Rodeghiero Rossella
Session 1
Martin Luther King and Angela Davis:
Two Activists in Germany for the Black Civil Rights Movement
The city of Berlin during the Cold War era represents the bulwark of Western democracy,
freedom and equality as opposed to the communist creed of the Soviet block; due to its position
within the East German territory, the presence of American troops inside West Germany and West
Berlin becomes more and more a matter of fact as the two blocks take form during the 1950s. Thus,
the choice of Berlin as the only European city where to deliver the social and political messages of
King and Davis is not accidental; instead, both of them are highly aware of the international role
this place has and also of the political pressure it could put on American foreign policy, especially
within Europe.
The visit of Martin Luther King to West and East Berlin in September 1964 is less known
despite the relevance it acquires in the framework of the black civil rights protests within Germany;
thanks to the collaboration established amongst students and African GIs, this topic spreads
throughout the country and in mid-1960s it starts to keep direct contacts with American
correspondent organizations. Thus, the presence of King as movement black leader and his message
of hope bound to the request of support to Berliners is the first step to the creation of an
international brotherhood of men that fights for their rights following the nonviolence ideology.
Besides, it is not less important the fact that King delivers the same sermon both in West and East
Berlin; in the latter, the audience turns out to be more curious and
responsive to King’s message because of the social and political
situation within the GDR. In fact, the absence of any official
welcome ceremony by it can be seen as a demonstration of the
revolutionary impact that King’s visit could have had on East
Berliners (but it didn’t).
When Angela Davis visits East Berlin in 1972, the
campaign that has been promoted by the GDR for her release is
part of East Berliners everyday life. Documentaries, songs on the
radio and rallies are used as a political tool to contrast American
foreign politics; so, Angela represents the best bail to condemn the social internal situation within
the USA and its acceptance of segregation as opposed to the democratic system it exports abroad.
As a consequence, the speech she gives is unsurprisingly full of political references to the
proletarian revolution that happened within the Soviet Union and underlines the fact that they
became an example to American communists. Moreover, the union they achieved in order to free
her represents a great victory since this transnational collaboration will be used to defeat the
“Yankee imperialism” as well.
Photos: Martin Luther King in West Berlin in 1964 and Angela Davis in East Berlin in 1972
Quotations
I am grateful to God that, through the Negro church, the way of nonviolence became an integral
part of our struggle. (Martin Luther King, Jr., Why We Can’t Wait)
Revolution is a serious matter. When you commit yourself to the fight, it must be forever. (Angela
Davis, Angela Davis: An Autobiography)
In a real sense we are all one in Christ Jesus, for in Christ there is no East, no West, no North, no
South, but one great fellowship of love throughout the whole, wide world. (Martin Luther King, Jr.,
“East or West – God’s Children”, sermon in Berlin in 1964)
This victory is a lesson for all the people in the world: if the repressed throughout the world band
together, then we have the power that will enable us one day to defeat imperialism. (Angela Davis,
“Not Only My Victory”, speech in East Berlin in 1972)
Suggestions for further readings
Höhn, Maria and Klimke, Martin. A Breath of Freedom. The Civil Rights Struggle, African
American GIs and German. New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
Klimke, Martin. The Other Alliance: Student Protest in West Germany and the United States in the
Global Sixties. Princeton: Priceton UP, 2010.
The Civil Rights Struggle, African American GIs and Germany Online Digital Archive. “East or
West – God’s Children. A Sermon by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr”. The Civil Rights Struggle,
African American GIs and Germany.
“Not Only My Victory”, Speech by Angela Davis on September 11, 1972. Berlin – FriedrichstadtPalast (translated from German by Lenore Bartko)
Davis, Angela. Autobiografia di una rivoluzionaria, (original title: Angela Davis: An
Autobiography), Roma; Edizioni Minimum Fax, 2007.
King, Martin Luther Jr, “I Have a Dream”: l'autobiografia del profeta dell'uguaglianza. A cura di
Clayborne Carson. Milano, Mondadori, 2000.
