC emissions from stationary sources by 30%
by the FY 2010 compared to the emission level of FY 2000. It further recommended
promoting effective emission reduction measures to address stationary VOC sources by
combining both legal regulation and voluntary actions in an appropriate manner, calling
it a “best mix.”
In accordance with the report, the Air Pollution Control Law was partially amended at
the 159th Diet and was promulgated on 26 May. The amended law came into effect on 1
June 2005, while the provisions related to VOC emission regulations were decided to be
enforced on 1 April 2006.
(2) Outline of the policy
The amended law incorporates the recommendations by the Central Environment
Council. Major components of the amendment include: 1) targeting VOCs from the
stationary sources as an effort to reduce SPM and ozone, 2) specific emission reduction
target, and 3) policy mix of legal regulation and voluntary actions.
1) Targeted VOCs
The Article 2-4 of the Law defines VOCs as organic compounds which are emitted into
the air or in gaseous form when dispersed excluding the substances which are not
causing formation of SPM and oxidants. Eight substances were specified as “excluded”
10
Original title in Japanese: Kihatsu sei yuuki kagobutsu (VOC) no haishutsu yokusei
tsuite.
no arikatani
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
by Cabinet Order and they include methane and chlorodifluoromethane.
2) VOC emission reduction target
The emission reduction target was set to be 30%, by the fiscal year 2010 compared to
2000, following the suggestion by the Central Environment Council. 11 The rationales
for the target were the estimates based on a scientific simulation model. It was estimated
that, a 30% reduction of VOCs would improve in the attainment rate of the SPM in the
area under the regulation of the Automobile NOX/PM Act, and increase the number of
monitoring stations that do not exceed the warning level of photochemical oxidants up
to 90 %.
3) Introduction of the “best mix” of the policy measures
The amendment was the first environmental legislation for the Japanese government to
put the concept of “best mix” of policy measures into implementation. The best mix in
the VOC emission reduction indicates an appropriate combination of legal emission
controls and voluntary actions by business entities to reduce emissions and spread of
VOC (Article 17-2).
The legal emission controls are applied only to large scale emitters of VOCs with
potential emissions larger than 50 tons per year. The large scale VOC emitters are
obliged to notify the prefectural governor of installation and change of the VOC
emitting facilities, comply with the emission standards, and monitor VOC
concentrations. The types of the regulated facilities include: painting facilities and
drying facilities for painting; drying facilities for adhesives; drying facilities for
photogravure or offset printing; drying facilities for production of chemical products;
cleaning facilities for industrial production; and VOC storage tanks (Katsumata, 2008).
The emissions not subject to the above-mentioned legal regulations shall be reduced
through voluntary actions. The measures to be taken under voluntary actions for VOC
reduction were left to the discretion of business entities, while the government was
expected to facilitate their voluntary actions through various measures.
11
Environmental Risk Countermeasures Joint Working Group of the Industrial Structure Council (First
meeting) Document 5 “Framework of VOC emission reduction measures” (in Japanese), 1 June 2005.
27
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
(3) Policy outcome
This scheme resulted in the successful reduction of VOC emissions. The estimated VOC
emission in fiscal year 2010 was 791,420 tons per year, while the emission in fiscal year
2000 was 1,416,812 tons per year. The reduction rate over the decade was 44.1%, which
significantly exceeds the targeted 30% reduction. 12
Figure 3.1 VOC emission (2000-2010) (tonnes)
Accordingly, the concentrations of NMHC and 19 substances composing VOC, which
are the precursors of SPM and photochemical oxidants, are found to be decreasing. Data
also suggest that attainment rate of EQS for SPM improved to exceed the expected
achievement (around 93%), although it should be noted that such improvement should
not be attributed not only to the VOC reduction policy but also to the introduction of
more stringent vehicle emission standards. 13
However, the result regarding the effectiveness of the VOC reduction policy on the
frequency of the photochemical oxidant warning was far from the ex-ante estimate,
which expected the number of the monitors that do not exceed the warning level to
12
Atmospheric Environment Committee of the Central Environment Council (35th), Document 3
“Emission inventory of VOC (revised version)” (in Japanese) , 9 September 2012.
13 VOC Expert Committee, Atmospheric Environment Committee of the Central Environment Council.
Decepmer 2012. Future Emission Control Measures of Volatile Organic Componds (Report) [Kongo no
kihatsu-sei yuki kagoubutsu (VOC) no haishutsu taisaku no arikatani tsuite (Hokoku)].
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
increase up to approximately 90%. A report submitted by the Study Committee on
Photochemical Oxidant 14 shows that there is a gap between the ex-ante estimate and the
ex-post monitoring of photochemical oxidants. The data shown in the report indicates
that the rate of the monitors that did not exceed the warning level have been leveling off,
while some improvements are suggested including declining trends of photochemical
oxidant warning frequencies in Tokai and Kinki areas and reduced concentration in
highly concentrated areas.
The causes of the gap between the current status of photochemical oxidant warnings and
the ex-ante estimate have not been fully analyzed. 15 The Study Committee on
Photochemical Oxidant’s report points out possible reasons including naturally
formulated VOCs (from vegetation), potential for ozone formation (MIR: Maximum
Incremental Reactivity) differs among VOCs, area-specific conditions, and
transboundary factors.
Thus, the VOC reduction policy achieved the numerical emission reduction target on the
one hand. On the other hand, it fell short of the one of its major purposes, which is the
improvement in the ambient concentration of photochemical oxidants.
4. Discussion
1) To what extent is Japan already pursuing multi-pollutant multi-effect
approaches?
