What Role Does Visualization Play in Communication
with Citizens? –
A Field Study from the Interactive Landscape Plan
Bartlett WARREN-KRETZSCHMAR and Simone TIEDTKE
Abstract
The potential of the new media to support citizen participation in landscape planning and to
improve citizen understanding and acceptance of environmental measures was examined in
the implementation and development project (E+E-Vorhaben)1 “Interactive Landscape
Plan Koenigslutter am Elm” (http://www.koenigslutter.deå Button: Interaktiver
Landschaftsplan). An online landscape planning system was developed and tested during
the development of the landscape plan for Koenigslutter am Elm, an agricultural
community in the southeast corner of Lower Saxony, Germany with approx. 17,800
citizens and 17 incorporated town districts.
The investigation of the role of visualization in the communication with citizens during the
landscape planning process was central to the project. A wide variety of visualization
methods were used to support citizen participation in town meetings and on the Internet
platform. In a field study in the district of Bornum, four different visualization methods
(sketches, photomontage, VNS-renderings and Lenné3D) were tested during a town
meeting and citizens’ reactions to the visualizations were gathered. The objective of the
field study was to identify characteristics of the visualization methods that citizens
considered important for the understanding and discussion of the planning proposals. The
field study and findings are described and recommendations for the use of visualization in
the participation process are made.
1
Introduction
Greater public participation in the landscape planning processes is a European political
goal supported by the Aarhus Convention and something that citizens have grown to
1
From April 2002 until February 2005 an interdisciplinary team at the University of Hanover
composed of landscape planners, computer programmers and social scientists accompanied the
preparation of a landscape plan in Koenigslutter am Elm, which was carried out by the city of
Koenigslutter and an independent planning office (entera). The project team at the University of
Hanover consists of:
Dept. of Landscape Planning and Nature Conservation: Prof. Dr. Christina von Haaren and Dr.
Manfred Redslob (project managers), Arne Neumann, Barty Warren-Kretzschmar, Roland
Hachmann, Carolin Galler;
Dept. of Applied Systems: Prof. Dr. Erich Wolter (project manager), Karl-Ingo Friese;
Dept. of Open Space Planning and Sociology of Planning: Prof. Dr. Bettina Oppermann (project
manager), Simone Tiedtke
B. Warren-Kretzschmar and S. Tiedtke
2
expect. The advantages of using computer-generated visualization techniques for public
involvement in decision-making have long been recognized (LANGE 1994, HOWARD ET. AL
1996, SCHIFFER 2001). Increasingly, research is addressing the development and use of
visualization tools which can effectively support participatory landscape planning
(LENNÉ3D 2005, VISULANDS 2005) and the effective integration of visualization into the
planning process (LANGE ET. AL 2003, APPLETON & LOVETT 2003). As visualization tools
continue to be improved and optimized, the questions remain:
• Which characteristics of the visualizations are crucial for the support of citizen
participation in the planning process?
• Which of the visualization methods are best suited for the different landscape
planning tasks?
• How can visualization be successfully employed in citizen participation activities,
both online and offline, and which organizational aspects are important?
2
Visualization and Participation in the Interactive Landscape
Plan
The objective of the visualization in the Interactive Landscape Plan was to help citizens
understand the spatial and temporal processes in the landscape, to comprehend the planning
proposals as well as to promote communication and interest in the landscape plan. The
choice of visualization methods was dependent on the audience, the size of the site,
resources, as well as the planning objectives and participatory situation, i.e. Internet,
workshop, town meeting (CP. AL-KODMANY 1999). Moreover, in Koenigslutter a wide
variety of visualization techniques were tested in order to determine which characteristics
of the visualization citizens considered important for different planning tasks.
Fig. 1:
The visualization techniques used to support the citizen participation
What Role Does Visualization Play in Communication with Citizens?
3
The visualization techniques ranged from 2D methods of landscape visualization, such as
interactive maps and digital photomontage, to 3D-models and virtual reality (VR) (See
Fig. 1). In cooperation with the Leibniz-Centre for Agricultural Landscape and Land Use
Research (ZALF), a prototype of the real-time VR software system Lenné3D2 was also
tested. The different techniques offered a variety of interactive options and degrees of
photo realism as well as different levels of GIS support that are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Overview of visualization methods and their attributes
Dynamic
navigation
Interactivity
(of image)
Photorealistic
GISsupported
Internet
Interactive maps /
Aerial photos
+
-
-/+
++/-
++
Panorama photos
+
-
++
-
+
Photomontage
-
+
++
-
+
Sketches
-
++
-
-
-
Rendering of 3DModel (VNS)
-
+
+
++
+
VRML (Scene
Express)
++
-
+
+
++
Lenné3D/
LandXplorer
++
+
++
++
-
Legend: - unsuitable, + suitable, ++ very suitable
During the project an open source layer visualization tool (LaVisTo) was developed to give
still images an interactive function, in which parts of the image could be shown or hidden.
This allowed the individual planning measures to be turned “on or off” in the visualization
(See Fig. 2). An image of the simulated planning measures was prepared with a
visualization software (in this case VNS and Photoshop) and images of the individual
2
The research project Lenné3D (www.lenne3d.de) is sponsored by the Deutsche Bundesstiftung
Umwelt (DBU).
4
B. Warren-Kretzschmar and S. Tiedtke
measures were saved in separate files. The tool then produces an interactive HTML version
of the image, in which the measures in the overview map were linked with the planning
measures in the visualization.
Fig. 2: Still images are made interactive with LaVisTo.
2.1 Citizens Participate Online and Offline
An Internet platform as well as “participation projects,” which focused on specific local
environmental issues, formed the basis for information, communication and participation
with citizens during the planning process in Koenigslutter. The participation projects
provided the opportunity to discuss topics that were relevant to both the planners and the
public, such as a bicycle path concept, visual quality issues, soil erosion and the
renaturalisation of a local floodplain (See Fig. 3). Citizens could participate in town
meetings, excursions, seminars and working groups in which visualization techniques were
tested and their effectiveness examined.
Throughout the landscape planning process, interactive maps of the most recent GIS data
of the landscape plan were visualized in the Internet using the UMN MapServer. Citizens
were encouraged to review the data online during the inventory and analysis phase and to
make comments and corrections as well as to make comments on the completed draft of the
landscape plan and report using a web-based participation tool that was developed for the
project.
What Role Does Visualization Play in Communication with Citizens?
2002
2003
2004
measures
final
version
objectives
plan of action
1st phase: inventory review
citizen participation
Fig. 3:
2005
draft version
Landscape plan
inventory & analysis
5
project:
bicycle path
campaign:
„animal of the
month“
project:
visual quality
2nd phase:
comments on
draft version
project:
soil erosion
project:
floodplain
renaturalisation
campaign :
„distinctive trees“
Structuring of the participation process in Koenigslutter in phases and projects
2.2 Visualization Supports the Participation Projects
Visualization served a variety of functions throughout the participation projects that
included illustrating background information, acquiring local knowledge and citizen
opinions as well as supporting presentations and discussions in town meetings (See Table
2). The participants’ reactions to the various visualization methods were recorded with
questionnaires, interviews, and participatory observations (OPPERMANN & TIEDTKE 2004).
Furthermore, the visualization supported the documention of the planning information and
the results of the citizen participation in the Internet.
In the participation project “visual quality”, citizens from two Koenigslutter districts,
Rottorf and Groß Steinum, had the opportunity to express their opinions about landscape
preferences and problems in person, as well as virtually, using panorama photos and an
opinion questionnaire in the online discussion forum. In a community meeting, citizens
discussed the visual effects of proposed hedgerows on the landscape using an interactive
photomontage in which proposed hedges could be displayed or hidden. Afterwards the
visualization was accessible in the Internet and used to document the consensus of the
discussion. Citizens also simulated their own vision of the landscape in a hands-on
workshop using photomontage techniques.
Discussions with farmers about soil conservation methods were the focus of the
participation project “soil erosion” in the Bornum district. Planners developed scenarios
B. Warren-Kretzschmar and S. Tiedtke
6
that were simulated with four different visualization techniques and used to support
discussions in a town meeting with interested citizens and farmers. This town meeting
provided the setting for the comparison of citizens’ reactions to the different visualization
techniques and is described in more detail in section 3.
Finally, a concept for the renaturalization of the Schunter river and surrounding floodplain
was discussed in the participation project “renaturalization”. In a town meeting a film
presented the local situation and the opinions of various interest groups about stream
renaturalization. Using VNS, an overview of the planning area was visualized and linked to
“before and after” images of the planning measures. The presentation of the proposed
planning in the town meeting was also supported with a tour through a VRML model that
simulated the site conditions in 15 years.
Objective of the
visualization in the citizen
participation
Visualization method
Project:
Visual Determine citizen preferences of Panorama photos
landscape types and develop
Quality
planning
alternatives
with Interactive Photomontage
(Rottorf,
citizens
Groß Steinum)
„Hands on“ workshop:
citizen-generated
photomontage
Project: Soil Erosion
(Bornum)
Project:
Renaturalization
(Beienrode)
Visual support for the discussion Panorama photo
of planning alternatives
Sketches
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Photomontage (interactive)
X
X
VNS (interactive)
X
X
Lenné3D
X
Simulate visual and spatial Film
effects of planning proposals
VNS
VRML (Scene Express) –
VR 3D-Model
3
Internet
Topic
Town
meeting
Table 2: Overview of visualization methods used in the participation projects
X
X
X
X
X
X
Field Study in Bornum
In a series of meetings during the winter of 2003/04, farmers and planners discussed the
problems of soil erosion in an agricultural part of the Bornum district. Based on the
information gathered from the local farmers, planners prepared scenarios for the area that
incorporated soil conservation and nature protection goals. In March 2004 farmers,
interested groups and citizens were invited to discuss the senarios in a town meeting. In
preparation for the discussion, the planning scenarios were simulated using four different
What Role Does Visualization Play in Communication with Citizens?