Intensive Program: Europe and the US in the 1960s
Seminar: Coming Together or Coming Apart? Europe and the United States in the Sixties
Date:
Berlin, September 13, 2011
Session: 'Eyes on the Prize‘: The Struggle for Black Equality and Social Justice in the United
States and in Germany, 1960-1972
Lecturer: PD Dr. Britta Waldschmidt-Nelson
Presenter: Veronika Schäfer
Rise, Radicalization, Fall and Legacy of the Student
Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
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Rise
February 1960: Black students hold first lunch counter sit-ins in Greensboro, NC; sit-ins
spread throughout the country; a new organization is needed to give the protest more
coordination
April 15-17, 1960: SNCC is founded at Raleigh Conference at Shaw University (sponsored by
the SCLC and mentored by Ella Baker), first chairman is Marion Barry
SNCC is designed as a nonviolent, direct action organization, mostly sustained by students and
with a group-centered leadership
May 1961: SNCC, together with CORE, carries out the first Freedom Rides from Washington,
D.C. to Jackson, MS under great personal risk
In the following years SNCC is engaged in voter registration campaigns in the Deep South
August 28, 1963: March on Washington; by then SNCC has become one of the major civil
rights organizations
In the summer of 1964, SNCC is part of the Mississippi Freedom Summer. Thousands of
black and white students help to mobilize voters, form Freedom Schools and organize the
Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP, an alternative to the all-white Democratic
Party)
Radicalization
August 1964: MFDP fails to present a serious political challenge to the Democratic Party
(though the integrated delegation manages to get extensive national attention), a lot of SNCC
members are disillusioned and disappointed in the jurisdiction and political decision-making
March 1965: SNCC alienates itself from the SCLC and other mainstream civil rights
organizations during the Selma To Montgomery Marches, because SNCC increasingly
supports a more militant and uncompromising tactic
May 1966: Stokely Carmichael becomes new chairman and steers SNCC towards the ideology
of Black Power. From this turning-point onwards, SNCC radicalizes more and more and
gradually abandons nonviolence as a tactic.
1966: SNCC excludes all white members
1967: SNCC is covered by the FBI’s Counterintelligence Program
1968: SNCC changes its name to Student National Coordinating Committee
http://libinfo.uark.edu/eresources/news/collectionsnews0207.asp
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Fall
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Legacy
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SNCC played a crucial role in the success of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. With its
courageous campaigns in the Deep South SNCC helped to improve the lives of many Blacks.
SNCC was a role model for the Student Protest all over the world by focusing on nonviolent,
direct action.
SNCC’s development in the second half of the 1960s, however, is highly disputable;
nevertheless, its achievements outshine its deficits. In honor of its 50th birthday an
Anniversary Conference was held at Shaw University and a SNCC Legacy Project was created
to continue the work of this significant civil rights organization.
Selection of important members
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The decline of SNCC already started with its alienation from the mainstream Civil Rights
Movement and its radicalization; the actual downfall, however, starts in 1968
Among the various reasons are: discrepancy of ideology and results, political frustration,
influx of members  fragmentation, growing separation from other civil rights organizations,
dwindling financial support, expansion of actions from South to North, radicalization and
fragmentation because of frustration within SNCC (also parallel to the development of the
Civil Rights Movement as a whole)
1972: SNCC simply ceases to exist
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Marion Barry: first chairman of SNCC, later mayor of Washington D.C.
Stokely Carmichael: SNCC chairman 1966-1967, turned SNCC towards Black Power, expelled
from SNCC in 1967, became Honorary Prime Minister of the Black Panther Party
John Lewis: early activist, Freedom Rider, SNCC chairman 1963-1966; since 1986 member of
the US House of Representatives
Bob Moses: SNCC field secretary 1960-1966; nowadays he is engaged in educational projects
Diane Nash: early activist, Freedom Rider and successful organizer in the Civil Rights
Movement
Bibliography
Carson, Clayborne. In Struggle. SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge:
Harvard UP, 1981.
Garrow, David J. We Shall Overcome. The Civil Rights Movement in the United States in the
1950s and 1960s. 3 Vols. New York: Vintage, 1989.
Hogan, Wesley C. Many Minds, One Heart. SNCC’s Dream for a New America. Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, 2007.
Klimke, Martin. The Other Alliance: Student Protest in West Germany and the United States
in the Global Sixties. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2010.
