Section XIII: Political Liberalism and Nationalism,
1815-1871
Contemporary Civilization
1958
5. Europe Surrenders to Nationalism, 1848-1871
Robert L. Bloom
Gettysburg College
Basil L. Crapster
Gettysburg College
Harold L. Dunkelberger
Gettysburg College
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Bloom, Robert L. et al. "5. Europe Surrenders to Nationalism, 1848-1871. XIII: Political Liberalism and Nationalism, 1815-1871."
Ideas and Institutions of Western Man (Gettysburg College, 1958), 56-62.
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5. Europe Surrenders to Nationalism, 1848-1871
Abstract
As we have already seen, the year 1848 saw the European continent distracted by insurrectionary outbreaks
that touched every one of the major powers. Liberalism and democracy contributed greatly to the
undercurrents of discontent under the apparent calm of the previous decade, but it was nationalist aspirations
that furnished most of the fuel for the revolutionary fires of that fateful year. In England and France, where the
struggle for unification had long before been won, nationalism played no part. It was in Germany, Italy, and
the Austrian Empire that nationalist agitators filled the larger roles in the several revolutions of 1848. [excerpt]
Keywords
Contemporary Civilization, Revolution, Liberalism, Democracy, Nationalism, Unification
Disciplines
European History | European Languages and Societies | History | Models and Methods
Comments
This is a part of Section XIII: Political Liberalism and Nationalism, 1815-1871. The Contemporary
Civilization page lists all additional sections of Ideas and Institutions of Western Man, as well as the Table of
Contents for both volumes.
More About Contemporary Civilization:
From 1947 through 1969, all first-year Gettysburg College students took a two-semester course called
Contemporary Civilization. The course was developed at President Henry W.A. Hanson’s request with the
goal of “introducing the student to the backgrounds of contemporary social problems through the major
concepts, ideals, hopes and motivations of western culture since the Middle Ages.”
Gettysburg College professors from the history, philosophy, and religion departments developed a textbook
for the course. The first edition, published in 1955, was called An Introduction to Contemporary Civilization and
Its Problems. A second edition, retitled Ideas and Institutions of Western Man, was published in 1958 and 1960.
It is this second edition that we include here. The copy we digitized is from the Gary T. Hawbaker ’66
Collection and the marginalia are his.
Authors
Robert L. Bloom, Basil L. Crapster, Harold L. Dunkelberger, Charles H. Glatfelter, Richard T. Mara, Norman
E. Richardson, and W. Richard Schubart
This book chapter is available at The Cupola: Scholarship at Gettysburg College: http://cupola.gettysburg.edu/contemporary_sec13/
6
XIII
5.
Europe Surrenders
to N a t i o n a l i s m ,
p.
56
1848-1871
As w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , the y e a r 1 8 4 8 saw the E u r o p e a n
c o n t i n e n t d i s t r a c t e d by i n s u r r e c t i o n a r y o u t b r e a k s t h a t t o u c h e d
e v e r y one of the m a j o r p o w e r s .
L i b e r a l i s m and d e m o c r a c y cont r i b u t e d g r e a t l y to the u n d e r c u r r e n t s of d i s c o n t e n t u n d e r the
a p p a r e n t calm of the p r e v i o u s d e c a d e , but it w a s n a t i o n a l i s t
a s p i r a t i o n s that f u r n i s h e d m o s t of the fuel £or~~tne r e v o l u t l o n ary f i r e s of that f a t e f u l y e a r .
In E n g l a n d and F r a n c e , w h e r e
the s t r u g g l e for u n i f i c a t i o n h a d l o n g b e f o r e b e e n w o n , n a t i o n alism p l a y e d no p a r t .
It w a s in G e r m a n y , Italy, and the A u s t r i a n
E m p i r e that n a t i o n a l i s t a g i t a t o r s f i l l e d the l a r g e r r o l e s in
the s e v e r a l r e v o l u t i o n s of 1848.
^
T h e i g n o m i n i o u s f a i l u r e of the F r a n k f u r t A s s e m b l y did not
e n t i r e l y q u a s h the h o p e s of p a t r i o t i c G e r m a n s that they w o u l d
s o m e day be u n i t e d u n d e r o n e flag.
U n i o n , w h e n it c a m e , they
saw, c o u l d c o m e o n l y by d e f y i n g A u s t r i a , a land i n h a b i t e d by
many non-German minorities.
S u c c e s s f u l d e f i a n c e of the H a p s b u r g p o w e r w o u l d be r e a l i z e d only u n d e r the m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p
of A u s t r i a ' s g r e a t G e r m a n r i v a l , P r u s s i a .