Following the category defined in Chapter 2, the Japanese policies related to air quality
before the 2000s are found to fall into the category of the Single-Pollutant Control
Phase 1. Ambient air quality standards were set for five individual pollutants (SO2, CO,
SPM, NO2, and photochemical oxidants) separately, without fully considering the
complex interactions among the pollutants in the atomosphere. Primary pollutants such
as SOX and NOX were the major foci of the emission standards and total emission
control programs for specific areas. Vehicle emission standards, which were tightened
over years, were set individually for each pollutant: CO, HC, and NOx for
14
Report submitted by the Study Committee on Photochemical Oxidant. March 2012.
FY 2020 Report of the Working Group on the VOC Countermeasures for the Next Period. March
2011.
15
29
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
gasoline-fueled vehicles and CO, HC, NOx, PM, and black smoke for diesel-powered
vehicles.
Categorizing the above mentioned VOC policy, which was adopted mid-2000s, is not
straightforward and falls into the transitional period between two phases, that is,
somewhere in between the Single-Pollutant Control Phase 2 and the Multi-pollutant
Control Phase 2. In one sense, the Japan’s VOC policy has commonality with the
adoption of the LRTAP’s VOC protocol in 1991, which is an example of the Single
Pollutant Control Phase 2 in that both aimed to reduce ozone through VOC reduction.
However, the scope of the Japan’s VOC policy was not only limited to reduction of
ozone but also to SPM. In other words, the amended Air Pollution Control Law adopted
policies to address VOC as a common precursor of SPM and oxidants. Yet, the policy
does not seem to have reached the stage to be categorised solely in the Multi-pollutant
Control Phase 2 as the simulation study which was used as a ground for the emission
reduction target did not fully consider the chemical interactions between ozone and
PM2.5.
A policy shift towards the more advanced level of the Multi-pollutant Control Phase 2
can be found in the deliberation of the follow-up scheme of the VOC reduction policy
suggested by the VOC Expert Committee under the Central Environment Council in
December 2012. In response to the consultation by the Minister of the Environment in
April 2012, the Special Committee on the VOC Emission Reduction under the Air
Environment Committee of the Central Environment Council was tasked to deliberate
the follow-up scheme for VOC reduction after the target year of 2010. The Committee,
while concluding that it is appropriate to continue the current emission reduction
scheme, further proposed the dissolution of the VOC committee into a new committee
to address not only VOC, but also photochemical oxidants and PM2.5. Its rationales
included the complex linkages among VOC, photochemical oxidants and PM2.5, need
for collecting information and data on VOC emission status as well as effectiveness in
emission reduction, and necessity to further examine alleviation of burdens on the
business.
With regards to the multi-effect aspect, that Japan’s policies can be considered
“effects-based” with special attention to health effects in setting EQS. Emission
standards related to vehicle exhausts and SOX/NOX from stationary sources, on the other
hand, had been set not directly related to such effects but more based on the available
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
technology levels. The VOC reduction policy might be labeled as “multi-effect based”
as the ultimate purpose was to reduce the effects related to both ground-level ozone and
particulate matters.
2) What kinds of capacities or institutions or administrative mechanisms are
necessary to implementing multi-pollutant multi-effect approaches in countries?
Which ones are currently used, and what kind of gaps exist?
It would be necessary to build capacities to elucidate the complex chemical reaction
leading to formulation of secondary pollutants such as ozone and PM as well as to
clarify the health and ecological effects caused due to the co-existence of those
pollutants in the atmosphere.
With respect to the formation mechanism of ozone, further studies are needed related to
naturally formulated VOCs, potential for ozone formation differing among VOCs,
area-specific conditions, and transboundary factors. To this end, it would be necessary
to improve monitoring and conduct multifaceted analysis of data, to elaborate emission
inventories, and to refine simulation models, as noted in the Report by the VOC Expert
Committee. The formation mechanism of PM also needs further studies to be elucidated.
In addition, the development of the nation-wide monitoring network that can measure
the concentrations of PM2.5 is still underway and behind schedule. MOEJ announced
that there will be 556 monitoring stations of PM2.5 by the end of March 2013, while the
original target was 1300 stations by that time, due to the heavy financial burdens to
local governments. 16 Another reason why the number of the monitoring stations of
PM2.5 is still limited is that Japan had not established the EQS on PM2.5 until 2009.
To ensure and further facilitate multi-pollutant approach beyond the scope the ozone
and PM2.5 and realize the comprehensive management of air quality, it would be
desirable to develop an integrated assessment system. This point was raised by some
experts when the author conducted interviews regarding the views on the
multi-pollutant approach (Matsumoto 2012). Challenges identified by the study related
to introduction of a multi-pollutant approach included “comprehensive collection and
analysis of environmental information", “development of an integrated assessment
model and establishment of critical loads", and “estimation of health risks". In addition,
16
Jiji Press, February 7 2013, Only 40% provide monitoring data, air pollution monitoring on PM2.5
[Kansoku data teikyo 4 wari domari, PM2.5 no taiki osen kanshi de].
31
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
experts pointed out challenges related to build consensus with various stakeholders.
Japan has already launched some of the efforts towards multi-pollutant multi-effect
approach. First, as a part of the VOC emission reduction policy, an emission inventory
of VOCs has been developed by the MOEJ. Second, coordination is being launched
among the different committees addressing different pollutants (VOC, ozone). Third,
voluntary approach employed policy complementary used together with legal control to
meet the top-down target as a part of the VOC, seems to have paved the way to facilitate
the participation by small scale facilities which are difficult to address through
regulation.
3) What needs to be done (or can be done) from the perspective of international
cooperation in implementing multi-pollutant multi-effect approaches?