Sellers, Cleveland. The River of No Return. The Autobiography of a Black Militant and the
Life and Death of SNCC. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1990.
Stoper, Emily. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. The Growth of Radicalism in
a Civil Rights Organization. New York: Carlson, 1989.
http://www.ibiblio.org/sncc/
http://america.docuwat.ch/videos/?alternative=2&channel_id=0&skip=0&subpage=video&vid
eo_id=122
http://www.sncc50thanniversary.org/
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Intensive Program – Session 1 on September 13, 2011 - Lecturer: PD Dr. Britta Waldschmidt Nelson; Presenter: Esther Schwan
The Role of Black Women in the Civil Rights Movement
Women were detrimental to the success of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s, but have mostly received
only scant attention. Some of them will be introduced on this handout. Many others (including white women who
fought for civil rights) will unfortunately have to be left out.
Rosa Louise McCauley Parks "The mother of the freedom movement"1 *1913 † 2005
1913
1925
Born in Tuskegee, AL, to James (carpenter) and Leona (teacher) McCauley
Attends Montgomery Industrial School for Girls, Booker T. Washington High School and the laboratory
school at Alabama State Teachers College for Negroes  drops out after 10th grade for family reasons
(went back to school for her high school degree in 1933)
1926
Joins the African Methodist Episcopal Church which would remain an important part of her life
1932
Marries Raymond Parks, a Montgomery barber
1944
Starts to work at integrated Maxwell Field Air Base
1943
Joins NAACP2 becoming secretary (in 1949 Youth Group Advisor), and the Montgomery Voters League
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1955
Attends workshops at Highlander Folk School (HFS) in Monteagle, Tennessee
1955
Is placed in police custody after having refused give up her seat to a white man in a bus. This set in
motion the Montgomery Bus Boycott, propelling young Martin Luther King Jr. to national fame
1956
Looses her job and receives death threats  moves to Detroit with her husband in 1957
1965
Staff assistant in the Detroit office of U.S. Representative John Coyers; retires in 1988
1977
Founds the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self-Development (still active today)
2005
After her death at 92 her casket is placed at the U.S. Capitol‟s rotunda for 2 days; flags flown half-staff
Selected Awards and Honors: Martin Luther King Jr. Award (1980); Presidential Medal of Freedom (1996);
Congressional Gold Medal (1999); Rosa Parks Library and Museum (2000); Statue at National Statuary Hall (2005)
Jo Ann Gibson Robinson *1912 † 1992
1912
1934
????
1949
1950
1955
1960
1961
1992
Robinson is born as the youngest of twelve children in Culloden, GA
Graduates from Fort Valley State College to become a teacher, marries Wilbur Robinson
Receives an M.A. in English from Atlanta University and works on a doctoral program
Moves to Montgomery, AL to work at English Department of Alabama State College
Joins Dexter Avenue Baptist Church and the Women’s Political Council (WPC; founded in 1946 by
Mary Fair Burks) becoming its president in 1951
Initiates and sustains the Montgomery Bus Boycott with the WPC
Resigns from teaching post at Alabama State College, moves to Louisiana to teach
Moves to Los Angeles to teach at public schools; retires in 1976
Dies at 79; has been involved in several women‟s organizations in her later years
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Septima Poinsette Clark *1898 † 1987
1908
1916
1919
1920
1925
1935
1937
1942
1947
1956
1961
1971
1975
1979
1
Born to Peter (born a slave) and Victoria (raised in Haiti) Poinsette in Charleston, SC
Graduates from Avery Institute in Charleston, takes state examination for teachers
Becomes teacher on John‟s Island; fights for equalization of teachers‟ salaries
Becomes teacher at Avery Institute, joins the NAACP
Marries Nerie Clark (sailor), move to Dayton, OH with their two children (one dies)
Nerie dies, Clark moves to Columbia, SC where she remains until 1947
Sends her son to live with his grandparents for financial reasons
Enrolls at Atlanta University (taking a class by W.E.B. Du Bois) and Columbia University
Receives a B.A. from Benedict College and an M.A. from Hampton Institute (1945)
Works with Charleston‟s YWCA6, attends workshops at HFS, serves as membership chair of NAACP
Fired as teacher due to affiliation with civil rights  recruited as director of workshops at HFS
Becomes the SCLC‟s7 Director of Education and Training (recruited by Martin Luther King Jr.)