S i n c e 1815, the
Hohenzollern rulers of Prussia had worked assiduously —
and
with notable success —
to m a k e of their r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l
k i n g d o m a h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t , d i s c i p l i n e d , and m i l i t a r i l y p o w e r ful s t a t e .
A s s u c h , the P r u s s i a n k i n g d o m c o m m e n d e d i t s e l f to
G e r m a n n a t i o n a l i s t s as a m o d e l for an e n l a r g e d and i n d e p e n d e n t
Germany.
T h e Z o l l v e r e i n of 1 8 3 4 had c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d the
p r a c t i c a l a d v a n t a g e s to he o b t a i n e d from p o l i t i c a l u n i t y , and
w h e n the v i s i o n a r y and l i b e r a l d e l e g a t e s jit F r a n k f u r t failed
B o ^ m i a e r a h l y r G e r m a n nationaliatiTturnefl w l t h " u n d e r a t a n d a b l e
l o g i c to e m b r a c e P r u s s i a n m i l i t a r i s m ^
N a t i o n a l i s t e l e m e n t s in G e r m a n y at l e n g t h d i s c o v e r e d a
c a p a b l e l e a d e r in the p e r s o n of O t t o v o n B i s m a r c K ( l S H P I S a a l ,
a l a n d e d a r i s t o c r a t , a b s o l u t i s t , and m i l i t a r i s t w h o b e c a m e
P r u s s i a ' s c h i e f m i n i s t e r in 1862.
B i s m a r c k had l i t t l e u s e for
p a r l i a m e n t a r y p r o c e s s e s , and h i s i d e a of a siir.r.pnsful policy
w a s o n e wrought., as he s a i d , "lay b l o o d and iron."
He overrode
the P r u s s i a n p a r l i a m e n t , m u z z l e d the p r e s s , s u p p r e s s e d oppoaj.tion f a c t i o n s , and e m p l o y e d d i p l o m a t i c w i l e s to b e g u i l e o t h e r
n a t i o n s into w a r s ~ W H i c h b e n e f i t e d P r u s s i a .
A l m o s t w i t h o u t int e r r u p t i o n he b u i l t u p the army, s t r e n g t h e n e d the e c o n o m y , and
p r o m o t e d the p o w e r of the m o n a r c h y .
~-
In 1864, B i s m a r c k o b t a i n e d the c o o p e r a t i o n of A u s t r i a in a
w a r w i t h D e n m a r k o v e r the l a r g e l y G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g p r o v i n c e s of
S c h l e s w i g and H o i s t e i n .
The Danes were speedily dispossessed
of t h e s e two t e r r i t o r i e s and, not to B i s m a r c k ' s s u r p r i s e ,
P r u s s i a and A u s t r i a q u a r r e l e d o v e r the s p o i l s .
In the S e v e n
W e e k s W a r w h i c h f o l l o w e d , A u s t r i a c o u l d p r o v i d e n o t h i n g to m a t c h
P r u s s i a n m i l i t a r y p r o w e s s , and as B i s m a r c k had i n t e n d e d , P r u s s i a
e m e r g e d as the l e a d i n g G e r m a n s t a t e .
Cannily extending generous
XIII
p.
57
p e a c e t e r m s to the d e f e a t e d A u s t r i a n s , the P r u s s i a n m i n i s t e r
s u c c e e d e d in n e u t r a l i z i n g the H a p s b u r g s as he m o v e d f u r t h e r to
unite Germany under Prussian dominance.
T w o - t h i r d s of G e r m a n y
j o i n e d P r u s s i a in a N o r t h G e r m a n C o n f e d e r a t i o n (1867), g o v e r n e d
by a f e d e r a l p a r l i a m e n t and p r e s i d e d o v e r by the P r u s s i a n k i n g .
O n l y four o t h e r G e r m a n s t a t e s (plus A u s t r i a ) r e m a i n e d o u t s i d e
the P r u s s i a n o r b i t .
B u t o n e a d d i t i o n a l o b s t a c l e w a s left w h i c h
m i g h t p r e v e n t t h e f i n a l u n T f T c a t i o ^ mQft
fievTnany
tim_hnsnio
ajt^itiide--&iH-Kap^
.
N a p o l e o n III faced n o p r o b l e m s of national u n i f i c a t i o n in
Frange_, y e t he d e f e n d e d the b e n e v o l e n t d i c t a t o r s h i p w h i c h he
h a d i m p o s e d as n e c e s s a r y to the c o u n t r y ' s n a t i o n a l s a l v a t i o n .