7
visualization methods which offered a variety of navigation possibilities, interactivity and
photo realistic qualities:
•
Sketches, which can be considered a low-end interactive method of visualization,
were drawn from four locations that combined a bird’s eye view of the planning
measures with more detailed eye-level drawings of specific areas in the eastern
half of the site. The artist prepared black and white line drawings on paper (size:
A2) of the existing site conditions and, in a second set of drawings, rendered the
proposed planning measures in color. During the discussions the artist sketched
the suggestions made by participants on tracing paper which was hung over the
drawings.
•
A digital photomontage, created from a 180° panorama photo of the site,
simulated the planning measures on the western half of the planning area. In the
preparation of the photomontage, LaVisTo was used to link the individual
measures with an overview map in which the planning measures could be
interactively displayed or hidden. This limited interactivity allowed participants to
compare the existing site conditions with the simulated proposed planning
measures.
•
The program VNS was used to create 3D renderings of the simulated planning
proposals in the western half of the site. A 3D-landscape model was generated
from on a digital elevation model (DEM) and GIS habitat data, and vegetation and
structures in the model were visualized using textures, 3D-objects and billboards.
In addition to “before and after” images from different viewpoints, an overview of
the planning measures was rendered and prepared with LaVisTo, so that measures,
either individual or in groups, could be “turned on and off”.
•
A prototype of the Lenné3D system visualized the eastern portion of the site with
the interactive 3D-map editor (LandXplorer) which navigated a 3D model
generated from a DEM, high resolution aerial photos as well as historical land use
and habitat information. Using the 3D-map editor citizens’ comments could be
interactively located in the landscape model during the discussion with keywords,
lines and polygons. In addition Lenné3D’s 3D-player provided citizens with a
virtual reality experience, in which the distribution of detailed, botanically correct
plant models were visualized in real time for a 1.1km2 portion of the site.
The visualizations were set up at four different stations (See Fig. 4), and a technician
familiar with the visualization technique was available to present the visualization during
the small group discussion. At each station aerial photographs and large topographic maps
which showed the location of the planning measures were used to record comments and,
when necessary, help participants to orient themselves during the discussion.
B. Warren-Kretzschmar and S. Tiedtke
8
Fig. 4:
Four visualization stations at the town meeting in Bornum.
After a general introduction to the nature protection scenarios and presentation of the
agenda for the evening, the 30 participants were divided randomly into four groups and
directed to one of the stations where the group discussed the scenarios for 20 minutes
before moving on to the next station. Each group had a moderator and an observer as well
as an expert available to answer questions about the planning proposals. The moderator and
observer stayed with the group as they moved around the stations. The observers recorded
how the participants reacted to the visualization and how they used the visualization during
the discussion. After rotating around the four stations, the participants had time to fill out a
questionnaire and discussed their reaction to the different visualization methods before the
results of the small group discussions were presented and discussed in the plenum.
Field study results
In addition to the short questionnaire, the reports from the four moderators, four
observation protocols, and reports from the technicians formed the basis for the analysis of
the participants’ reactions.
•
Interactivity and flexibility were requested
The citizens welcomed the visualization and used it actively in the discussions to locate
their comments and to illustrate or emphasize their ideas. The possibility to view different
What Role Does Visualization Play in Communication with Citizens?
9
perspectives of the landscape was important in the communication with the citizens.
Particpants instructed the technicians to pan to certain areas, or they wanted “to go” to a
specific place in the visualization and were disappointed when it was not possible. The
citizens also commented that the visualization helped them to understand the “where” and
“what ” of the proposed planning measures. Repeatedly, citizens wished to see their own
ideas visualized immediately or to make changes to the existing visualization. During the
discussion citizens frequently made use of the possibility to „turn” individual planning
measures “on and off“ in the photomontage and VNS simulations. Some participants
found the comparison of the current and future status of the planning essential for their
assessment of the proposal. The comparison of planning alternatives and conditions
provided an important method for helping citizens understand and evaluate the effects of
the proposed measures and constitutes a minimum requirement for the interactivity of
visualization systems. Also, the interactive capability of Lenné3D to locate comments,
polygons and objects in the 3D-map was actively used in the discussion and is a promising
development in participation-based visualization.
•
2D supports orientation
The participants were very familiar with the planning area, nevertheless, 2D maps and
aerial photos with recognizable landmarks were important orientation tools for the citizens
and they provided a good means for documenting the participants’ comments. On the one
hand, citizens asked to see the planning from different perspectives. On the other hand,
many citizens found that the rapid navigation through the 3D-model was difficult to follow
and they became disoriented. This supports the findings in transportation planning that
participants preferred static 3D images to VR representations (BAILEY ET. AL, 2002) and
illustrates the importance of understanding the participants’ experience with the
visualization.
•
Realistic but not too (photo) realistic
The farmers in Koenigslutter expected a (photo) realistic representation of the status quo,
questioning the data source and paying close attention that the details of the visualization
portrayed the existing site conditions. When details did not agree with their knowledge or
perception of the site, farmers were sceptical of the validity of further visualizations and
accused the simulations of making the planning “look good”. Although some of the details
of the visualized scenarios were criticised, e.g. seasonal inconsistencies of flowering trees
or “standard” hedges, the disagreement about the details did not prevent citizens from
understanding and discussing the content of the planning proposals. The detailed, accurate
visualizations made clear exactly which citizens were affected by the planning measures
causing, in some cases, heated discussions with individual landowners. The challenge
remains to find a level of detail for the visualization which sufficiently illustrates the
planning, but which also conveys the process-oriented character of planning.
•
More challenges for moderators
The use of the visualization in the town meeting offered the moderators an extra challenge.
In addition to directing and documenting the discussion, the moderators coordinated the
various visualization tools during the discussion. (In Bornum a technician was responsible
for the presentation of the visualization so that the moderator could concentrate on the
10
B. Warren-Kretzschmar and S. Tiedtke
content and progress of the discussion.). Despite the predominant presence of the
visualization during the town meeting, the visualization never dominated or determined the
direction of the discussions. However the visualization could not support topics that were
not related to the specific planning measures, e.g. agricultural subsidies.
4
Conclusion and Recommendations
The experience showed that citizens actively used a variety of visualizations in the
participation process. The available visualization methods supported many of the planning
tasks, however the “wish list” of both planners and citizens suggests areas in which
visualization techniques can be developed in order to better support citizen participation in
landscape planning.
•
Participants who were excited by the visualizations were often disappointed that the
technology did not support the possibility to visualize their suggestions or planning
ideas immediately. Flexible visualization techniques that can interactively visualize
new ideas or edit the existing visualization “on the fly” would be an asset in the
communication with citizens during the planning process. Such visualization tools
could help citizens express their thoughts as pictures, helping them to become active
participants in the planning discussion.
•
Citizens would have liked to see the development or progress of the planning measures
over time. In Koenigslutter participants had to suffice with “before and after” images
of the planning, but 4D visualizations that demonstrate the long-term effects of
planning proposals and temporal landscape processes would offer citizens an
understanding of landscape processes which 3D visualizations can not.
•
The visualization methods used in Königslutter required the planner to specify the
details of the planning measures well in advance so that simulations could be
generated prior to a town meeting. However, planners would have preferred flexible
visualization techniques that allowed them to develop the specifics of the planning
measures with citizens during meetings. Planners also requested visualization
techniques that support the iterative character of the planning process and illustrate
invisible or incremental landscape processes, such as soil erosion, which are often
difficult to explain to citizens. Such conceptual representations of the landscape and
their use in the planning require further research and planners need to formulate
criteria for the development of suitable software applications.
•
Finally, it remains unclear exactly how often and with what kind of success the
visualizations were used over the Internet platform. This aspect of visualization in the
participation process deserves further investigation.
The choice of “where” and “what is visualized” focuses attention on specific planning
locations and issues during the participation process. Therefore, these decisions need to be
transparent, and when appropriate, citizens should be included in the decision process. It
What Role Does Visualization Play in Communication with Citizens?
11
then becomes the task of the planner to determine which visualization methods best support
the participation. The investigation in Koenigslutter showed that the citizens placed diverse
requirements on the visualization which could only be fulfilled through a combination of
visualization methods. For example, citizens preferred 2D maps and aerial photos for
orientation and documentation of their comments during the discussion. But they took
advantage of the dynamic navigation offered by Lenné3D’s 3D-map editor to view the site
from different points of view, thereby improving their spatial understanding of the
planning. And the participants used the comparison of the “before and after” visualizations
of the planning scenarios to assess the visual effects of the proposed planning measures.
Furthermore, the choice of visualization methods and their effective integration into the
planning and participation process requires good project management that coordinates the
planning and visualization requirements. Finally, the moderator plays a crucial role in the
successful integration of the visualization during the discussion. In order to ensure a
smooth presentation of the visualization, an assistant responsible for the demonstration of
the visualization as well as a “dress rehearsal” are indispensable.
5
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Terrain Modeling with GPS and Real-Time in Landscape
Architecture
Peter PETSCHEK
GPS is the abbreviation for NAVSTAR GPS, which stands for Navigation System with
Time And Ranging Global Positioning System. RT means Real Time. The research project
addresses the application of GPS and RT in Landscape Architecture.
As early as 1788, the famous English landscape gardener Humphrey Repton used business
flyers to promote his services. „Completely engraved, it shows an elegant Repton with a
theodolite, directing labourers within an ideal landscape that is derived from Milton’s
L’Allegro.” (G. Carter, P. Goode, K. Laurie: Humphry Repton Landscape Gardener 17521818. Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts Publication, 1982, S. 12/13). 1000 copies of the
flyer were made. This image also proves that long before dozers, graders and other
machines became regular landscape construction tools, surveying instruments were the first
high-tech tools in landscape architecture.
Repton was not only innovative in marketing and using surveying equipment but also in the
visualization of projects. This landscape architect was the inventor of the Red Book. The
name derives from the cover of the book which is red leather. On opening it you will first
read a text which describes the landscape project. On the following page is a painting, in
watercolours of the existing situation. But it is not a normal painting. Part of it is painted on
a piece of cardboard which is removable. When you take it away, the proposed situation
can be seen. Repton always presented his projects with a Red Book. Very often the clients
were so impressed that he was immediately hired.