Leaves SCLC but remains active in civil rights
Elected member of the Charleston School Board (that had fired her in 1956)
Awarded the Living Legacy Award by Jimmy Carter
5
U.S. Congress. Public Law 106-26 (1999), http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-106publ26/pdf/PLAW-106publ26.pdf (accessed September 3,
2011), 1.
2
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
3
http://www.myclassiclyrics.com/artist_biographies/images/Rosa-Parks-Biography.jpg (accessed September 1, 2011).
4
http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/media_content/m-5148.jpg (accessed August 30, 2011).
5
http://talesfromthelaboratory.typepad.com/.a/6a00d8341c62a953ef0133f520000a970b-800wi (accessed September 1, 2011).
6
Young Women’s Christian Association
7
Southern Christian Leadership Conference
Intensive Program – Session 1 on September 13, 2011 - Lecturer: PD Dr. Britta Waldschmidt Nelson; Presenter: Esther Schwan
Ella Josephine Baker “My theory is, strong people don’t need strong leaders.”8 *1903 † 1986
1903
1927
1930
1935
1938
1942
1946
1954
1947
1958
1960
1962
1986
Born in Norfolk, VA, to Georgianna (teacher & church worker) and Blake (waiter) Baker
Graduates from Shaw University in Raleigh, NC; moves to New York City to work for NAACP‟s
newspaper The Crisis and the Negro National News
Helps form Young Negroes Cooperative League, becomes National Director
Director of the Works Progress Administration‟s Consumer Education Project (New Deal Program)
Field organizer with NAACP, travels all over the South organizing new chapters
Assistant Field Secretary and National Director of Branches (1943) of the NAACP
Resigns as National Director of Branches, becomes councilor of youth program and president
of New York branch of NAACP, works with National Urban League (NUL)
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Founds In Friendship with Bayard Rustin and Stanley Levison
Helps to found the SCLC, becomes Interim Executive Director, creates and edits its newsletter THE CRUSADE
Organizes the SCLC‟s „Crusade for Citizenship‟
Helps to found SNCC10, leaves SCLC to work for SNCC
Works with Southern Conference Education Fund until 1967
Until her death she remained an activist, e.g. fighting for Angela Davis and against Apartheid
Afro-German activism started off in the 1980s with the so-called Neue Schwarze Bewegung (New Black Movement).
Local initiatives were founded under the name of Initiative Schwarze Deutsche (Initiative Black Germans;
www.isdonline.de) to make Afro-Germans more visible and protest against Germany‟s latent racism. As a result of
working on a book (Farbe Bekennen, see bibliography) about Afro-German women, the association ADEFRA
(Afrodeutsche Frauen/Afro-German Women; www.adefra.de) was founded in 1986 with the help of African-American
activist Audre Lorde.
Selected Bibliography
Brinkley, Douglas. Rosa Parks. New York: Viking, 2000.
Collier-Thomas, Bettye and Vincent P. Franklin, eds. Sisters in the Struggle: African American Women in the Civil
Rights - Black Power Movement. New York: New York U P, 2001.
Crawford, Vicki L., ed. Women in the Civil Rights movement: Trailblazers and torchbearers, 1941-1965. Bloomington:
Indiana UP, 2005.
Giddings, Paula. When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America. New York:
Bantam Books, 1988.
Ling, Peter and Susan Monteith ed., Gender and the Civil Rights Movement, New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2004.
Oguntoye, Katharina; Opitz, May and Dagmar Schultz, eds. Farbe bekennen: Afro-deutsche Frauen auf den Spuren
ihrer Geschichte. Berlin: Orlanda Frauenverlag, 1986. / Opitz, May, Katharina Oguntoye, and Dagmar Schultz, eds.
Showing Our Colors: Afro-German Women Speak Out. Amherst: U of Massachusetts P, 1992.
Ransby, Barbara. Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision. Chapel Hill: U of North
Carolina P, 2003.