Considering increased attention to the secondary pollutants across the Asian region, the
fact that formation mechanism of the secondary pollutants are still not fully elucidated,
and rising concern over transboundary inflow, there is a need to conduct international
collaborative research analyzing from the multi-pollutant and multi-effect perspective.
At the same time, under the urgent severe pollution situation, some actions to
collaborate to reduce emissions need to be taken without waiting for the research results.
The areas in which Japan can make contribution would be not only sharing technologies
to mitigate air pollution emissions but also providing policy implications from the
recent success in VOC emission reduction utilizing the voluntary programs.
5. Conclusion
This chapter has reviewed the air pollution policies in Japan since 1960s to date and
analyzed them from the perspective of a multi-pollutant multi-effect approach. The
analyses showed that the Japanese policies before the 2000s can be generally
categorized as in the stage of Single-Pollutant Control Phase 1, and the VOC policy
adopted from mid-2000s played an important role in the transition to a multi-pollutant
approach. The analysis suggested that VOC policy can be considered as in the
transitional period between the Single-Pollutant Control Phase 2 and the Multi-pollutant
Control Phase 2.
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
The experience from the VOC reduction policy indicates the difficulty related to the
ex-ante analysis of effectiveness of reduction policies of precursors. Now that Japan is
further shifting into a multi-pollutant approach, it is necessary to elucidate the formation
mechanisms among the pollutants in its primary scope and their precursors, including
photochemical oxidants, PM2.5, and VOC, to develop more accurate simulation models
which can guide the policy making. To enhance the effectiveness of the atmospheric
management, a system to incorporate integrated assessment of various pollutants in
addition to the above mentioned substances would be desirable.
Another lesson drawn from the Japan’s VOC reduction policy is the potential of
voluntary approach in the air pollution reduction. While this specific policy adopted a
policy mix of both regulatory and voluntary approaches, it suggests not only the need
for further examination on what is the best extent to utilise voluntary approach in
pollution prevention, but also the potential for other countries to consider the use of
voluntary approach in their air pollution control.
For future study, it would be worth investigating why the Multi-pollutant Control Phase
1 has not been observed in Japan. One possible explanation is that as NOX, the other
important precursor of photochemical oxidants, has been already addressed to a large
extent by the time photochemical oxidants became policy priority in the 2000s.
References
Katsumata, Masayuki. 2008. Discharge control measures for volatile organic
compounds [Kihatsusei yuki kagobutsu (VOC) no haishutsu yokusei ni tsuite]
(In Japanese). J. Japan Association on Odor Environment 39 (6):364-369.
Matsumoto, Naoko. 2012. Perceptions on Transboundary Air Pollution among
Scientists and Policymakers - Results from Interview Surveys in Japan -.
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies.
OECD. 2010. OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: JAPAN. Paris: OECD.
Tsutsumi, Rie. 2001. The nature of voluntary agreements in Japan - functions of
Environment and Pollution Control Agreements. Journal of Cleaner Production
33
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
9 (2):145-153.
Welch, Eric W., and Alira Hibiki. 2002. Japanese voluntary environmental agreements:
Bargaining power and reciprocity as contributors to effectiveness. Policy
Sciences (35):401-424.
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
IV. China’s Multi-pollutant Control – Co-Control of Air
Pollution
1. Introduction
China’s air pollution policies from the beginning of the period of rapid industrialization
firmly focused on a single pollutant approach covering a few main primary pollutants,
particularly NOX and SO2. However, in recent years, air pollution has become
increasingly complex, one of the reasons being the explosive growth in the number of
automobiles. As a result, the problem of secondary pollutants such as VOCs, PM2.5,
and Ozone have rapidly become much more urgent, hence the need for a more complex
multi-pollutant approach. 17
China’s air pollution policies have moved in the direction of the multi-pollutant
approach in recent years. Regarding effects, China’s research capability in this area has
significantly increased in recent years, although it does not yet have a significant
influence on the policymaking process. Instead, air pollution reduction targets are
mainly set on the basis of cost and technical feasibility. However, China’s policymakers
appear to be highly interested in MPME style approaches due to their significant
potential to reduce costs and increase effectiveness. A major new development in terms
of administrative structure is the creation of a regional management system to address
domestic transboundary air pollution between provinces. Although this regional
management system has had a slow start, in the long run it has the potential to become a
domestic LRTAP implementing an MPME approach. These points are explained in
more detail below.
2. Concepts
The term MPME is not commonly used in China. Instead, a similar concept, co-control
is used. Co-control (协同控制 xie tong kong zhi) refers to multi-pollutant multi-effect
control in Chinese. The literal meaning is “coordinated control” or “synergetic control.”
A detailed summary of China’s air pollution problems, a list of current policies, and
recommendations for strengthening them can be found in CCICED 2012.
17
35
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
The meaning is interpreted differently by policy researchers on one hand and policy
makers in the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) on the other hand.
“Co-control” is an official government concept, which is included in the “12th
Five-Year Plan” for Air Pollution Control in Key Regions, where it is defined rather
simply as the comprehensive control of several air pollutants (MEP; NDRC; MOF,
2012). Considering the co-control measures included in this Plan, and based on some
interviews with related policy practitioners, multi-pollutant control in China means
simultaneous control of several air pollutants, and not necessarily based on an analysis
of their effects.