In recent years new developments in surveying and visualization have taken place, which
also affect how we receive data and visualize terrain in Landscape Architecture.
Fig. 1:
Humphrey Repton, Landscape Gardener (1752-1818)
2
Peter PETSCHEK
Fig. 2: Red Book with an existing situation
situation
1
Fig. 3: Red Book with a planned
GPS - Global Positioning System
GPS is a satellite based system. With the help of a constellation of 24 satellites any
position can be located worldwide. The initial purpose of GPS was to provide an exact
location for the military. In 1987 Leica-Geosystems was the first company which
introduced GPS technology in surveying. Today the applications range from usage in the
automotive industry to construction machines.
Basically a GPS station is a continuing development of a total station with the advantage of
GPS-like flexibility and a one person operation. It uses the wireless data connection to
transfer the satellite data from a reference station to the rover. There the exact calculations
and display of coordinates are shown.
Terrain modeling with GPS and RT in Landscape Architecture
3
Fig. 4: Using the Leica GS20, the landscape
architects recorded vegetation data for the
Data model in three dimensions.
2
RT - Real Time
High Tech Graphic Cards are the standard in all personal computers. The graphic card
calculates processes on a hardware basis, which otherwise have to be done by the software
or the CPU. With the help of these cards real-time is possible. Real-time means 25 images
per second. The very tedious rendering time of animations is no longer necessary. Not
many years ago real time visualizations were only possible on high end computer systems.
The driving force behind the development of fast graphics is the computer game industry
and the huge consumer market asking for speed and realism. The gamers are the consumers
who exchange their old pc, which would be more than fast enough for word processing and
internet for a new one with more graphic power. Real time applications outside the game
Peter PETSCHEK
4
sector profit from this development. Real-time can also be applied in landscape
architecture.
3
GPS RT 3D P - GPS and Real Time 3D Planning
The research project “GPS RT 3D P – GPS And Real Time 3d Planning”, which was
funded by the Commission for Technology and Innovation (KTI) of Schweizer Bundesamt
für Berufsbildung und Technologie and other partners, looked into possibilities using GPS
and RT in planning and landscape architecture.
With digital terrain models becoming part of every CAD package, an everlasting need for
digital surveying data will arise in Landscape Architecture. Today the workflow is as
follows: The surveyor provides the data, the planning office utilizes this data using GIS and
CAD, the project data is given back to the surveyor to be staked out. Based on the stake-out
the construction company models the terrain. This workflow is time consuming and costly.
Additional reasons for the application of GPS by landscape architects are, that for small
surveying jobs, a surveyor is too expensive and cadastral Information which is provided, is
often incomplete. With the usage of GPS by non-surveyors the following questions arise:
1.
2.
What functions should an easy to use GPS for Planners and landscape architects
have?
Could 3D-guidance of the construction machinery work also in landscape
architecture?
Successful planning needs acceptance by the public. This is essential, especially in
Switzerland. Every public project with a construction sum of above 10 million Swiss
Francs has to be voted on. A convincing project presentation to the public is therefore
extremely important. Plans are not very accessible for a lay person. Abbreviations and
symbols are used in the drawings which every one cannot understand Usually the plan
exhibitions are in city halls which people do not visit in their spare time. Analog 3D models
also demand a high level of abstraction by the viewer. In brief, when kids play with a
Game Boy, which has an extremely high quality 3D graphics, it is no longer adequate for
parents to look at a black and white overhead presentation or having to study a difficult-toread plan at the wall in a city hall. Internet is another platform for presenting projects.
Some cities and towns have started to put their 2D plans on the net, combined with general
planning information. What is missing and what one should expect today are realistic 3D
presentations of the project, with the ability to view the project from all sides in a playful
way.
A tool for real time based 3D internet plans is TerrainView from the Swiss company
ViewTec (www.viewtec.ch). It is a virtual reality solution which comes from the high end
area (military, medicine). As part of the project, certain adaptations were made in order to
open TerrainView to the market for public presentations of planning projects. The
ViewTec technology also allows presentations of large projects in real time. TerrainView
Terrain modeling with GPS and RT in Landscape Architecture
5
can be used online and offline. With the two worlds “Game” and “Planning” coming closer
to each other, the research question in this part of the project is:
3.
Which demands have different user groups such as computer kids, parents , lay
persons, planners for using this tool?
To answer these three research questions, an experimental research approach was chosen
and the pilot project Golf Course Bad Ragaz (Harradine Golf) was used.
In regards to 3D guidance of construction machinery, a start-to-finish digital landscaping
process in Bad Ragaz was applied. A surveyor's office collected the data for the golf course
by means of GPS. The planners recorded further terrain and vegetation data by means of
the Leica GS20 professional data mapping device. Based on the 2D-CAD data a 3D digital
terrain model using Autodesk's Civil 3D was created. As a result of an optimized interface
between the programs 3d max and TerrainView, the data was made available for an
interactive virtual fly through of the planned site. After the landscape architects had made
some adjustments on the basis of the real-time 3D inspection tour, the planning data was
transferred to the Leica Dozer 3D GPS system for terrain modeling with an appropriately
equipped bulldozer on site. This removed the necessity for time-consuming measuring and
stake out on site. At the end of October 2004, as part of a workshop in front of experts, a
construction company modeled the terrain on a 10,000 sq m section of the Public Golf
Course with a small Liebherr bulldozer.
In summary, one can now say that GPS machine automation can also be employed outside
its traditional areas of application such as mining or road-building. The relevant
technologies and technical components are available and are already supported by the
machines currently in use on construction sites. This is with the condition that the planners
hand over their designs and plans to the building contractor as three-dimensional data
records, based on an elevation model of the existing terrain produced by the surveyor.
Peter PETSCHEK
6
Fig. 5: In the driver’s cabin one can see the terrain model on the
machine operator’s Display unit. The planning data is combined
with the clear guidance data from real time GPS positioning
providing the machine operator with all the necessary
details for excavation, graphically and digitally, accurate to
within a centimetre – more quickly, more comprehensively
and more precisely than marker poles.
Fig. 6:
The construction machine is equipped with a Leica
dozer system, which determines the 3D position of the blade in
real time to the nearest centimetre. The driver of the machine
receives all guidance details directly from the system.
Terrain modeling with GPS and RT in Landscape Architecture
7
The HSR research team organized workshops in order to answer other questions.
Ergonomie & technology, a company specializing in ergonomic research, was a partner in
the two workshops. In these meetings the invited participants had to fulfill various tasks
such as using the TerrainView program to navigate to the golf club house. Here a train
timetable was put up on the wall and one had to find out when the next train leaves to
Zürich. In the GPS, workshop the invited professionals were introduced to LeicaGeosystems GS 20 and later had to locate certain points on the HSR Campus. All results
were evaluated by the research team and presented to our economic partners. They are
documented in written forms and as DVD films.
Fig. 7: Screenshot of the real time model golf course Bad Ragaz.
Fig. 8: Ergonomic test of Leica GPS-20
Fig. 9: Ergonomic test of
Terrain View
Peter PETSCHEK
8
Final results are available under http://l.hsr.ch/forschung/it-la/it-la-frameset.htm
4
References
Buhmann, Erich & Peter Jünemann (2000): Umfrage zur Machbarkeitsstudie für ein Visualisierungstool, Auswertung der eingegangenen Antworten und Einschätzung des Marktpotentials, Abschlussbericht – 25.10.2000 im Auftrag des Zentrum für
Agrarlandschafts- und Landnutzungsforschung (ZALF) e.V. Müncheberg
Beck, M. & F. Steidler 2001: CyberCity Modeler und TerrainView – Werkzeuge zur
Visualisierung von 3D-Stadt- und Werksmodellen. VPK Vermessung,
Photogrammetrie, Kulturtechnik 7/2001, 472-476.
Ervin, S. & Hasbrouck, H. : Landscape Modeling. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2001
Carter, G. , Goode P., Laurie, K. : Humphry Repton Landscape Gardener 1752-1818.
Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts Publication, 1982, 12/13.
Kretzler, 2003: Improving Landscape Architecture Design using Real-Time Engines. In: E.
Buhmann & S. Ervin (Hrsg.) Trends in Landscape Modeling. Wichmann, Heidelberg,
95-102
Lange, E. 1999: Realität und computergestützte visuelle Simulation. Eine empirische
Untersuchung über den Realitätsgrad virtueller Landschaften am Beispiel des Talraums
Brunnen / Schwyz. ORL-Berichte Nr. 106, VDF, Zürich.
Rice, A. 2003: Exploring the impact of emerging landscape visualization tools on spatial
perception and design education. In: E. Buhmann & S. Ervin (Hrsg.) Trends in
Landscape Modeling. Wichmann, Heidelberg, 173-182.
Petschek, P. & Lange, E. 2004: Planung des öffentlichen Raumes - der Einsatz von neuen
Medien und 3D Visualisierungen am Beispiel des Entwicklungsgebietes ZürichLeutschenbach. CD CORP-04 Proceedings, Wien.
From Information to Participation – Applying Interactive
Features in Landscape Visualizations
Olaf SCHROTH, Eckart LANGE and Willy A. SCHMID
1
Introduction
During the so-called ‘dot-com boom’, the term interactivity was over-burdened with
expectations, although its actual meaning remained rather vague. Nevertheless, strong
arguments support the ability of interactive features to considerably enhance the
effectiveness of real-time visualizations especially in planning participation. However,
there is a lack of empirical evidence of their potential benefits, and with the growing
relevance of integrated landscape visualization systems today, the need for research and
guidance on the design and the use of interactive visualizations in collaborative
environments is ever increasing (SHEPPARD 2001).