Robnett, Belinda. How long? How long? African-American Women and the Struggle for Civil Rights. New York:
Oxford U P, 1999.
Parks, Rosa. Rosa Parks: My Story. New York: Dial Books, 1992.
Robinson, Jo Ann. The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1987.
Smith, Jessie C., ed. Epic lives: One hundred Black women who made a difference. Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1993.
Carol Mueller, “Ella Baker and the Origins of "Participatory Democracy",” in Women in the Civil Rights movement: Trailblazers and torchbearers,
1941-1965, ed. Vicki L. Crawford, 51–70 (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 2005), 51.
9
http://www.ellabakercenter.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/EllaBakerSpeaks.jpg (accessed September 4, 2011).
10
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
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SESSION 2.
Violante Massari (University of Turin)
FEMINIST PEDAGOGY
WHAT IS FEMINIST PEDAGOGY?
“By most accounts, it is a perspective on teaching which is anti-sexist, and anti-hierarchical,
and which stresses women's experience, both the suffering our oppression has caused and
the strengths we have developed to resist it.” (Fisher, 1981: 20)
It can be defined as:
-result of the application of basic feminist principles to education.
-new theories of feminist pedagogy and development of alternative teaching models.
NEED FOR SOCIAL CHANGE: new strategies for the education of the oppressed
AIMS:
- empowering the self
- building community
- developing leadership
“Not only concerned with gender justice, feminist pedagogy seeks to remove oppressions
inherent in the genderedness of all social relations and consequently of all societal
institutions and structures.” (Shrewsbury, 1987 in Sandell, 1991: 180-181)
- promotion of student-centered experience, as opposed to teacher-based one
“critical to the education of the oppressed, be they women, minorities or others, it attempts
to foster a confirmation of self-knowledge for the knower that is not provided by teaching in
the traditional academic style” (Sandell, 1991: 181)
- emphasis on collaboration over competition
- relating problems to each other without categorizing them as inferior or superior
CHANGES AND PROPOSALS:
1. in the subject matter
2. roles teacher-student
3. structure of classes
- a new approach: SELF AS SUBJECT and SELF-AS-INQUIRER (not only to ask
question, but to pose them!) (Maher, 1985 in Sandell, 1991: 182)
- Proposal of the diminishment of the teacher's authority: theoretical model in which the
teacher assumes the role of a midwife.
TEACHERS ASSIST STUDENTS IN DELIVERING THEIR IDEAS TO THE
WORLD (see Socrates' concept of Maieutics) (Belenky et al., 1986: 127 in Sandell, 1991:
181)
- Revision of people's place in society in terms of racism, sexism, oppression, and
domination.
Suggestion for further discussions:
Friere, Paulo. Pedagogy of the oppressed, London: The Continuum International Publishing
Group Ltd, 2000.
Introduction of the concept of education as an instrument of oppression vs the problemposing concept of education as an instrument of liberation (see post-colonial approach:
the reconstruction of the fragmented self begins with the acknowledgement of principles of
personal liberation, critical democracy and social equality, hitherto despised and condemned
by the oppressors)
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Crabtree, Robbin; Sapp, David Alan. “Theoretical, Political and Pedagogical Challenges in
the Feminist Classroom: Our Struggles to Walk the Walk”, College Teaching, Vol. 51, No. 4
(Fall, 2003), http://www.jstor.org/stable/27559155
Fisher, Berenice. “What is Feminist Pedagogy?”. The Radical Teacher, No. 18 (1981),
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20709295
Maher, Frances. “Toward a Richer Theory of Feminist Pedagogy”. Journal of Education,
Vol. 169, No. 3.
Sandell, Renee. “The Liberating Relevance of Feminist Pedagogy”. Studies in Art
Education, Vol. 32, No. 3, (Spring, 1991), http://www.jstor.org/stable/1320688
Shrewsbury, Carolyn. “Feminist Pedagogy: an Updated Bibliography”. Women's Studies
Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. ¾, Feminist Pedagogy: an Update (Fall-Winter, 1993),
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40022018
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
Amerika-Institut
Intensive Program/Freie Universität Berlin: Europe and the US in the 1960s
Session 1: “Eyes on the Prize”: The Struggle for Black Equality and Social Justice in the US and in Germany,
1960-1972
Lecturer: PD Dr. Britta Waldschmidt-Nelson
Student: Robert Winkler
Date: September, 13th 2011
The Rise of Black Power and the Black Panther Party
1.