H e p l a y e d u p the n a m e N a p o l e o n , p r o c l a i m i n g t h a t it " s t a n d s for
o r d e r , a u t h o r i t y , r e l i g i o n , the w e l f a r e of the p e o p l e w i t h i n ,
and w i t h o u t for n a t i o n a l d i g n i t y . "
S e e k i n g to r e p r e s e n t hims e l f as t h e g u a r d i a n of the w e l f a r e of all the F r e n c h p e o p l e ,
the e m p e r o r p u r s u e d a p o l i c y w h i c h w a s d e s i g n e d to i d e n t i f y him
w i t h e a c h of the n u m e r o u s f a c t i o n s in F r a n c e ' s p o l i t i c a l life.
In f o r e i g n a f f a i r s h e e x t e n d e d F r e n c h c o l o n i a l h o l d i n g s , tried
to w i d e n t r a d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s , and e n g a g e d in d o u b t f u l v e n t u r e s
a b r o a d in l a n d s as far a p a r t as the C r i m e a and M e x i c o .
Napoleon
r e l i e d s u c c e s s f u l l y o n the p o p u l a r d e s i r e in F r a n c e to see
n a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e r e h a b i l i t a t e d f o l l o w i n g the v a c i l l a t i o n and
s q u a b b l i n g w h i c h h a d c h a r a c t e r i z e d the S e c o n d R e p u b l i c (18481851).
A l l t h i s r e q u i r e d of h i m , an e s s e n t i a l l y p e a c e l o v i n g
m a n , that he c o n d u c t an a g g r e s s i v e f o r e i g n p o l i c y .
In a d d i t i o n ,
N a p o l e o n s e e m s to h a v e b e e n s i n c e r e l y d e v o t e d to the a b s t r a c t
p r i n c i p l e of n a t i o n a l i s m for all the p e o p l e s of E u r o p e .
This
it w a s , p e r h a p s , that i n d u c e d him to a c q u i e s c e in P r u s s i a ' s
s t e a d y a b s o r p t i o n of o t h e r G e r m a n s t a t e s , and it c e r t a i n l y w a s
a f a c t o r in h i s a c t i v e s u p p o r t of I t a l i a n n a t i o n a l i s t s a g a i n s t
A u s t r i a n r u l e in Italy.
By 1 8 6 9 , h o w e v e r , this o p p o r t u n i s t i c p u r s u i t of a d i f f i c u l t
c o u r s e h a d lost him f r i e n d s a n d w o n him e n e m i e s b o t h w i t h i n and
without France.
H i s d a b b l i n g in I t a l i a n a f f a i r s o n the side of
the a n t i - P a p a l f o r c e s a l i e n a t e d R o m a n C a t h o l i c s in F r a n c e .
When
he at l e n g t h a b a n d o n e d the I t a l i a n n a t i o n a l i s t s he lost the
s u p p o r t of l i b e r a l s in h i s o w n c o u n t r y .
His ill-fated Mexican
adventure destroyed his reputation among French ultraimperialists.
E v e n t u a l l y he faced the n e c e s s i t y of m a k i n g l i b e r a l conc e s s i o n s to the v a r i o u s o p p o s i t i o n g r o u p s in F r a n c e , or e l s e
d i v e r t i n g them by a s u c c e s s f u l v e n t u r e in f o r e i g n a f f a i r s .
Before h e h a d t i m e to d e c i d e d e f i n i t e l y o n e i t h e r of t h e s e two
c o u r s e s he b e c a m e i n v o l v e d in a fatal q u a r r e l w i t h P r u s s i a .
F o r s o m e time the F r e n c h h a d b e e n r e g a r d i n g w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
a n x i e t y the d e v e l o p m e n t of the p o w e r f u l N o r t h G e r m a n C o n f e d e r a t i o n a c r o s s the R h i n e .
T h e i r w o r s t f e a r s s e e m e d j u s t i f i e d in
1 8 6 8 , w h e n the S p a n i s h p e o p l e o f f e r e d their r e c e n t l y v a c a t e d
t h r o n e to a H o h e n z o l l e r n c o u s i n of W i l l i a m I of P r u s s i a .
Conf r o n t e d w i t h the d i r e f u l p r o s p e c t of G e r m a n H o h e n z o l l e r n s j u s t
b e y o n d b o t h the R h i n e a n d the P y r e n e e s , N a p o l e o n p r o t e s t e d .
XIII
p.
58
U n d o u b t e d l y he saw in the o c c a s i o n an o p p o r t u n i t y to b o l s t e r
s u p p o r t for h i s c r u m b l i n g r e g i m e at h o m e by a n a g g r e s s i v e attitude toward Prussia.