A comprehensive definition for “Co-control” has been formulated by researchers from
Policy Research Center for Environment and Economy (PRCEE) of MEP. In short,
“Co-control” refers to control measures which address the interrelationships or
synergies between pollutants (Hu, Tian, & Mao, 2012). In particular, they believe that
co-control should focus on synergies between energy and air pollution to achieve more
cost effective reductions. The control measure here include not only engineering
measures, but also institutional measures. This can be considered to be a multi-effect as
well as a multi-pollutant approach, since co-control aims at addressing both the effects
of traditional air pollution as well as climate change. Specifically, targeted air pollutants
include SO2, NOx, PM, O3, CO, POPs, and VOCs, and six types of GHGs: CO2, CH4,
N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6. These researchers also target other pollutants like Hg, black
carbon, emissions from different types of technical industries.
3. Strengthening the Research Base
China is developing significant research capability to analyse both multiple pollutants
and multiple effects. Related air pollution research has been sponsored and funded by
several ministries, not only the Ministry of Environmental Protection, but also the
Ministry of Science and Technology and the National Development and Reform
Commission. In addition, some research is funded by local governments, particularly
Beijing.
A special 12th Five Year Plan establishing the Blue Sky Science and Technology Project,
was issued on October 24th 2012 by MEP and the Ministry of Science and Technology
(MOST), for supporting China’s atmospheric pollution control technologies. One of the
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
main objectives in this project is to establish comprehensive technology system for
atmospheric pollution control suitable for national condition of complex regional air
pollution problems. The Plan designates priority research areas such as human resource
development and innovation capability building. Decision making support technology
and integration technology for ambient air quality improvement, key pollutant source
control technology, atmospheric environment monitoring & early-warning technology
are also emphasized. Based on these foundations, research on prevention and control of
complex atmospheric pollutants will be carried out (MOST; MEP, 2012).
The Blue Sky Project also established a new national key laboratory for source and
control of complex atmospheric pollution at Tsinghai University on February 16th 2013.
The laboratory’s research will focus on source characteristics and control of complex
atmospheric pollution. The laboratory’s tasks include research on theory and
methodologies tracing complex atmospheric pollution sources, atmospheric pollution
control, and establishing a platform of supporting technologies for air quality
management. It also aims to provide supporting technologies and measures for regional
air pollution control (MEP, 2013).
One study which can be considered to use a broad scope MPME approach is He (2007).
This study concluded that by actively implementing policies for clean energy, industrial
structure adjustment, improve energy efficiency, green transportation, Beijing in 2010
can reduce 185 thousand ton SO2 emissions, 415 thousand ton NOx, 56 thousand ton
PM10, in the same time reduce, 841 cases of death, 25.9 million ton energy demand of
coal, as well as 10.5 million CO2.
Regarding research on interactions between pollutants, a report by CCICED (2012)
shows that research on PM2.5 is becoming more advanced in the analyses of chemical
composition from different geographic areas. The report further provides an estimate of
the required reduction of precursors to reduce PM2.5.
In sum, China is clearly developing the scientific capability to conduct the analysis
necessary for the MPME approach, including analysis of multiple effects. The policy
documents do not use the term MPME, but these measures are clearly aimed at its main
elements, including analysis of interactions among multiple pollutants as well as
multiple effects. Moreover, the official policy documents clearly state that the results of
37
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
this research are expected to be applied to the development of reduction measures,
which will eventually be incorporated into future policies.
4. Transition to a Multi-pollutant Approach
In the past, China’s air pollution policy focused on a few primary pollutants such as
SO2 and NO2. In the new 12th Five Year Plan for Air Pollution on Key Regions, the
scope of pollutants has been expanded to cover the secondary pollutants of Ozone and
PM2.5. VOCs are also included.
Therefore, since China is now managing secondary pollutants such as Ozone through
the control of multiple primary pollutants (including NOX and VOCs in the case of
ozone), it is possible to say that China has reached the early phases of a multi-pollutant
approach. China’s policymakers were certainly aware of the fact that there are multiple
precursors of secondary pollutants, and Chinese scientists have conducted detailed
studies on the interactions between the air pollutants. However, it is not clear to what
extent the detailed scientific analysis actually influenced the policy; it is more likely that
Chinese policymakers were influenced by the knowledge of the general relationship
rather than the details of the scientific analysis.
Multi-pollutant control strategies have also been used at the regional level on an ad hoc
basis, in the case of the Beijing Olympics, Shanghai World Expo, and the Guangzhou
Asian Games. The controlled pollutants – S02, NOX, PM, and VOCs – included
secondary pollutants. Advanced monitoring and modeling systems were used to forecast
pollution events and directly informed the control measures. Moreover, since these
pollution cases were transboundary in nature, domestic regional management
frameworks were established, and these were supported by regional modeling. (See
CCICED 2012; Zhou and Elder 2013.)
5. Multi-effect Approach
China is not yet at the stage where analysis of effects is formally incorporated into the
policymaking process. Instead, targets appear to be mainly determined by technological
and economic considerations.
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
Nevertheless, as mentioned above, considerable effort has been made to develop
research capability to analyse multiple effects, as well as interactions among multiple
pollutants. It is expected that this capability will play a stronger role in policymaking in
the future.
6. Institutional Framework and Capacity: Development of a Regional
Management System
China has begun the process to create a regional management system to address
domestic transboundary air pollution between provinces. Originally it was based on the
Guideline on Strengthening Joint Prevention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution to
Improve Air Quality, which was endorsed by the State Council in May 2010. This
system was based in part on China’s experience with managing air pollution for the
Beijing Olympics, Shanghai Expo, and Guangzhou Asian Games (Zhou and Elder
2013). Subsequently, the 12th Five Year Plan on the Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution in Key Regions, based on this Guideline, was released on October 29, 2012.