The basic hypothesis of this paper, which relates to a PhD thesis, is that a high level of
participation in the planning process requires a sophisticated level of interactivity from
computer-based visualization tools. Based on a working definition of interactivity in the
context of planning, workshop meetings with the use of interactive 3D visualizations were
analysed, and useful applications as well as limitations of interactive features were
discussed.
2
From Information to Participation
Based on approaches for problem solution from systems engineering in general
(HABERFELLNER 2002) and planning theory in particular, it can be said that any planning
process contains the following three phases:
• Analysis of the situation
• Goal definition
• Assessment of alternative solutions
In a cooperative planning approach, these basic elements of the planning process are
subject to the exchange of collective information, discussion and decision-making by all
relevant stakeholders. Between these phases, feedback loops may take place and the degree
of participation may differ with regard to the task at hand as well.
2.1 Levels of Participation
ARNSTEIN (1971), the first to determine and differentiate different levels of participation in
a collaborative process, concluded that real participation involves the cooperative sharing
of power, i.e. in the form of partnership, delegated power, and citizen control. She
described a ‘ladder of citizen participation’, where informing, consultation, and placation
2
O. Schroth, E. Lange and W. A. Schmid
are taken as ‘degrees of tokenism’, which means that people take part in the planning
process, but without any real decision power. On the lower side of the scale, attempts at
manipulation or therapy are not regarded as participation at all.
For the case studies in this research, it is assumed that high levels of participation, i.e.
cooperation and collaborative decision making, are given. Provided such optimal
conditions exist, it is the key assumption of this paper that visualizations require a certain
degree of interactivity in order to fulfil beneficial functions in a participatory process.
2.2 Functions of Visualization in Participation
MACEACHREN ET AL. describe visualization as “an act of cognition, a human ability to
develop mental representations that allow us to identify patterns and create or impose
order” (1992) or, in other words, a visualization is the representation of complex issues by
visual means as a tool for exploration and communication. This paper particularly refers to
landscape visualizations, i.e. the computer-generated representation of landscapes on the
basis of real-world geodata.
WEIDENMANN (1995) has distinguished four functions of media with regard to the purpose
of communication, which have been transferred to the visualization of spatial data by
DRANSCH (2000):
• Motivation
• Demonstration of an idea or phenomenon
• Creating mental models of spatial elements and their relations
• Putting information in (a spatial) context
2.3 Defining Interaction and Interactivity
DANAHY (2001) argues that the perception of landscapes from still images is inherently
biased because still images only address parts of the human visual system. Therefore, he
sees great potentials in current real-time rendering techniques which incorporate dynamics
in landscape visualizations as well. Similarly, ERVIN (2001) distinguishes three types of
dynamics in the landscape in his research agenda for digital landscape modelling and
visualization: movement of the landscape, movement through the landscape, and
interaction with the landscape.
At this point, it seems necessary to clarify the term interaction. What exactly does it mean?
A literature review shows that a generally accepted definition of interaction is almost
impossible, because the term is widely used, and its meaning varies for each discipline.
Originally, the term interaction was derived from the Latin “inter – between” and “agree –
acting”, and it has been used in sociology to describe how people influence each other. A
key attribute of human interaction is that the participants share a common objective for
their action. The term has been adopted by Human-Computer-Interaction (HCI), a rather
new field of computer science, where interactions describe the actions between human user
and computer. Related disciplines, i.e. geovisualization and media studies, have combined
these approaches in a basic definition that describes interactions in 3D landscape
visualization. In this context, interaction is defined as
Applying Interactive Features in Landscape Visualizations
3
a series of goal-oriented actions that are determined by the interrelation between
human and computer (FUHRMANN 2001, ISSING AND KLIMSA 1997).
The derived term interactivity refers to the capacity of a computer system to provide
interactive features. There is a range of interactive features, e.g. movement, navigation,
selection, explanation, manipulation etc., that may be assigned to various planning tasks. In
this context, a typology or ranking of the various features is helpful, although this depends
on specific criteria. A preliminary classification with regard to the technical sophistication
of interactions was introduced by PETERSON (1995) and CRAMPTON (2001). First, they
stated the possibility to interact with the data representation in order to change the ‘look’ of
the data, e.g. by changing the lighting and other settings. This is a rather low level of
interaction that normally takes place on a global level and will not be examined further in
this text. Particularly in landscape visualization, three more sophisticated levels of
interactions may be distinguished:
1) Movement through the landscape
Moving through the landscape or toggling through time, the user technically sees a
series of views of a terrain that give the appearance of movement (animation).
2) Interaction with the landscape or rather the underlying data
For this type of interaction, the focus is on the data. Selecting, filtering, and
manipulating the data base of the landscape model are inherently interactive features.
3) Contextualizing interaction
Contextualizing interaction can be realized by linking visual elements of the 3D model
to related non-visual information fields.
Although such a topology may help in identifying the technical opportunities of interactive
landscape visualizations, an assessment of their benefits for planning purposes requires a
classification with regard to their function in the planning process (FUHRMANN 2001).
Therefore, the question how interactive functions contribute to the basic participation tasks
of situation analysis, target definition, and solution discussion was examined in an
explorative case study.
3
Case Study: Applying Interactive Features of Landscape
Visualizations in Moderated Workshops
The application of interactive landscape visualizations as tools for participation was tested
in the Entlebuch UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (http://www.biosphaere.ch). The Entlebuch
Biosphere Reserve was chosen as a case study site, because it was the first Biosphere
Reserve to evolve from a ‘bottom-up’ process. That means the application to the UNESCO
came from the local community, and it was adopted in a referendum in 2000 with 90%
support. Since then, many projects on the sustainable development of the region have been
initiated and the Biosphere management is supporting this process by facilitating panels
and workshops on tourism, agriculture, energy, local economy, forestry, and other topics.
4
O. Schroth, E. Lange and W. A. Schmid
3.1 Setting: Moderated Workshops
In the Entlebuch Biosphere Reserve, interactive visualization tools were tested in seven
comparable workshops. The planning tasks included addressing scenarios for tourism and
agriculture and the forest management plan of Entlebuch. Participants were local
stakeholders, including farmers, forest owners, members of the local tourism board,
hunters, and external experts. Because the topics are related to each other, broad
participation was sought, e.g. the tourist managers also took part in the discussion of the
forest management plan, which includes zones for tourism. The level of participation was
generally high, aiming at collaboration and group decision making, with workshops as the
key instruments of participation. The workshops were facilitated by a moderator and
attended by a navigator who operated the visualizations according to the wishes of the
workshop participants or the moderator. It became evident that in a workshop setting,
previous coordination between moderator and navigator is necessary for the successful
integration of the visualizations. The visualizations ran on a desktop PC using the
LandXplorer Studio software by 3D Geo GmbH (http://www.landex.de) and were
projected onto a screen.
Fig.1:
Application of 3D visualizations in a moderated workshop on the development
of tourism in the Entlebuch UNESCO Biosphere Reserve
3.2 Qualitative Approach
Data on the impact of the visualizations during the workshops was gathered using
qualitative measures, i.e. observations, group discussions, and in-depth interviews with the
moderators and key stakeholders. The data was analysed in a qualitative content analysis,
based on different methods of data collection (methodological triangulation). Preliminary
results from this study were then introduced in the following part by giving application
examples for different participation tasks and discussing user response.
3.3 Potential Benefits for the Situation Analysis
Planning Task: Strategies for Tourism in Sörenberg
Most visitors come to Sörenberg (1165 to 2350 meters above sea level) to take part in
winter sports, so safe snow conditions are a key driving force. In addition, the
Applying Interactive Features in Landscape Visualizations
5
infrastructure needs to be adjusted to match existing demand. The discussion started with a
summary of existing infrastructure in tourism and visualizations were used to show the
distribution of winter facilities in comparison to hiking and biking routes for summer
tourism.
Interaction with the Data Representation, Contextualising Information and Database
Ski slopes, lifts, and hiking paths were projected step by step on a 3d model of the area and
then presented from different perspectives. It became clear that all ski facilities are very
much concentrated in the area south of Sörenberg, whereas summer facilities are dispersed
across the region.
Protocols indicate that the iterative construction of the model and the application of
different views (interactive representation) helped in orientation and in assessing the
current situation. In any case, it should be noted that interactions are time-consuming
processes, because all participants have to orient themselves, follow each action, and give
feedback if required.
A 3D animation, linked to a diagram, was used to illustrate the changes of traffic numbers
per day over the year. The participants requested this specific information, although they
generally recommended the integration of more non-visual information.
However, this contextualising interaction was not immediately possible because the
necessary data was not available during the workshop. In other words, the possibility to set
3D visualisations into a non-visual context depends on the availability of complementary
data.
The moderator asked for visualizations of a scenario from climate research, which was
done by colouring the elevation model. On basis of a study by FÖHN (1990), a future level
of probable safe snow conditions of 1500m in 50 years was chosen, and this level as well
as all the areas below it were coloured green after consultation with the moderator (fig.4).
Fig.2:
Visualization of forecasts on safe snow conditions by colouring the 3D model,
representation of skiing facilities in black vector lines (©Geodata: GISKoordinationsstelle, Kanton Luzern)
6
O. Schroth, E. Lange and W. A. Schmid
Although the numbers had been well known before, the visualization caused some
discomposure and astonishment, until people recapitulated that “the green will be without
snow”. After this demonstration, the focus of the discussion shifted from the enhancement
of winter sports to alternatives in hiking, educational and agricultural tourism.
From the meeting minutes, it may be suggested that the elevation analysis was the turning
point and the moderator confirmed that it had a very strong impact on participation.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that one participant felt uncomfortable working with the
3D images and stated that they were manipulatory, because they had such a strong impact.
This will be an issue for future research; whether the interactive implementation of the
analysis provides any benefit in transparency and confidence building or if it is perceived
with similar or even more distrust than prepared still images.
3.3 Potential Benefits for the Goal Definition
Planning Task: Forest Management Plan
The Biosphere management and the local Forestry Commission organised a series of
workshops together on the cooperative development of the forest management plan in
autumn and winter 2004/05. During this series of workshops, 3D visualizations were not
requested at every stage, but the demand depended on the discussion topic and even more
on the moderator and his or her style of moderation.