In 1 8 7 0 , N a p o l e o n o r d e r e d the F r e n c h
a m b a s s a d o r in B e r l i n to d e m a n d that W i l l i a m f o r e v e r f o r e g o supp o r t for h i s k i n s m a n as k i n g of S p a i n .
So i n s i s t e n t w a s the
e n v o y from P a r i s t h a t W i l l i a m a b r u p t l y d i s m i s s e d h i m , and in a
t e l e g r a m (the E m s D i s p a t c h ) r e p o r t e d the i n c i d e n t to the w i l y
Bismarck.
B i s m a r c k e d i t e d the k i n g ' s r e p o r t in s u c h a w a y that it
a p p e a r e d the F r e n c h a m b a s s a d o r h a d i n s u l t e d the P r u s s i a n k i n g ,
w h o in t u r n h a d c u r t l y and u n r e a s o n a b l y r e j e c t e d the F r e n c h
protest.
N a p o l o e n h a d not w a n t e d w a r but a s u r g e of G e r m a n
j i n g o i s m w a s m o r e t h a n m a t c h e d by P a r i s i a n c r o w d s w h o g a t h e r e d
in the s t r e e t s w i t h c r i e s of " O n to B e r l i n ! "
A s it had b e e n
against Austria, Prussian military might was overwhelming.
A f t e r s i x w e e k s of w a r the inept F r e n c h army w a s r o u t e d and
N a p o l e o n s u r r e n d e r e d h i m s e l f and 8 6 , 0 0 0 of h i s t r o o p s .
Four
m o n t h s l a t e r P a r i s c a p i t u l a t e d a f t e r a s i e g e , and the S e c o n d
E m p i r e w a s b r o u g h t to an i n g l o r i o u s end.
Napoleon abdicated,
and like C h a r l e s X and L o u i s P h i l i p p e b e f o r e h i m , s o u g h t r e f u g e
in E n g l a n d .
R i d of t h e i r e m w e r o r . the F r e n c h c o n v o k e d a N a t i o n a l
A s s e m b l y w h i c h ujidfixjobk ta-Jiegoti a i e — a H p e a c e s e t t l e m e n t w i t h
thje-anemy,.
It w a s not, w i t h P r u s s i a
h n w p Y e j y tOiat the Treaty,...^
qXJ^a^kiftnrt (1871) w a s e v e n t u a l l y a r r a n g e d .
D u r i n g the w a r
the s o u t h e r n G e r m a n s t a t e s joined""ill ah*" a l l i a n c e w i t h the N o r t h
G e r m a n C o n f e d e r a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e i r c o m m o n h e r e d i t a r y foe.
The
u n i o n w a s c o m p l e t e d w h e n an a s s e m b l y of G e r m a n p r i n c e s , g a t h e r e d
i n " t h e f a m o u s H a l l of M i r r o r s at V e r s a i l l e s P a l a c e , h a i l e d
W i l l i a m I as G e r m a n E m p e r o r (1871).
G e r m a n u n i f i c a t i o n w a s at
last a c h i e v e d , n o t u n d e r the a u s p i c e s of l i b e r a l s a n d d e m o c r a t s ,
b u t by P r u s s i a n m i l i t a r i s m a n d the B i s m a r c k i a n p o l i c y of b l o o d
and iron.
The Franco-Prussian w a r , while destroying one empire,
h a d c r e a t e d a n o t h e r , the l a t t e r d e d i c a t e d to the p r o p o s i t i o n
that m i l i t a r i s m w a s t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e w e a p o n of n a t i o n a l i s m .
M e a n w h i l e , the F r e n c h , b u r d e n e d w i t h a h u m i l i a t i n g t r e a t y ,
s t r u g g l e d to form a new g o v e r n m e n t .
In 1 8 7 5 , a f t e r a s t o r m y
p e r i o d of p o l i t i c a l t u r m o i l , the T h i r d R e p u b l i c - w a s firmly e s t a b l i s h e d and it e n d u r e d u n t i l 1940.
I t a l i a n u n i f i c a t i o n c a m e t h r o u g h a c l o s e r c o o p e r a t i o n bet w e e n l i b e r a l s and n a t i o n a l i s t s than in G e r m a n y , but e v e n h e r e
it e v e n t u a l l y o c c u r r e d w h e n m o r e p o w e r - c o n s c i o u s m e n took
charge.
A s w e h a v e s e e n , the e x h o r t a t i o n s of M a z z i n i p r o v i d e d
the I t a l i a n R i s o r g i m e n t o w i t h its a r t i c l e s of faith.