The Key Regions Plan covers three main regions (Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, Yangtze River
Delta, and the Pearl River Delta) and 10 city clusters. It contains a variety of targets and
measures. One of its key features is that it includes targets for secondary pollutants of
PM2.5 and VOCs, which are not included in the more-broad based National Total
Emissions Program. The Plan sets up a framework for discussions between provinces,
but it does not include any procedures for requiring any specific agreements or actions.
According to interviews with some participants in 2012 and early 2013, progress of this
system was rather slow, especially in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region (Lin and Elder,
forthcoming). Others have strongly recommended that this system should be
significantly strengthened (CCICED 2012).
Despite its current limitations, the Key Regions Plan establishes an institutional
framework which could serve as the foundation to implement a flexible domestic
MPME approach similar to the LRTAP’s Gothenburg Protocol. The necessary modeling
and monitoring capabilities may already be available in the three main regions, so the
discussion frameworks would be able to establish joint regional plans and policies if
they were given sufficient legal authority. Therefore, further strengthening of the legal
status of this system is desirable. In some city clusters, further capacity development in
terms of modeling and monitoring capability may be necessary.
39
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
7. Capacity
Implementation of the MPME approach requires a certain level of scientific and
institutional capacity, including for the related human resources. China has made
important progress in developing these capacities, especially in the three main regions
of the Key Regions Plan. China has developed considerable air pollution research
capability, and monitoring has been significantly expanded since 2012. The three main
regions also have direct experience in temporary large scale pollution reduction using
integrated modeling techniques. Outside of these three main regions, capacity may be
much more limited. The regional management framework of the Key Regions Plan has
the potential to serve as the institutional framework for implementation of an MPME
system. Yet, further institutional strengthening would be required to realize this
potential.
8. Conclusion
In terms of the multi-pollutant approach, China can be said to be in the process of
moving from single pollutant stage 1 to single pollutant stage 2. It is in the transition
process to multi-pollutant stage 1, and it is now in the process of developing research
capability for multi-pollutant stage 2. The regional management system has established
a framework that could support an integrated MPME approach similar to a domestic
LRTAP, but its institutionalization is still in the embryonic stages, and would need
considerable time to develop. Although China is making steady progress in capacity
development, particularly in the more advanced regions around Beijing, Shanghai, and
Guangzhou, more nationwide capacity is needed, and the institutional framework to
support implementation of MPME needs to be considerably strengthened. International
cooperation would be helpful, especially in terms of additional capacity development
and information sharing.
References
CCICED. (2012). Regional Air Quality Integrated Control System Research. CCICED Special
Policy Study Executive Report (pp. 1-27). Beijing: CCICED.
He K. (2007). Beijing Case Study of Synergic Effect in Environmental Strategies (in Chinese).
Sino-Japanese Environmental Strategies Forum. 2007. Beijing: Tsinghua University.
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
Hu, T., Tian, C., & Mao, X. (2012). 协同控制：回顾和展望 [Co-control: Lookback and Look
Forward]. Environment and Sustainable Development, 37(1), 19-29.
Lin, X, and Elder, M. (Forthcoming). Major Trends in China’s Air Pollution Policy During the
Early 12th Five-Year Plan Period (2011-2012). IGES Policy Report. Hayama, Institute
for Global Environmental Strategies.
MEP. (2013). 关于同意建设国家环境保护大气复合污染来源与控制重点实验室的复函
[Regarding agreement on constructing national key laboratory source and control of
compex atmospheric pollution]. Retrieved March 28, 2013, from Ministry of
Envionrmental
Protection
of
People's
Republic
of
China:
http://www.mep.gov.cn/gkml/hbb/bh/201302/t20130220_248269.htm
MEP; NDRC; MOF. (2012). 重点区域大气污染防治 “ 十二五 ” 规划 [The 12th Five-Year
Plan for the Key Regiona Air Pollution Prevention and Control]. Retrieved January 2,
2013, from Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China:
http://www.mep.gov.cn/gkml/hbb/gwy/201212/W020121205566730379412.pdf
MOST; MEP. (2012). 科技部，环境保护部关于印发 蓝天科技工程“十二五”专项规划的通
知 [Ministry of Science and Technology together with Ministry of Environmental
Protection issued the 12FYP Special Plan on Blue Sky Science and Technology Project].
Retrieved January 2, 2013, from The Central People's Government of the People's
Republic of China: http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2012-10/24/content_2250329.htm
41
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
V.
Air Pollution Policies Related to the Multi-Pollutant
Multi-Effect Approach under Green Growth in South
Korea
1.
Multi-Pollutant Relevant Policy Efforts under Green Growth
South Korea (hereinafter called Korea) has actively addressed environmental pollution
problems using the Environmental Conservation Act of 1977 and the Clean Air
Conservation Act of 1990, which currently defines 61 air pollutants with standards for 7
pollutants including PM and O3.
The concept of the “multi-pollutant and multi-effect (MPME) approach” has not
commonly been used and the relevant concept has not formally been discussed in Korea.
On the other hand, this review of air pollution policies, policy-relevant plans and
discussions in Korea shows that some multi-pollutant relevant policy efforts have been
made or have been under way in recent years under the Green Growth policy framework.
Major relevant efforts include:
1) Addressing secondary pollutants has been prioritized in the Special Act on Seoul
metropolitan Air Quality Improvement (December 2002, Ministry of Environment)
and the Air Quality Control Basic Plan in the Capital Region (November 2005,
Ministry of Environment).
2) Korean policies are moving in the direction of “risk-based” air pollution
management. To prepare for this, the reform of air pollutants management system is
being implemented. As a first step, the classification of hazardous air pollutants
which are required to be monitored is currently being reformed because the current
definitions of classification are not clear and the classification is not consistent 18
(see details below).