Interaction with the Data
After local stakeholders had identified the topics that were relevant to them, all interest
groups, i.e. hunters, members of the tourist board, forestry commission, had the opportunity
to map their interests on paper printouts of the ordnance map. The VisuLands team
digitized these maps with the interests of the stakeholders and overlapped them in a 3D
block model (fig.3). Finally, the interest groups met again and discussed conflicts of
interest with regard to the 3D visualization.
Fig.3:
Visualization of conflicts in interest by the interactive overlap of two thematic
maps: wildlife areas (left) and additional summer-/winter-tourism (right) on the
basis of a 3D block model overlaid with topographic map (©Geodata: GISKoordinationsstelle, Kanton Luzern)
Feedback indicated that the interactive 3D visualizations supported the communication of
the spatial situation by putting information from previous workshops into a different
Applying Interactive Features in Landscape Visualizations
7
context. Furthermore, the moderator emphasized that the visualizations were of great
benefit for the discussion and that they helped him to set up a task force with members
from all interest groups.
It can be concluded that the interactive visualization of areas of conflict supported the
discussion in the large panel and helped the participants reach a consensus. However, it
seems that the technique was not flexible enough to facilitate the work of small working
groups, who chose paper maps to sketch and discuss their areas of interest.
3.4 Potential Benefits for the Assessment of Alternative Solutions
Although the workshops have not yet entered a phase where alternative scenarios are being
discussed, participants have already expressed their expectations on how the visualizations
may benefit the forthcoming decision making process.
Movement through the landscape and Contextualizing Information
During the situation analysis and goal definition, the realtime functionality of the model
was mainly used by the navigator to quickly navigate between points of interest. This
should be done carefully, because any abrupt movements cause a disruption and people
could be distracted from the discussion. However, the ability of users to move through the
landscape themselves might be more important for the assessment of alternative scenarios.
Nordic skiers, for example, wished to view how the future forest will look when moving
along the ski slopes. By means of temporal animations, a forest manager said that he would
be very interested in the animation of future forest growth. In the workshops on agriculture,
switching between alternative land use scenarios had already been introduced, showing that
this ‘toggling’ interaction aids in the perception of differences. These observations imply
that the use of movement requires careful consideration and that its use is recommended
only in specific situations.
Various stakeholders emphasized the importance of adding contextual information to the
3D visualizations, e.g. diagrams and statistics, in the decision making phase. It will be the
subject of forthcoming research steps to evaluate to what extent such a contextual link
benefits a balanced planning proposal assessment.
4
Conclusions & Outlook
The case study has shown where interactive features contribute to the use of 3D landscape
visualizations as participatory instruments in planning workshops. In the situation analysis,
an interactive, iterative construction of the situation helps to demonstrate spatial
phenomena and create a mental model of their relations. By conducting analysis operations
on the data itself, it is possible to highlight any driving forces that are related to topography
in realtime during a workshop. Finally, the spatial model can be complemented by adding
non-visual information in the form of diagrams and figures, depending on the available
data. During the process of goal definition, the interactive presentation and overlapping of
maps to show different stakeholder interests in their spatial context may contribute to
consensus building. Furthermore, all participants emphasize that contextualizing
O. Schroth, E. Lange and W. A. Schmid
8
interactions are valuable contributions to the assessment and decision making process.
Overall, the possibility to move trough the landscape provides the navigator with some of
the flexibility that is necessary to react to participatory processes, which are open-end by
definition. However, it should still be clarified whether multiple perspectives are able to
overcome manipulation accusations or whether they are regarded as being manipulative,
too. At least, it seems clear that participant confidence in the visualizations also depends on
the data quality and the moderation process.
In general, any interaction requires the attention of the audience, and the navigator needs to
be aware of how the discussion process may take advantage of this additional attention.
Therefore, coordination with the moderator and a careful consideration of how the
interactive features are presented, are crucial. Otherwise, it must be considered that
interactions take time and in many participation processes, time is a rare good. In the worst
case, an inadequate use of interactions might even distract the discussion process.
Altogether, it is concluded that 3D landscape visualizations applied as tools for
participatory workshops in planning do benefit from interactive features. In contrast, still
images often fail to provide the degree of flexibility and the contextualization required in
participation processes. Hence, interactive visualizations are mighty tools, although they
have to be used with careful consideration or, as one of the moderators said, it is a “very
selective tool”.
Future research for this project will focus on the assessment of alternative scenarios with
the help of interactive 3D features, other participatory settings, and the role of immersive
visualization systems in collaborative settings. Immersive visualization systems might be
realised by joining several screens to a panoramic facility and they may support the viewer
in conceiving the spatial character of a location (DANAHY 2001).
Furthermore, it is suggested that the design of the participation process should get more
attention with regard to the use of interactive visualization tools, e.g. how do moderator,
panel and navigator cooperate? Finally, a successful application of interactive 3D
visualization tools must incorporate both aspects: the design of the tools and the design of
the application process.
5
References
Al-Kodmany, K. (1999). Using visualization techniques for enhancing public participation
in planning and design: process, implementation and evaluation. Landscape and Urban
Planning, 45: 37-45
Arnstein, S. R. (1971). A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of the Royal Town
Planning Institute, 57: 176-182
Crampton, J. W. (2002). Interactivity Types in Geographic Visualization. Cartography and
Geographic Information Systems, 29, 85-98
Danahy, J.W. (2001). Technology for dynamic viewing and peripherical vision
in landscape visualization. Landscape and Urban Planning, 54.
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Dransch, D. (2000). The use of different media in visualizing spatial data. Computers &
Geosciences, 26: 5-9
Ervin, S. M. (2001). Digital landscape modeling and visualization: a research agenda.
Landscape and Urban Planning, 54, 49-62
Föhn, P. (1990). Schnee und Lawinen. In: Schnee, Eis und Wasser in einer wärmeren
Atmosphäre. Zürich.
Fuhrmann, S. (2001). Anforderungen an 3D-Interaktionen in geo-virtuellen
Visualisierungsumgebungen. Kartographische Nachrichten (KN), 51: 191-195
Haberfellner, R. (2002). Systems engineering: Methodik und Praxis. Zürich
Issing, J., & Klimsa, P. (2002). Information und Lernen mit Multimedia und Internet:
Lehrbuch für Studium und Praxis. Weinheim: Beltz
MacEachren, A., Buttenfield, B. P., Campbell, J. B., DiBiase, D., & Monmonier, M.
(1992). Visualization. In R. Abler, M. Marcus & J. Olson (Eds.), Geography`s Inner
Worlds: 99-137
Sheppard, S. R. J. (2001). Guidance for crystal ball gazers: developing a code of ethics for
landscape visualization. Landscape and Urban Planning, 54: 183-199
Weidenmann, B. (1995). Abbilder in Multimedia-Anwendungen. In J. Issing & P. Klimsa
(Eds.), Information und Lernen mit Multimedia. Weinheim: Psychologie Verlagsunion:
107-122
Implementation of Real-Time Landscape Visualisation for
Planning Process
Kyungjin An
1
Introduction
Recently, there has been a great deal of interest in new communication technology in
planning processes. Particularly, the popularity of three-dimensional visualisation media is
increasing in many countries with the benefits of extensive participation capabilities,
enhancement of communication and efficiency of data management. The fashion of the
adaptation is due to the reaction to traditional two dimensional communication methods;
maps and plans, which possesses fundamental deficiencies for a three/four-dimensional
world.
So far, a number of studies refer to the attempts of the planning implementation of threedimensional visualisation within the planning process (Appleton et al., 2001, Orland, 1992,
Sheppard, 2001). Particularly, some researchers amongst them employ real-time rendering
technology and they have drawn attention to the great potentials of interactivity of public
engagement.
Contrasting those advantages, some disadvantages of acclimatising this technology in
planning have been identified; Lange claimed (2001) that three-dimensional visualisation
was not properly implemented with the planning process, it is used just as an expensive
supplement to sell the final planning project; it also pointed out (Sheppard, 2001) that there
was a risk of using three-dimensional visualisation; potential manipulation, which could
misleading.
There is no exception to implementing the new communication media in the planning
process in the UK; however, the few have considered the potential role of the technology in
conjunction with the planning context.
The paper aims to identify the implementation of real-time visualisation in the planning
procedure and decision-making process under the discretionary planning system.
Moreover, it discusses the further possibility of the fast growing but ambiguous use of the
visualisation media as decision-making and public communication tools in the planning
process.
In order to testify this usage of real-time visualisation within planning, a case study was
carried out in conjunction with a local planning authority in North East England. The area
used in the case study is Windlestone Hall School, County Durham and the interactive
visualisation of the relocated school is implemented in the community consultation process.
The experimental process involved the following:
1. the development of a real-time three-dimensional model of the school and the
area,
Kyungjin An
2
2.
3.
4.
5.
2
the development of an interactive interface of the visualisation for users,
the interviews with planners and visualisation preparers,
the observation of decision making process of the new school location, and
the observation of level of influence of the used media on the process.
Identifying Issues
There are several issues that must be addressed to determine the suitability of using realtime technology as a communication medium in planning decision-making process
including: the potential risk of biased or misleading into level of detail; cost; and the
various planning stages to be used. These issues have been identified in literature review
and prior interviews with planners and visualisation preparers.
2.1 Potential Risk of Biased or Misleading Information
A recent survey (Appleton, 2001) suggested that value judgement would always be present,
and parts of the image would be selected and set up to show the scheme to ITS best effect.
While this could be presumed artistic licence, there are further questions of intentional
incorrectness in visualisations, for example to reduce the apparent impact of a proposal.
In the UK, visualisation guidelines for other similar techniques can be often found. For
example, using 50mm focal lens is standard in picture presenting and photomontage
illustrations. The Landscape Institute has also published the 2nd version of Visual Impact
Assessment Guidelines in 2004, which gives recommendations and requirements on usage
of computer-based techniques such as visibility mapping, GIS, photomontages (Landscape
Institute and Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment, 2002). However, in
case of three-dimensional visualisation in planning, there is little framework and guidelines
to safeguard agaist technical and ethical misuse of technology in planning and consultation
in the UK neither in government bodies nor by professionals.