But also,
as in G e r m a n y - l i b e r a l i d e a l i s m s u f f e r e d a d i s a s t r o u s s e t b a c k
in the f a i l u r e of the 1 8 4 8 - 1 8 4 9 r e v o l t a g a i n s t A u s t r i a n d o m i n ance.
F a r s i g h t e d I t a l i a n s r e c o g n i z e d that A u s t r i a n i n f l u e n c e
in I t a l y , the g r e a t e s t o b s t a c l e to u n i f i c a t i o n , w a s too s t r o n g
to be u p r o o t e d by I t a l i a n e f f o r t alone.
Two requirements would
h a v e to be m e t to a c h i e v e b o t h i n d e p e n d e n c e and u n i t y — ; a
f o r e i g n ally m u s t be f o u n d and s o m e I t a l i a n s t a t e w o u l d h a v e to
XIII
59
p r o v e s u f f i c i e n t l y loyal and c a p a b l e to p r o v i d e a r a l l y i n g
p o i n t for I t a l i a n p a t r i o t i s m .
F o r t u n a t e l y , j h e p o t e n t i a l ally
w a s F r a n c e and the I t a l i a n s t a t e w h i c h b e c a m e the n u c l e u s for a
n ~ a t i o n a 1 e f f o r t a p p e a r e d . ,i.n, t h e K i n g d o m p f S a r d i n i a - p i e d m o n t .
T h e p r a c t i c a l p o l i t i c i a n a n d s a g a c i o u s s t a t e s m a n w h o w e l d e d the
two^T^getEiaF^was C a m i l l o di C a v o u r ( 1 8 1 0 - 1 8 6 1 ) . B y _ d i p l o m a c y
and s t a t e c r a f t "Cavour a c c o m p l i s h e d for Italy w h a t B i s m a r c k
a c h i e v e d for Germany,,
By the s t a n d a r d s of h i s d a y , C a v o u r w a s a l i b e r a l , alt h o u g h as a s t a u n c h m o n a r c h i s t h e h a d l i t t l e s y m p a t h y for
Mazzini's republicanism.
H e w a s c o n v i n c e d t h a t the H o u s e of
Savoy 5 w h i c h r u l e d in h i s n a t i v e S a r d i n i a - P i e d m o n t , could lead
the w a y to the r e a l i z a t i o n of the d r e a m s of I t a l i a n n a t i o n a l i s t s
In 1 S 5 0 jnavour b e c a m e M i n i s t e r o f A g r i c u l t u r e and C o m m e r c e ,
and in t h i s p o s t he s o u g h t to m a k e the k i n g d o m b o t h m a t e r i a l l y
and m o r a l l y w o r t h y of the c a u s e he h a d in m i n d .
He p r o m o t e d ,
industrial d e v e l o p m e n t
bail* r a i l w a y s , n e g o t i a t e d c o m m e r c i a l
t r e a t f e S j and r a i s e d a n army from the i n c r e a s e d t a x e s w h i c h he
p e r s u a d e d the p a r l i a m e n t to- le»y.
Although these policies
a p p e a r to p a r a l l e l t h o s e of B i s m a r c k in Prussia., C a v o u r m a d e
Sardinia-Piedmont a pattern of liberal goypynme^t'
His reforms
were" heFaTa*ed~~tnroughout Italy and the r e s t o f the w o r l d (as an
e x - j o u r n a l i s t C a v o u r w a s a d e p t at p u b l i c i t y ) and S a r d i n i a ' s
e f f o r t s w o n the r e s p e c t and a d m i r a t i o n o f w e s t e r n E u r o p e .
Part i c u l a r l y in t h e o t h e r I t a l i a n s t a t e s the g r o s s l y m i s g o v e r n e d
p o p u l a c e r e g a r d e d the k i n g d o m as a m o d e l and looked to it for
leadership.
Cavour s external policies were perhaps even more notew o r t h y and d r a m a t i c .
A w a r e that I t a l i a n u n i f i c a t i o n w o u l d m o s t
l i k e l y be a c c o m p l i s h e d by s h r e w d d i p l o m a c y r a t h e r than by fervid
r e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e a l i s m a l o n e , he i n j e c t e d the " I t a l i a n Q u e s t i o n "
i n t o the c o u n c i l s o f E u r o p e .
H i s b i g c h a n c e c a m e in 1853 w i t h
the o u t b r e a k of the C r i m e a n W a r .