The Radicalization of the Civil Rights Movement towards Black Power
- the passage of the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965) by President
Johnson eventually gave legal equality and full Civil Rights to African Americans
- these measures were the major successes of the non-violent Civil Rights Movement, led by
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
- but despite these legislative changes, the economic situation of many African Americans
remained horrible and the first in a series of race riots broke out in Watts, L. A., only
two weeks after the passage of the Civil Rights Act
- many African Americans, especially in the northern ghettos, felt that King`s non-violent
approach had not helped to tear down the social and economic walls of racism
> James Meredith was shot on his March against Fear in 1966 and the major Civil Rights
Organizations including King`s SCLC and SNCC decided to continue his project
> Stokeley Carmichael, chairman of SNCC, spoke to the gathering crowd after he had been
arrested for civil disobedience and called for Black Power
> The slogan Black Power attracted nationwide attention and became a powerful
symbol of African American economic, cultural and social independence and selfdetermination
2.
The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense
- Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense (BPP)
in Oakland, California in 1966
- claiming Malcolm X as major influence, the Panthers promoted their constitutional right
to arm themselves in public to protect African American communities from
police violence and discrimination
- built on marxist ideology, the BPP valued its militant freedom struggle within the
context of revolutionary independence movements all over the world, e. g. in Algeria
- besides their para-militaristic approach, the Panthers also organized social programs in the
communities, e. g. the Free Breakfast Program, which offered food and assistance to
neglected African American children
- soon after the Panthers had become a nationwide and hotly debated phenomenon, FBI
director J. Edgar Hoover declared them to be the “greatest threat to national security”
- he started the counterintelligence program COINTELPRO to destroy the BPP through
manipulation and violence, resulting in often deadly confrontations between police
and Panthers
- due to these efforts and internal conflicts, the BPP split and lost influence within the Black
Nationalist movements in the 1970s and eventually dissolved in 1982
- the BPP has achieved iconic status within American political and popular culture and
remains a major signifier of Black Power
3.
The International Impact of the Black Power Movement
- the appearance, strategies and goals of the Black Power Movement exercised strong
magnitude on the emerging NEW LEFT in Western Germany
- the main organ of leftist student resistance was the SDS (Sozialistischer Deutscher
Studentenbund/German Socialist Student League), which was publicly identified with
sociology student Rudi Dutschke
> hosted by the SDS, SNCC delegate Dale Smith spoke at the 1968 Vietnam Congress in
Berlin and demanded more radical forms of resistance against the US military
engagement in Vietnam
- SDS president “KD” Wolff organized the “Black Panther Solidarity Committee” after he
had experienced the work and mission of the BPP first-hand during his stay in the US
- the imprisonment of Panther Angela Davis furthermore mobilized the German Student
Protest Movement and led to the founding of the “Angela Davis Solidarity
Committee”, which sought to raise consciousness about the inherent racist structures
of US society
- BUT: the BPP also served as role-model for leftist terrorist organizations like the RAF
(Rote Armee Fraktion/Red Army Fraction), which aimed to overthrow the capitalist
German State by assassinating its main representatives
> “Konzept Stadtguerilla”
> Question: How did categories of race, class and gender influence and determine the
overall enthusiastic perception of Black Power within the German Student
Protest Movement
Bibliography:
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Frazier, Thomas R. (ed.). Afro-American History. Second Edition. Chicago: The Dorsey Press, 1988.
Hampton, Henry (ed.). Voices of Freedom. An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s
through the 1980s. New York: Bantam Books, 1990.
Joseph, Peniel E. (ed.). The Black Power Movement. Rethinking the Civil Rights-Black Power Era. New
York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, 2006.
Sitkoff, Harvard. The Struggle for Black Equality 1954-1980. New York: Hill and Wang, 1981.
Levine, Toby Kleban (ed.). Eyes on the Prize. America`s Civil Rights Years. A Reader and Guide. New
York: Penguin Books, 1987.