On the contrary, it was claimed that virtual realities might be exceeding the expansion of
the knowledge base of research needed to prevent situations where unintentionally or
intentionally misleading virtual environments are used to make significant environmental
planning decisions. If such misleading situations arise, there must be processes and
solutions for assessing the role of the visualisation technique versus the visualisation
developer (Orland et al., 2001).
2.2 Virtual Reality
Since V.R.'s definition is generally agreed on (Hall, 1990) as ‘creating an experience that is
indistinguishable from the real experience; generating the same stimulus as the real
environment; generating the same perceptual response as a real scene; creating the
impression of a real space’, realism is always an issue in three-dimensional landscape
visualisation.
Implementation of Real-Time Landscape Visualisation for Planning Process
3
However, in light of affordability, high level of detail of the real world aren’t be always the
prime target for landscape visualisation in planning. Visualisation preparers and planners
generally compromise to find an appropriate balance between level of detail and production
cost. This fact was supported by research (Appleton, 2001) pointing out that a high degree
of realism might actually prove distracting in some ways. In addition, the level of detail
could be decided by the purpose and use of the model, which can be focused on certain
elements in visualisation (Appleton and Lovett, 2003, Lange, 1999).
Even though visualisation technology has always aimed to approach the real world, it is
often claimed (Vince, 1998, Whyte, 2002) that virtual model might never reach the real
world because of substance beyond the technology. For instance, a real-time model would
not reflect atmospheric circumstances in the real world such as clear, cloudy, rainy, and
windy. Moreover, causality in every action and reaction, and physics in real world cannot
be replaced with computer-generated models (Cavazza, 2004).
2.3 Production Cost
So far, little research has been carried out on the cost of real-time visualisation. One of the
reasons is that because contemporary technology is being developed constantly, measuring
costs would be very elusive. Software such as three-dimensional authorising, GIS could be
key elements as well as data availability and labour costs.
Moreover, the cost of visualisation models is very dependent on types of models (mainly
degree of LOD1) and services provided. Therefore, it is difficult to illustrate a specific
figure of cost; however, it was suggested (Martin et al., 2002) that it generally ranges
between £500 to £20,000, typically £5,000 in normal circumstances in planning in the UK.
GIS applications are normally used in academic areas and large organisations, which costs
much more than CAD-based authorising software in terms of data acquisition and its
management. Unlike such large bodies who have availability of GIS-based applications,
most real-time models in planning are prepared by individual consultants. Therefore, it is
considered that CAD-based approaches have been predominantly used for landscape
visualisation by landscape consultants because of the cost of GIS applications and data
availability.
2.4 Planning Stages
Even though, there is great potential for technology in planning implementation, one
criticism is that the employment of the real-time visualisation in the planning stage could
become supplementary. It was claimed that without integrated connection with planning,
three-dimensional visualisation could be just an expensive supplement to sell the final
planning project (Lange, 1999).
1
Level of Detail
Kyungjin An
4
This Stage to Use issue also plays a key role in deciding LOD of models. For example, in
early and middle phases, it can be used in various degrees of LOD; whereas, in final phase
including marketing, much higher detail is required.
For example, Al-Kodmony (1999) identified three different media to use in various
planning stages, particularly community participation cases. It was found that freehand
sketching and the GIS were the most effective for problem identification and
brainstorming, while photo-manipulation using computer imaging was most useful for
exploring solutions to previously identified design issues.
3
Using Real-time Visualisation Techniques in a Planning
Process: Windlestone Hall School Relocation
3.1 Background of the School Relocation
The study area is the Windlestone Hall School, County Durham in the Northeast of
England. The School is for students with special needs, particularly emotional and
behavioural difficulties. Windlestone Hall, built in 1835 and listed as being of Grade 2
architectural and historic importance, was first developed as a school in 1958 and currently
teaches around 60 pupils aged between 11 and 16 with emotional and behavioural
difficulties (EBD). The basic problem was that,even after considerable adaptations and
improvements, the 19th century county house was just not designed for providing facilities
for a 21st century education.
The County Council had decided to replace the building as part of a wider review of EBD
education. Another school for EBD pupils is in the north east of the county; therefore,
Windlestone’s replacement needs to be in the southwest and the preferred site is amongst
the 90 acre Childton Blue House Farm, the Chilton Reclamation Site and Denebridge Row.
Fig. 1: Stakeholder Meeting in 2004
Fig.2: Interface of the Model for the
Consultation
Initial consultations have already been held with teachers and governors at the school, who
are in favour of the relocation proposals. More detailed plans were shown in a public
Implementation of Real-Time Landscape Visualisation for Planning Process
5
exhibition during May, 2004 in Town Council Offices, where stakeholders including
members of the public, had the opportunity to review the proposals and share their opinions
with representatives from both local authorities and from the school.
3.2 Data Availability
A DTM2 covers the area within which the contours are placed in every metre3 was
available for the ground model and the context adjacent. A high resolution, true colour,
digital aerial photograph was also available for the area which was draped across the DTM
surface. Photographs, history and uses information had been collected with local archive
research and site visiting.
3.3 Real-Time Modelling
As identified in the previous section, production costs is one of the issues in the paper.
Therefore, software has been chosen on the basis of cost feasibility and flexibility for
geometry, texturing and human interfacing. Scripting-based Shockwave technology has
been employed for production rather than data-driven GIS applications. Scripting language,
Lingo4, is used for creating basic geometry, texturing, camera controller and atmosphere
effects. Moreover, interactive interface in the publishing stage is also prepared by the
Macromedia Shockwave technology.
Models of selected features were added to the basic topographic and textural framework of
the study area. These models initially contain trees or shrubs of diverse types and built-in
structures. The tree features were represented by basic geometry.
The software used the DTM and the land cover data as inputs to separate land cover types
into different groups within ‘.w3d’ format. Moreover, it creates separate ‘Shockwave’ files
in which trees were located within polygons for appropriate land cover types. New school
buildings were included in the virtual environment, the dimensions and layout of which
were specified using CAD software and with textures taken from architect’s and images of
the proposed plan. The sky was constructed using a script of Lingo.
The full model includes approximately 5 textures, 748 shaders, 977 model resources, and 3
cameras (approximately 5 Mbytes). In the daytime simulation, there were three light
resources positioned to correspond to a sunny day of Northeast England.
When the separate ‘.w3d’ files were developed for each of the elements, the vegetation
groups and the buildings, they were merged into a single file in the Director software for
the user-friendly interface, which creates cross-platform Autorun CD media for Windows
running PCs and Mac OS X running MacIntosh computers.
2
Digital Terrain Model
In the UK, Ordnance Survey provides 5 meters digital terrain model; however, DTM and a high
resolution ‘.tiff’ aerial image for this case study were provided by a private surveyor who uses
airplane survey system.
4
Scripting language of Macromedia Director
3
6
Kyungjin An
As an alternative, ‘.dcr’ file format was provided embedded in ‘html’ files for the survey
using the Internet streaming. It is accessible through the Web and contains full features of
interactive flythrough and walkthrough models as well as the stand-alone CD title above.
3.4 Case Study Procedure & Method
A real-time visualisation was presented during a public exhibition on May 2004. An
interview was made with 20 participants who live adjacent to the proposed site; they have
much knowledge of the area and have been aware of the nature and context of the project.
Other stakeholders participating were planning officers from local planning authority,
people from the school and architects.
All participants viewed through a 4x3 ratio projector on one side of the room after brief
introduction of the proposal and visualisation exercise. All participants were given
opportunity to control views with their own hands through the camera controlled by
keyboard and mouse. Then, an open discussion followed regarding to the school relocation
project as well as real-time visualisation. After the discussion, they were given formal
questions during and after presentation. The questions included;
• understanding of the project,
• difference between ‘with’ and ‘without’ the real-time model,
• realism (level of detail), and
• cost effectiveness of the technology
The consultation process and participants’ choices were observed and all data collected was
analysed. Prior interviews with the visualisation developer and planning officers were
added to the analysis process.
4
Analysis and Discussions
The information provided of the siting options of the school is the most apparent, but not
the only difference to the traditional communication media based on drawings, twodimensional images. In the experiment carried out here, there was much appreciation of the
technology by stakeholders and general public appreciation for the interactive walkthrough
and flythrough simulations, where residents were able to measure the new proposals
exactly from their bedroom windows.
Other valid concerns about planning implication of virtual reality technology were raised
after the completion of the experiment. These issues include;
• the fact that realism doesn’t offer a great deal to users who know the site already,
• in the case, geometry is more concerned matter than other elements,
• during the modelling process, there is no guideline or professional reference of
visualisation under UK planning procedure, which could result in possible biased
reference.
Implementation of Real-Time Landscape Visualisation for Planning Process
7
Some of these issues can be addressed by more focused and detailed modelling of the
virtual environment in the near future. This might include specific features for each
different case of project, for example, more geometry details such as height information
and more accurate texturing. Although there was little remark on the quality of the visual
illustration during the experiment, it was not photo-realistic, and improvements in this
aspect of the model of the virtual environment would also be beneficial, supporting
subjects in a virtual environment access to a key map - and capable of running movement
using the virtual map.
Computer based visualisation and virtual reality are becoming popular in planning
processes in the UK. Despite the limits5 of real-time technology, research indicates (Martin
et al., 2002) that four out of twenty local authorities and eight out of thirty housing
associations that had used virtual reality or something similar. In those cases, virtual reality
and computer animations are being used in ‘scenarios’ on various developments such as
ZVI6, Visual Impact Assessment within Environment Impact Assessment, and Landscape
Character Assessment.