A g a i n s t the a d v i c e of m a n y of
h i s c o m p a t r i o t s w h o w e r e l e s s p e r c e p t i v e than h e , C a v o u r p e r s u a d e d t h e S a r d i n i a n p a r l i a m e n t to e n t e r the w a r as an ally of
F r a n c e and E n g l a n d a g a i n s t R u s s i a .
T h e s m a l l S a r d i n i a n army
g a v e a g o o d a c c o u n t of i t s e l f .
"Never mind," declared a Sardini a n s o l d i e r s t r u g g l i n g in the m u d b e f o r e S e v a s t o p o l , " o f t h i s
m u d Italy w i l l b e m a d e . "
•
F o r h e r p a r t in the v i c t o r y , S a r d i n i a w a s a w a r d e d a seat
at the c o n g r e s s of P a r i s (1856) w h e r e the p e a c e w a s to be m a d e .
C a v o u r w e n t to the F r e n c h c a p i t a l d e t e r m i n e d to i n t r o d u c e the
I t a l i a n Q u e s t i o n i n t o the d e l i b e r a t i o n s .
Although he received
l i t t l e m o r e t h a n s y m p a t h y from G r e a t B r i t a i n , h e s u c c e e d e d in
a r o u s i n g the n a t i o n a l i s t s e n t i m e n t s of N a p o l e o n III.
In 1 8 5 8 ,
N a p o l e o n a g r e e d to s u p p o r t S a r d i n i a a g a i n s t A u s t r i a in a " W a r
for I t a l i a n L i b e r a t i o n . "
In r e t u r n for the l o n g - d e s i r e d p r o v i n c e s of N i c e a n d S a v o y , the F r e n c h e m p e r o r p l e d g e d m i l i t a r y
assistance.
Not only did Cavour play upon Napoleon's wellk n o w n n a t i o n a l i s t s e n t i m e n t s , b u t he d a n g l e d b e f o r e him the
p r o s p e c t of w e a k e n i n g A u s t r i a , the c o u n t r y w h i c h the F r e n c h
XIII
e m p e r o r h a d l o n g r e g a r d e d as the c h i e f r i v a l of F r a n c e on
European continent.
p.
the
A t first the w a r , w h i c h b r o k e in 1 8 5 9 , w e n t w e l l for the
a l l i e d S a r d i n i a n and F r e n c h troops.
The Austrians were driven
b a c k in b l o o d y b a t t l e s , and from all o v e r the I t a l i a n b o o t
patriots came flocking.
R e v o l t s b r o k e o u t in o t h e r I t a l i a n
s t a t e s , and the p r o s p e c t s fc^r"""T""r"""T"i"a^
Sardinian l e a d e r s h i p s e e m e d b r i g h t .
As this point, however, Napoleon
grew alarmed.
S a r d i n i a as a s t r o n g b u f f e r s t a t e w a s o n e t h i n g ,
but a u n i t e d Italy o n h i s s o u t h e r n b o r d e r s s u d d e n l y a p p e a r e d to
be something else.
M o r e o v e r , R o m a n C a t h o l i c s in F r a n c e , f e a r ful that u n i f i c a t i o n in Italy w o u l d r e s u l t in the a b s o r p t i o n
of the P a p a l S t a t e s , c r i t i c i z e d N a p o l e o n ' s p o l i c y .
Fearing
a l s o that P r u s s i a m i g h t i n t e r v e n e o n the s i d e of A u s t r i a ,
a l m o s t w i t h o u t w a r n i n g N a p o l e o n a b a n d o n e d the c a m p a i g n and
signed a separate peace w i t h the Hapsburgs=
The disillusioned
S a r d i n i a n s , usaable to p u r s u e the w a r f u r t h e r w i t h o u t F r e n c h
a i d , w e r e c o m p e l l e d to © o n t e n t t h e m s e l v e s w i t h the u n i o n of
m o s t o f Italy n o r t h of the P a p a l S t a t e s u n d e r t h e i r k i n g ,
V i c t o r E m m a n u e l II (1849-1878).
A s a r e w a r d for h i s s h o r t l i v e d i n t e r v e n t i o n , N a p o l e o n o b t a i n e d N i c e and S a v o y , an a c q u i s i t i o n l a t e r c o n f i r m e d by a p l e b i s c i t e .
T h e P a p a l S t a t e s and the K i n g d o m of the T w o gjLcjjjj3s w e r e
y e t to~"***ge^jpined to tne r e s t of Tt.aTy w h i l e V e n e t i a a n d it!
h i s t o r i c p o r t of V e n i c e w e r e y e t u n d e r A u s t r i a n c o n t r o l
t h i s j u n c t u r e G u i s e p p e G a r i b a l d i ( 1 8 0 7 - 1 8 8 2 ) a p p e a r e d on the
scene.