18
Documents from an explanatory meeting regarding “Air Environmental Protection Act Reform” in
February, 2013 hosted by the Ministry of Environment, Republic of Korea.
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
Specifically regarding secondary pollutants, the Special Act on Seoul metropolitan Air
Quality Improvement and Air Quality Control Basic Plan in Capital Region policies
focus on PM10, NOx, VOCs, and SOx, and prescribe special measures to improve air
quality based on identification of the contribution ratio of those pollutants or
calculations of acceptable amounts for targeted reductions. For example, in the Special
Act on Seoul metropolitan Air Quality Improvement, in order to achieve the revised
targets for PM 10 and NO2, it is estimated that targeted reductions are necessary as
follows: reductions of NOx by 50%, PM 10 by 65%, SOx by 70%, and VOC by 35%,
respectively.
Furthermore, according to a draft of the PM 2015 Management Plan which will
introduce standards for PM 2.5, the Korean Government will to control PM 2.5 by using
NOx and VOC controls. The main directions of this plan are as follows:

The focus of PM is shifting from PM 10 to PM 2.5, and management of PM 2.5
pollution sources will be strengthened.

Various measures for mitigating PM 2.5 will be introduced, such as strengthening
emission standards, promoting Low NOx Burners, and strengthening facility
management including the introduction of VOC facility management standards.
However, specific management measures to meet PM 2.5 standards have not been
specified when this article was written.

Korea’s air pollution policy is moving in the direction of “risk-based” air pollution
management. According to recent major policy discussions, risk-based management is
expected to focus on 19:



strengthening human health risk-based or emerging human-risk based approaches
for air pollution management;
promoting integrated air pollution management which takes into account air
environment, energy management, climate change and public risks;
formulating comprehensive air management policies taking into account the state of
the economy and the possibility of creation of employment.
19
Summary from “ Discussion Meeting on Advancement for Air Environment Management” which was
held in Seoul in February 6th in 2013, hosted by the Ministry of Environment, Republic of Korea, Air
Pollution Management Section.
43
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
Furthermore, according to “Risk-based Air Environmental Policy Promotion
Directions,” 20 the related strategies should focus on:
 toxicology and risk–based air pollution pollutant management;
 scientific improvement in classification system of pollutants;
 establishment and promotion of PM 2.5 pollution management measures.
The above policy efforts and directions indicate that while the current efforts in the
context of MPME are at the early stages from the perspective of “multi-pollutant”
approach and it is too early to evaluate their policies, it is important to note that relevant
efforts are directing toward building blocks of MPME through reforming the
management system for risk-based air pollution management which will set up a
regulatory system that includes consideration of multiple air pollutants and multiple
effects.
2.
Relevant Institutions and Administrative Mechanisms
Overall, Korea has a variety of institutions which are structured to engage in
comprehensive air pollution management from policy analysis/evaluation and policy
proposals through policy making and execution. The major institutions and their
linkages are illustrated in the diagram below.
20
Documents from an explanatory meeting regarding “Clean Air Environmental Conservation Act
Reform” in February, 2013 hosted by the Ministry of Environment, Republic of Korea.
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
Figure 5.1 Air Policy Related Institutions and Their Linkages in Korea
More specifically for mechanisms for MPME approach, the aforementioned
classification reform and risk-based approach can be considered to have a potential in
developing an effective air pollution management system taking into account multi air
pollutants and effects in Korea. Table 5.1 summarizes a draft proposal to reform the
current classification system; the draft proposal includes details of reform plan and
compared it to the current status.
Table 5.1 Classification System Reform: Current System vs. Reform Draft 21
Categories
Current Status
Categorization
None
Reform Draft

Introduction of review and evaluation using risk-based
evaluation model to be developed; evaluation indices
Standards
will be specified in four-fields :toxicity, impacts on
ecological systems, total emission amount in air, and
degree of air pollution
None
Procedures for

Establishment of Review/Evaluation Committee for air
pollutant (tentative name) to be composed of related
Designation
experts (NIER). After review and evaluation by the
committee, air pollutants will be designated by the
order of MOEK

Pollutant
Air Pollutants (61 types)
Air Pollutants (85 types) are classified in detail as ;
Categorizations
- specified hazardous air
- Group A: hazardous air pollutants to be monitored
pollutants (34 types)
constantly (55 types)
-VOC air pollutant (14
- Group B: specific hazardous air pollutants (37 types)
types)
- Group C: air pollutants (8 types)
-emission allowable air
pollutant (24 types)
Management
Management mainly
Mechanism
focusing on per single air

Risk-based comprehensive and systematic
management
pollutant source
- including implementation of the management basic
plan for the air pollutant group A and B (every 10
years)
21
Documents from an explanatory meeting regarding “Air Environmental Protection Act Reform” in
February, 2013 hosted by the Ministry of Environment, Republic of Korea.
45
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
The table indicates that the reform plan has many relevant links with an effective
risk-based management mechanism, including developing risk-based evaluation model
considering broad scopes of pollutants and risks such as toxicity and impacts on
ecosystem management.
By 2013, the Korean Government will have organized the Review/Evaluation
Committee for Air Pollutants (tentative name), and established standards including
attributes and factors to be considered in classifying air pollutants, and setup the review
cycles for those hazardous air pollutants needed to be monitored constantly. Integrated
management system will be addressed in the basic plan for the air pollutant group A and
B, suggesting that Korea is making a transition to the MPME approach. Details in the
plan are not specified yet.