In the UK planning policy, there are no restraints nor does it have a codified constitution of
the type common to most other countries (Yadley, 1995). Such a lack of constraints allows
for a wide degree of discretion in the UK planning system. In determining applications for
planning permission, a local authority is guided by the development plan, but is not bound
by it: other ‘material considerations’ are taken into account (Cullingworth and Nadin,
1997).
Under such discretionary planning structures, the most decision to be made in planning
application are open to be decided; therefore, it is considered that communication media
and similiar reference take bigger parts than in other countries. On the other hand, it could
adversely affect a decision significantly when visualisation contains technical/ethical
mistakes, biased information or any prior reservation.
During the case study, real-time models were prepared on the basis of surveyed
information. However, from surveyed information, it has been found that there was much
room for artistic licence for creating real-time landscape models. Although it starts from
physical data including ordnance surveys, virtual reality models in planning use provides
these options for preparers to consider;
1. Texture – type, variety, accuracy, resolution
2. Camera – type, angle, position, focal length, movement
3. Movement – speed, height, collision handling, terrain following
As previous research suggested (Orland et al., 2001, Sheppard, 2001), it needs some
standard forms of the new technology to avoid any misjudgement or minimise the limits
and errors. Particularly, policy constraints, professional guidance and training, monitoring
and enforcement, and practical benefits of a support infrastructure for visualisation have
been identified.
5
6
See the last paragraph of Section 2.2
Zone of Visual Influence
Kyungjin An
8
1.
2.
3.
General principles and responsibilities laid down in a code of ethics
Best practice guidelines, standards, and specific procedures to assist preparers
directly in their visualisation work
Professional support networks and institutions
The author also recognises that establishing such guidelines is eminent in Britain. Even
during this investigation, it was witnessed that a local authority rejected a presentation of a
virtual model in the planning application process meeting because of the concerns of a
potential of favouring a particular proposal. Therefore, policy-based and professional body
-involved guidelines could be necessary to safeguard the use of the technology and to
provide an efficient discretionary planning system.
In the experiment, the subjects were present in a room with monitors and data projectors
and their peripherals, and were therefore, certainly not immersed in the virtual
environment. The impact of these conditions on the decision made by the subjects cannot
be quantified, but it can be considered that it is reflected in the answers to questions about
similarities to the real environment.
However, the subjects are not particularly concerned about realism in the visualisation.
With prior knowledge of the site and proposal through the whole process of the planning
application, most of them were more concerned about physical geometry including height
and the degree of tree screening in the model.
Therefore, it could be considered that visualisation models do not necessarily have to have
a full degree of realism in planning circumstances. As illustrated in the previous section, it
could vary in planning proposals and purposes of the implementation.
In terms of cost, the experiment has been carried out with a scripting-based software.
Similar to Shockwave Lingo, there are numbers of commercial and non-commercial tools to
create real-time visualisation including VRML7. Unlike Geographic Information System
based software, those are free or relatively affordable to bodies who actually prepare
visualisation such as landscape consultants. Those solutions are compatible with commonly
used Computer Aided Design and drafting applications as well as supporting additional
features through scripting process.
Finally, in this paper, a real-time model was used in the stage of public consultation.
During the experiment, it was also suggested to employ the technology in early stage of
planning application where people can see the existing problems and have more options to
choose. With traditional methods, the materials of the proposals were drawings and written
documents, which the public had difficulty of understanding, compared with the real-time
media used in later stage of the planning process.
7
Virtual Reality Modelling Language
Implementation of Real-Time Landscape Visualisation for Planning Process
5
9
Conclusion
This paper described a real-time visualisation technique employed at a phase of
participatory planning process. It illustrated as follows,
• a local planning authority prepared a real-time landscape model for a consultation,
• a visualisation preparer created a real-time model with Shockwave technology,
• with the model created, members of general public and other stakeholders were
participated in the school relocation project, and
• during planning process, public consultation and a stakeholder meeting with the
visualisation were observed.
The case study and its planning implementation exercise do not cover all aspect of realtime technology, but it allows analysis of the process of consultation with new
communication media within the planning context.
The findings have important implications for consultation using real-time rendering
technology. The realism of the model wasn’t a critical issue as far as it illustrates an
appropriate degree of realism. Consultees and participants accepted the apposite level of
details of the School buildings and vegetation as far as they are geometrically correct such
as height and tree transparency because mostly they were concerned about physical
features including view screening and roads accessibility.
Another finding was that there was not any framework for creating real-time models for
planning use during the case study process. There is no guideline and standard for
visualisation preparers to follow this could result in giving too much artistic licence to
preparers. Therefore, the author envisages that the potential biased information could be
illustrated in favour of particular interest group(s).
During the investigation, the author identified a great deal about real-time visualisation
technology with other media such as the Internet streaming. Within the experiment process,
the final product was also published for the Internet streaming with full interactive features.
Without physical limitations such as meetings and interviews, people could access to the
proposals extensively, particularly, pupils of the school has access to the information of
new school. From this attempt, mainly identified issues were size of monitor (screen) and
resolution, available Internet bandwidth.
As the planning application process is encouraged to be more transparent and inclusive, the
use of the Web is becoming more popular. The UK government prepares E-government
campaigns (Johnson, 2004) and promotes local governments to establish the infrastructure
of information sharing to the public in a more accessible way. However, this area hasn’t
been researched much. Only a handful of researchers refer to potential planning aid using
the Internet (Wherrett, 1999, Wherrett, 2000, Bishop, 1997). Further research about remote
survey on planning aid needs to be carried out to explore more options, including the
Internet and digital broadcasting, in the near future.
Kyungjin An
10
In further research later this year, comprehensive survey and data collection will be
included. It will be added the identification of main issues on the technology
implementation in planning, predominantly, focused on real-time tools. Moreover, the
enhanced research will analyse the necessity of guidelines in employing the technology in
planning procedure and help the formation of framework under the discretionary UK
planning context as well as potential Internet employment.
6
References
Al-Kodmany, K. (1999): Using visualization techniques for enhancing public participation
in planning and design: process, implementation, and evaluation. Landscape and
Urban Planning, 45: 37-45
Appleton, K. (2001): Computer visualisation of planning proposals - comments from
interviews with local authority planning officers and others. Electronic Source:
http://www.uea.ac.uk/~e173/planners.html, Retrieved May 2004.
Appleton, K. & Lovett, A. (2003): GIS-based visualisation of rural landscapes: defining
'sufficient' realism for environmental decision-making. Landscape and Urban Planning,
999: 1-15
Appleton, K., Lovett, A., Sunnenberg, G. & Dockerty, T. (2002): Rural landscape
visualisation from GIS databases: a comparison of approaches, possibilities and
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Bishop, I. D. (1997): Testing perceived landscape colour difference using the Internet.
Landscape and Urban Planning, 37: 187-196
Cavazza, M. (2004) Colloquium. Public lecture on 22nd Sept. Newcastle upon Tyne
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London
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A. (Eds.) Computer Graphics Techniques: Theory and Practice. Springer, New York
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for Spatial Planning. In Fritsch, D. & Spiller, R. (Eds.) Wichmann Verlag, Heidelberg
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Urban Planning, 54: 163-182
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empowerment for regeneration. HACAS Chapman Hendy, London
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consolidated research agenda. Landscape and Urban Planning, 21: 241-244
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landscape visualisation. Landscape and Urban Planning, 54: 183-199
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Wherrett, J. R. (1999) Issues in using the Internet as a medium for landscape preference
research. Landscape and Urban Planning, 45: 209-217
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techniques. Landscape Research, 25: 79-96
Whyte, J. 2002: Virtual Reality and the Built Eenvironment, Architectural, Oxford
Yadley, D. 1995: Introduction to Constitutional and Administrative Law, Butterworths,
London
Visualisation Methods as an Interface between Science and
Democracy in Spatial Planning
Mojca GOLOBIČ
1
Introduction
Today's society knows two major institutional settings for the 'giving and taking' the
reasons: parliamentary democracy and scientific research. They both share common origins
in ancient Greece and a long history of more or less close but tense relations. Planning
operates on the interface between these two worlds and has developed a variety of means to
deal with the tensions. Pre-modern planning tended to favour political decisions. The era of
modernity brought an increased importance in science and influence of scientific
knowledge in decision making (i.e. comprehensive or rational planning; LYLE 1985). The
increasing plurality of the post-modern era and shifts in vertical and parallel organization
of societies are questioning the legitimacy of formal institutions. According to the concept
of ‘risk society’ (BECK 1992), scientific results are becoming increasingly relevant for
policy decisions, while at the same time providing less and less of a sufficient basis.
Subjectivity, dynamism and conflict of values are the major pitfalls of the traditional,
expert dominated - ‘rational’ planning process. On the other hand, a democratic ‘political’
decision-making process is better able to deal with these challenges, which leads to the
planning issues being sometimes decided following popular opinion without any expert
input or verification. An overview of the more than 30 years of systematic measuring of
public attitudes towards spatial issues in Slovenia shows that public opinion and expert
assessments are increasingly diverging (KOS 2002). However, calls for objective decisions
usually formulated as 'let experts decide!' can still be heard, in the hopes of solving
increasing disagreements about spatial interventions.
But the turn to the technocratic styles of planning is hardly a plausible solution, although it
is usually welcomed and sometimes even advocated by professional planners and other
involved experts. The rhetoric arguments of political decision-making require the
verification of knowledge over and over again, according to the changed values and
priorities in society. Scientific knowledge on the other hand has been once and for all
proven by scientific methods and arguments of logic. Reluctance of scientists to submit
these conclusions to public critique is often the source of misunderstanding and conflicts.
The disagreements are most often not due to the misunderstanding about the facts, which
could be resolved by better knowledge, but rather to the result of underlying value conflicts
(Fig. 1). Another common delusion of the scientific community is believing that these
values can be researched and monitored similarly to other characteristics of the
environment. However, values have a very specific role in the planning process: as the
object of the research they tend to change during confrontations and negotiations; as the
subject of the process they influence it. Technocratic decision making can only work if
there is an advanced agreement about the values, as well as, an unconditional trust in the
M. Golobič
2
selection criteria and method among all concerned parties. In a world of plural values, this
is rarely the case.
conflict level
cognitive (fact) conflict
time + additional expertise
Fig. 1:
2
Conflict level can not be reduced by applying additional expert knowledge
because of the value conflict underlying the fact conflict (from OBERMEYER
1998).