A w a r r i o r and seasoned revolutionary, Garibaldi w a s
f a m o u s all o v e r Italy for h i s d a r i n g .
W h e n w o r d a r r i v e d of an
i n c i p i e n t r e v o l u t i o n o n the i s l a n d of Sicily,, t h i s r o u g h freel a n c e a d v e n t u r e r r e s p o n d e d to an i n v i t a t i o n t o l e a d t h e l i b e r ation movement.
With a volunteer regiment of "red-shirts."
G a r i b a l d i l e d h i s c e l e b r a t e d " O n e T h o u s a n d " (actually 1 , 1 5 0
m e n ) in an i n v a s i o n of the i s l a n d in I860,. W i t h i n six m o n t h s
h e h a d _won t h o u s a n d s of S i c i l i a n s to h i s cause~"""aT***a_ nan w r e s t e d
t^ieJJ*rsTand f r o m i t s B o u r b o n p r i n c e . ~ In S e p t e m b e r ^ G a r i b a T d i T s
h o s t , n S W ^ g r e a i l y e n l a r g e d , c r o s s e d to N a p l e s , m e t only f e e b l e
r e s i s t a n c e , a n d q u i c k l y c o m p l e t e d the c o n q u e s t o f s o u t h e r n
Italy.
C a v o u r f e a r e d the r e p e r c u s s i o n s in E u r o p e s h o u l d G a r i b a l d i i n v a d e R o m e , and to f o r e s t a l l t h i s V i c t o r E m m a n u e l II led
an army i n t o the P a p a l S t a t e s .
Garibaldi's devotion to his king
p e r s u a d e d him to s u r r e n d e r h i s c o n q u e s t s ,
Plebiscites, a pract i c e i n c r e a s i n g l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h n a t i o n a l i s t p r o c e d u r e s in
E u r o p e , r e s u l t e d in o v e r w h e l m i n g p o p u l a r a p p r o v a l of a n n e x a t i o n
to S a r d i n i a .
A n I t a l i a n p a r l i a m e n t m e t in 1 8 6 1 , and p r o c l a i m e d
V i c t o r E m m a n u e l " K i n g of Italy."
In 1 8 6 6 , Italy e n t e r e d i n t o a c o n v e n i e n t a l l i a n c e w i t h
P r u s s i a in the S e v e n W e e k s W a r a g a i n s t A u s t r i a .
N e i t h e r the
P a p a l S t a t e s n o r V e n e t i a w e r e yet i n c l u d e d w i t h i n the new r e a l m .
C a v o u r d i e d in 1 8 6 1 , b u t h i s s u c c e s s f u l m i x t u r e of o p p o r t u n i s m
a n d a s t u t e d i p l o m a c y f o r m e d the b a s i s of the p o l i c i e s of h i s
successors.
F o r t h e i r p a r t in t h i s s u c c e s s f u l s t r u g g l e , the
60
XIII
p.
61
Italians acquired Venetia.
R o m e , a l t h o u g h p r o c l a i m e d the p r o s p e c t i v e c a p i t a l of Italy by the I t a l i a n p a r l i a m e n t , s t i l l rem a i n e d a p a r t , s i n c e N a p o l e o n ' s t r o o p s o c c u p i e d the E t e r n a l
C i t y to p r o t e c t p a p a l i n t e r e s t s .
H o w e v e r , w h e n F r a n c e fell
b e f o r e the P r u s s i a n o n s l a u g h t in 1 8 7 0 , F r e n c h s o l d i e r s w e r e
rejnoyed f r o m R o m e , and w i t 1 ^ " ^ m ™ " f e t a ^ ^ a 1 H i g r i t r o o p s took
possession..
Mazzini's dream and Cavour's great objective were
at last a r e a l i t y , and for the f i r s t t i m e in m o r e t h a n a t h o u s a n d y e a r s Italy w a s a u n i f i e d a n d i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n .
T h e A u s t r i a n E m p i r e , w h i c h h a d b a t t l e d v a l i a n t l y if u n s u c c e s s f u l l y a g a i n s t n a t i o n a l i s t u p r i s i n g s in G e r m a n y and I t a l y ,
c o n f r o n t e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y n a t i o n a l i s m at h o m e .
A f t e r the failure of the M a g y a r r e v o l t of 1 8 4 8 - 1 8 4 9 , the s e v e r e and a u t o c r a t i c
H a p s b u r g p o l i c y f a i l e d to e x t i n g u i s h H u n g a r i a n d e s i r e s for
national independence.