3. Recent Developments and Challenges
As noted above, Korean is steadily building a foundation for risk-based air pollution
management considering multiple air pollutants and effects through reforming the air
pollution management system. On the other hand, this paper identifies several
challenges:

The concept of risk-based air pollution management itself has been introduced since
1980’s and extensive relevant risk assessment research has been conducted.
However, while some of results drawn from this research are reflected in policies,
they were not generally accepted by policymakers. It should be noted that the focus
of previous risk assessment studies was limited to individual pollutants, and most
related research was limited to drafting basic risk assessment frameworks and
making supporting documents. Therefore, in order to incorporate recent research on
risk-based approaches into actual policies, an integrative MPME perspective is
required.

It is necessary to link MPME approach to effective reductions of secondary
pollutants such as PM2.5 and O3. Specifically, more researches are required, such
as identification of contribution ratio of O3, identification of contribution ratio of
VOC to O3 and PM2.5 respectively, and control of PM10 as secondary pollutant. 22
22
Choi Yu-jin, 2013, Presentation source 'Analysis and estimation of the contribution of major sources
of VOC' (In Korean), February 26, 2013, Seoul Development Institute.
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
Furthermore, for PM 2.5 standards starting from 2015, specific measures are
required based on MPME approach.

In addressing both Green Growth and better air quality, integrated control of
greenhouse effect gas and air pollutants are required in Korea. For this, the NIER
has started collaborative research on integrated climate and air control with
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IISA) in 2013. This research
will develop a GAINS-Korea model (GHG and Air pollution Interaction and
Synergies Model) to be used for this purpose. The GAINS model is an integrated
policy evaluation model for simultaneous reductions of greenhouse gasses and air
pollutants through analysis of synergies of those. Based on these kinds of efforts,
specific measures for integrated control will need to be developed and
implemented.
The Korean air pollution research community is currently conducting a variety of
risk-based studies considering multiple effects such as economic, health and
environmental costs and effects on Air pollution in Korea, which are designed to
provide policy-makers appropriate information for evaluating and planning air pollution
policies. One example is a study which measures the environmental costs of air
pollution impacts in Seoul, which provides policy relevant inputs by quantifying the
environmental costs of four air pollution impacts (mortality, morbidity, soiling damage,
and poor visibility), using a specific case study of Seoul. This study evaluates several
policy options by considering the trade-offs between their costs and benefits. 23 While it
is unclear whether the results of this research will be incorporated into policy-making,
nevertheless, this research will build a good foundation for further advancing risk-based
approaches in Korea in the future.
On the other hand, there are daunting challenges in materializing the current policy plan
draft including structuring the above “risk-based comprehensive and systematic
management” mechanism, which could be an area for co-producing knowledge
internationally.
23
Seung-Hoon Yoo, Seung-Jun Kwak and Joo-Suk Lee, “Using a choice experiment to measure the
environmental costs of air pollution impacts in Seoul,” Journal of Environmental Management 86, 2008,
pp.308-18.
47
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
References
C.Yoo, D.W.Lee, Y.M.Lee, H.J.Lee, T.G.Lee, K.H.Kang, S.B.Lee, J.C.Kim, 2009, Analysis of
air pollution reduction effects by regional implementation plan of Seoul Metropolitan
Area (In Korean), National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER)
Choi Yu-jin, 2013, Presentation source 'Analysis and estimation of the contribution of major
sources of VOC' (In Korean), February 26, 2013, Seoul Development Institute
Jinsoo Park, Joonyoung Ahn, Kwangju Moon, Buju Kong, Sangduk Lee, SeJang, Jongchoon
Kim, Jaehyeon Lim, Namik Jang, Hyunjae Kim, Haeun Jeon, Minyoung Sung, Jun Oh,
Jinsoo Choi, Seungmyeong Park, Jongseong Park, Inho Song, SunaJung, Mira Jo,
Sunjung Kim, Minhee Lee, 2011, Emission Sources and Behavior of PM2.5 Organic
Materials (II) (In Korean), National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER).
Kim Woonsoon, Choi Yu-jin, Kim Jeongah, Jeon Hana, 2011, Amendment to the Air Quality
Implementation Plan in Seoul (In Korean), Seoul Development Institute
Ministry of Environment, 2013, Documents from an explanatory meeting regarding “Clean Air
Conservation Act Reform” (In Korean), February 2013.
Ministry of Environment, 2005, the Air Quality Control Basic Plan in the Capital Region (In
Korean), November 2005.
Ministry of Environment, 2002, the Special Act on Seoul metropolitan Air Quality
Improvement (In Korean), December 2002.
Ministry of Environment, 1995, the Air Conservation Comprehensive Plan (A draft bill) (In
Korean), July 1995. Air Quality Management Bureau.
Agency of Environment, 1994, Air Quality Policy in a Period of Transition (In Korean).National
institute of environmental research (NIER).
Seung-Hoon Yoo, Seung-Jun Kwak and Joo-Suk Lee, “Using a choice experiment to measure
the environmental costs of air pollution impacts in Seoul,” Journal of Environmental
Management 86, 2008, pp.308-18.
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
VI. Conclusion
MPME has been identified as an effective system to address the increasing complexity
of air pollution issues and achieve higher levels of pollution reduction in a more cost
effective way. The examples of LRTAP and the US have shown that MPME is also
useful to address these issues in a wide geographical context with varying local
conditions.
The need for MPME has been rapidly increasing in Asia. First, East Asian countries,
after making progresses in addressing primary pollutants, commonly face the remaining
or worsening pollutions due to secondary pollutants. Second, in China, concentrations
of PM2.5, one of the secondary pollutants, have become to be recognized as one of the
national priority issues. Accordingly, concerns over PM2.5 have been increasing in the
neighboring countries and there have been moves toward further international
cooperation.
The question arises as to whether the MPME approach can be usefully applied in East
Asia. The MPME approach under LRTAP is very sophisticated, and requires a fairly
high level of scientific capability and perceived common interests. It is also linked to a
legally binding international treaty. Many East Asian countries do not have a high level
of scientific capability in air pollution, and countries in the region have generally shown
reluctance to adopt legally binding agreements. However, the analysis in this paper
demonstrated that the MPME approach has a number of elements which do not need to
be all developed simultaneously, including an emphasis on secondary pollutants,
consideration of interactions between secondary pollutants, consideration of effects, use
of a risk-based approach, and the direct or indirect use of scientific analysis in setting
the policy.
The case studies shows that some elements of the multi-pollutant approach are already
being implemented to varying extents, particularly the multi-pollutant aspect, and their
air pollution policies are already evolving in the overall direction of MPME. Japan, after
considerable success with single-pollutant approach, shifted in recent years to
multi-pollutant approach and moving further through the change in the institutional
setup of the scientific advisory board. China has had various policies regulating various
different pollutants, but these measures fell short of an integrated multi-pollutant
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Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
strategy, indicating co-existence of various single-pollutant policies. However, the
“co-control” concept mentioned in the Twelfth Five Year Plan has the potential to lead
to more advanced stages. Korea has addressed secondary pollutants from 1990's
especially around the Seoul metropolitan. For example, a special measure for this area,
the Capital Region Clean Air Initiative (2002) was carried out, which included
reduction targets and strategies for precursors of PM10 and NO2. Also, all of the case
study countries face common challenges in further implementing the MPME approach,
including the further development of scientific, administrative, and implementation
capacity, although each of these challenges are experienced somewhat differently in
each country.
Therefore, this paper concludes that it is clearly feasible to promote the MPME
approach in East Asia, particularly if it is done in a partial and stepwise manner.
Moreover this paper also concludes that further progress of the MPME approach for air
pollution should be promoted through expanded international cooperation. International
cooperation could focus on developing common or complementary approaches, capacity
building, and knowledge sharing. Now that the TEMM countries have agreed to further
cooperate on air pollution, joint promotion of the MPME approach could be a focus,
beginning by establishing a common understanding of the different components and
stages of MPME, and the current status and goals of each country.
Cooperation does not need to be linked to a legally binding international agreement, as
is the case of LRTAP, although that could come later if the countries agree. Instead,
cooperation could focus on encouraging the further development of domestic policies,
which China, Korea, and Japan have already unilaterally decided to do anyway. Even in
the case of the US, the MPME approach does not easily fit with the legal framework,
but the USEPA has had some success in promoting voluntary implementation of several
aspects since it is more cost effective than traditional approaches. Also, in this regard,
the successful reduction of VOCs through a policy mix of both regulatory and voluntary
approaches in Japan indicates potentials for the use of voluntary approaches.
It should be noted that this paper did not analyze the situation of other East Asian
countries which have considerably less scientific and institutional capacity compared to
Japan, Korea, and even China. Nevertheless, the analysis in this paper shows that these
countries may also be able to take initial steps following the example of others, if
MPME is conceived as a series elements which can be adopted in stages. International
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
cooperation may be very helpful here, especially regarding capacity development and
information sharing.
Current international cooperation frameworks may be able to help to promote the
MPME approach, but in order to do so they would need to expand the scope of their
activities and upgrade their own capabilities and resources. The East Asian Acid
Deposition and Monitoring Network (EANET) provides a foundation for monitoring,
but its current scope only includes primary pollutants, and not secondary pollutants. It
also does not formally include modeling. Long Range Transport (LTP), a joint research
project among Korea, China, and Japan, includes PM10 and O3, but the scale of
activities is small. The Tripartite Environment Ministers Meeting, which has sponsored
research on ozone in the past, recently decided to launch a policy dialogue on air
pollution, so there appears to be momentum for strengthening international cooperation.
In order to strengthen international cooperation to promote the MPME approach, the
institutional framework of international cooperation in East Asia would need to be
strengthened. It would not necessarily need a very large commitment of resources, but it
would need to be greater than the present levels. It is beyond the scope of this paper to
discuss how to do this.
Overall, the implication drawn from this paper for the discussions on the further
international cooperation are as follows. First, it is feasible for countries in the region to
begin developing the MPME approach in a stepwise manner. Second, the practical
feasibility of developing the MPME approach in East Asia by showing that the MPME
approach has a variety of elements, and that the elements can be developed in the
stepwise approach, without being linked to a legally binding treaty, this paper it. Third,
international cooperation can utilize the elements of the MPME approach implemented
by participating countries unilaterally in their domestic air pollution policy frameworks.
Fourth, even countries with little capacity can still start working towards the MPME
approach starting with basic elements, and borrowing results from elsewhere. So there
is no good reason for countries in the region to not take steps which can increase the
cost effectiveness of air pollution reduction.
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Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to
Air Pollution Control in Japan, China, and South Korea
VII. Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund
(S-7-3) of the Ministry of the Environment, Japan.
Paper submitted to SEEPS 2013, Kobe Japan, September 21-22, 2013
Current Status and Future Potential of the Multi-pollutant Approach to Air Pollution Control
in Japan, China, and South Korea
Publisher: Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)
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The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily
represent those IGES and the author's institution of affiliation.
The Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) is an international research
institute that conducts practical and innovative research for realizing sustainable
development in the Asia-Pacific region.
© 2013 Institute for Global Environmental Strategies. All rights reserved.
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