Extremist revolutionaries, like Louis
K o s s u t h , w e r e b r o k e n a n d d i s c r e d i t e d by t h e i r f a i l u r e , and the
w a y w a s now o p e n for the r i s e of m o d e r a t e M a g y a r n a t i o n a l i s t s
s u c h as F r a n c i s Delik ( 1 8 0 3 - 1 8 7 6 ) .
A nobleman, lawyer, and
s t a t e s m a n , De*ak e x e r t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e t h r o u g h
his
p a t i e n t and i n t e l l i g e n t p o l i c y of n e g o t i a t i o n r a t h e r than r e v o lution.
A f t e r the e a r l y m i l i t a r y d e f e a t s a d m i n i s t e r e d to
A u s t r i a in the W a r for I t a l i a n L i b e r a t i o n in 1 8 5 9 , the e m p e r o r
a d m i t t e d t h e ' n e e d for i n t e r n a l r e f o r m .
In an e f f o r t to s t i f l e
the d o m e s t i c d i s c o r d . w h i c h w o u l d w r e c k the e m p i r e , F r a n c i s
Joseph (1848-1916) listened with interest to Peak's proposal
for a " d u a l m o n a r c h y . " . U n d e r it the M a g y a r s w o u l d , g a i n a u t o n o m y .and would"" s h a r e w1 +.h"TK*e r.e.^ma1E****ii1ic||"^ a n s r u l e o f t h e r e m a i n i n g s u b j e c t n a t i o n a l i t i e s w i t h i n the empire..
T h i s u n i q u e a r r a n g e m e n t w « to "asJca-^fW8**CT'T~"W^MEhi<agJU^
virtuajTy- independent, ot e a o h o t h e r e v n e p t for a c o m m o n sovereign.
E a c h w o u l d h a v e its o w n c o n s t i t u t i o n „ p a r l i a m e n t .
miuiistry^^Tand^postal a n d m o n e t a r y systems..
An imperial mini s t r y , w i t h " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from b o t h s t a t e s , w o u l d c o n d u c t
f o r e i g n a f f a i r s u n d e r the s u p e r v i s i o n a n d a u t h o r i t y of the
emperor.
E a c h w o u l d p r o v i d e r e v e n u e s for the c o m m o n n e e d s ,
and t a r i f f s b e t w e e n them w o u l d b e s e t t l e d by d i r e c t n e g o t i a t i o n .
F r a n c i s J o s e p h a n d h i s s u c c e s s o r s w o u l d be c r o w n e d in b o t h
countries —
a s e m p e r o r in A u s t r i a a n d k i n g in H u n g a r y -- and
they w o u l d r e t a i n p r a c t i c a l l y a u t o c r a t i c p o w e r s in e a c h .
A u s t r i a ' s d i s a s t r o u s d e f e a t in the w a r w i t h P r u s s i a in
1 8 6 7 led to a q u i c k a c c e s s i o n to D e a k ' s p r o p o s a l .
T h e dual
m o n a r c h y e s t a b l i s h e d in that y e a r l a s t e d u n t i l the e n d of W o r l d
W a r I in 1918.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , the m i n o r i t y n a t i o n a l i t i e s in
Austria-Hungary —
Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Ruthenians, Croats,
Slovenes, Serbs, Rumanians, and Italians —
remained restive, a
r e s t i v e n e s s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d g r e a t l y to the o u t b r e a k of W o r l d
W a r I in 1914.
A final w o r d o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of n a t i o n a l i s m in e a s t e r n
E u r o p e d u r i n g the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s h o u l d b e a d d e d .
Russia's
d e f e a t in the C r i m e a n W a r led in 1 8 5 6 to the l i b e r a t i o n of the
XIII
p.
p e o p l e o f M o l d a v i a a n d W a l l a c h i a f r o m the R u s s i a n p r o t e c t o r a t e
o v e r them.
T h e i r l e a d e r s a p p r o a c h e d the C o n g r e s s o f P a r i s w i t h
p l e a s for n a t i o n a l u n i o n u n d e r a f o r e i g n p r i n c e .
A plebiscite
w a s a r r a n g e d w h i c h r e s u l t e d in the c r e a t i o n of R u m a n i a in 1861.
These events struck the spark of nationalism among other Balkan
peoples.
O n e by o n e they c a s t o f f T u r k i s h c o n t r o l , and by 1 8 7 8
R u m a n i a , S e r b i a , a n d M o n t e n e g r o w e r e r e c o g n i z e d as i n d e p e n d e n t
s t a t e s by the g r e a t p o w e r s .
Bulgaria, still nominally under
Turkish control, gained considerable autonomy.
62