Planning Methods for within the Scientific-Democratic
Interface
Although the reliance upon only one of the two approaches can in some cases prove to be
an easier and faster way to the solution, but then, the opportunity for synergy will be
missed. In the best case, the solution is less-than-optimal and in the worst, it leads to
conflicts and frustration. The connection between the scientific and political world is
however difficult to achieve. It is the way of reasoning and the logic of argumentation that
causes the gap between the two. This interface between experts and the lay public must be
a contextual and interactive process if both are to be able to make meaningful sense of their
respective expertise and contribute to the process (GOUGH ET AL. 2003). The process
requires early involvement of the public, its influence on the research questions, the
evaluation systems, the set of alternative solutions and finally, the criteria for choice.
According to CARVER ET AL. (1998) there are three main parts of the planning process that
a comprehensive participation method must be able to support: the exploration of the
decision-making context, the testing and evaluating of the alternatives and the decisionmaking (choice of the solution).
Visualisation Methods as an Interface between Science and Democracy in Spatial Planning
3
Table 1: Overview of the case studies and methods applied in three major parts of the
planning process
Planning level
and task
Transnational /
policy
formulation
exploration of the
decision-making
context
Experts: statistics, indepth interviews,
Public: mediated by
experts (in workshops)
National
/
facility siting
(wind
turbines)
Experts: survey with
visual stimuli
Public:
indirectly,
through questionnaire
National
/
facility siting
(LILRW
repository)
(proposed
methodology)
Experts: via feedback from users of the
web site
Public: using web
site:
general
information;
interactive data base
Experts: survey /
mental maps
Public:
indirect,
through questionnaire,
presented by experts
in workshops
Local / landuse planning
testing and evaluating
the alternatives
Experts:
proposing
scenarios
Public:
updating
scenarios
(in workshops)
Experts: evaluation of
the alternative sites
proposed by developer
Public:
indirectly,
through survey
Experts: indirectly, by
designing concept of the
model
Public: using interactive
web model for suitability
evaluation
Experts & public:
scenarios
based
on
suitability models using
parameters derived from
survey (mental map)
analysis
choice of the
solution (decision
support)
Experts
&
public: scenario
evaluation,
proposed actions
(public
workshops)
NA
Experts
&
public:
Incorporation of
users´ feed-back
in
criteria
of
choice
Experts
&
public: scenario
evaluation (public
workshops)
The following part of the paper discusses the methodological options to provide the
interface between science and the public. The analysis is focused on the role of
visualization methods and draws on examples from planning practice. The case studies are
chosen so as to cover different scales and types of the planning problems and to apply
different participative and communication methods (Table 1). Besides, two of the cases
show similar scale, as well as, planning problem but solved in a significantly different
manner.
(1) Transnational level (Alps); policy formulation
The aim of this project1 was to propose recommendations for policies concerning regional
development and cultural landscape change in the Alps. The project was explicitly
concerned with the combination of expert and lay people’s knowledge. Different methods,
such as interviews with stakeholders in pilot regions, future scenarios and workshops, were
1
REGALP research project funded by the European Commission under the 5th Framework Program, “Quality of
Life, Key Action 5, Sustainable development of rural and other relevant areas”
4
M. Golobič
used to arrive at the recommendations that were jointly formulated from top down and
bottom-up levels.
(2) National level (Slovenia); facility siting
A site for wind power plant: multi-criteria evaluation of suitability was used applying the
vulnerability criteria for natural environment, natural resources, and human environment
quality (noise and visual degradation). Parameters for all but the last criterion were
obtained from experts familiar with the corresponding aspect of the environment. A public
opinion survey with photomontages was used to obtain the criteria for the vulnerability of
visual landscape qualities.
(3) National level (Slovenia); facility siting
Low and intermediate radioactive waste (LILRW) repository site: the project’s aim was to
contribute towards finding a repository site in Slovenia. The site selection procedure is
conceived as an open process, combining expert evaluation with public participation and
will be supported by an interactive web-based model.
(4) Local level (Komenda municipality); land-use planning
The case involves a land use planning process for a small municipality located within the
metropolitan region of the Slovenian capital Ljubljana. Public survey involved graphic
response options, which were interpreted as parameters for suitability models for different
land-uses, resulting in various interest group specific scenarios. These were then discussed
in the workshops to arrive at common proposals.
2.1 Exploration of the Decision-Making Context
The phase of exploration in the decision-making context is implemented in most
participatory planning processes. However, it is rarely the case that users have the
opportunity to actively ‘explore’ the problem. Even rarer is the case where the experts
would be willing to further explore the context, as is perceived by the users. Interactivity is
a necessity, but a seldom used option for these activities. Therefore, this step is in reality,
implemented in a rather superficial way that could hardly be called an exploration, but
rather information giving. Nevertheless, providing information in the early stages of the
project can motivate the public to actively engage. This is still a significant step forward
from conventional PR, which usually only takes care of post-festum notifications. This step
generally means that a scope of information is presented to the public. The method of
presentation influences the effects in two major aspects: deciding which information is
relevant (scope and priorities of the concerned issues) and overcoming the differences
between the scientific and lay people’s language. The usual communication tools of
scientist, such as texts, tables, graphs and formulae usually do not succeed in getting the
message to the users. This type of information can beneficially be substituted or
complemented by visual material, such as maps and pictures. The other important issue is
to help users to actively explore the data. Computer technology offers good opportunity for
the creation of interactive data-bases which can, if placed on the Internet, indeed provide
users with a good and easily available information source. This option was used in the case
of the LILRW repository. The exploration of the decision context was first enabled by the
introductory page containing information about the LILRW repository issues and the sitechoice process in traditional (text and pictures) format. Additionally, the option to explore
the context more in-depth is offered by the ‘exploration’ operating mode of the model (Fig.
2). A selection of geo-referenced maps is available for users to inspect. Moreover, by
Visualisation Methods as an Interface between Science and Democracy in Spatial Planning
5
locating a specific site on the map through a mouse-click, the user can obtain information
about the site characteristics along with an explanation concerning the implication of the
characteristic for the suitability for the LILRW repository.
Fig. 2:
Interactive GIS data base used for the exploration of the decision making context
in the case of LILRW repository (From: GOLOBIČ & BIZJAK 2004).
The exploration of the decision-making context can (and should) also take the opposite
course: i.e. experts should learn more about the social part of the context, which they often
ignore. Experience shows what lay people bring into the research context knowledge goes
well beyond what is usually considered scientifically relevant, such as personal and
collective experiences and values, historical trends, trust, distrust and expectations about
the political, social and economic systems (GOUGH ET AL., 2003). A public opinion survey
is a widely used method in social sciences and psychology for researching the social
environment. Surveys can provide an insight into a community’s social structure, attitudes
and value orientations, which planners should consider when conceiving their proposals.
Compared to other research methods, surveys have additional effects due to the thinking
capacity of their object of research. First of all they enable respondents to provide an active
input by expressing their opinion and aspirations. Secondly, the survey can function as an
information and mobilization method, motivating people to engage in the decision making
process. These characteristics tend to mislead planners into thinking that participation can
be substituted by surveys, which is not the case. The information achieved in this manner
and interpreted appropriately can be very valuable; however, it is still only a part of the
exploratory phase: it is not confronted and tested in the planning context and should
therefore not be used as a substitute for more active participatory methods.
On a more technical note, the main question for the survey is, how to design the questions
in order to obtain as much useful information as possible. Here too, visualization can be put
M. Golobič
6
to good use. Visual stimuli, such as maps and photographs could be used to obtain
information on respondents’ preferences, values and opinions about spatially relevant
issues. In the case of the location for wind turbines, the experts had no firm argument on
which to devise the criteria for visual quality vulnerability. A public survey was then
devised where photomontages of wind turbines in some of the most typical Slovenian
landscapes were used as stimuli for the respondents to evaluate landscape qualities
with/without turbines (Fig. 3). The results revealed which landscape characteristics
intensified or reduced the visual impact of wind turbines; or in what types of landscape
were the turbines more or less acceptable.
.
Fig. 3:
Visualisation used for the exploration of the value context; photomontages of
proposed wind turbines in different landscapes (from: BRECEVIC ET AL 2001)
Another option of using visualization in a survey is to obtain graphic responses in the form
of mental (or thematic) maps. Graphic inquiry had been used in geography and planning
research to acquire different sorts of knowledge: an individual’s perception of physical
space and its characteristics (e.g. LYNCH 1960); people’s valuation of space (e.g. Gould
1975); or ideas for the future (BOSWORTH & DONOVAN 1998, HARRIS & WEINER 1998).
The potential strength of these methods is that they are close to a more holistic thinking
about the space and therefore an important means to communicate spatial information
(Tuan 1975). The weakness due to the wealth and complexity of the information contained
in a map makes the interpretation of the map difficult and also speculative (WEINER ET AL.
1998, POLIČ 2000).
The related case of Komenda municipality involved a public survey where the respondents
were asked to draw areas that they considered suitable for the proposed land uses
(settlement and industry), as well as, areas that should be protected for the conservation of
nature and natural resources (Fig. 4).
Visualisation Methods as an Interface between Science and Democracy in Spatial Planning
Fig. 4:
7
Graphic response option in a public survey used to explore the social decision
making context. Picture shows a detail of the map with all the graphical answers
joined.
2.2 Testing and Evaluating the Alternatives
The development of alternative solutions is a widely accepted option in planning practice in
dealing with value conflicts (MARUŠIČ 1993, JOHANESSEN ET AL. 1998). Although this is a
critical phase that enables the public to really participate in the decisions about the future, it
is also a phase which the public is most often excluded from. The problem is mostly related
to the non-transparency of the process in which alternatives (if there is more than one) are
being produced. The still prevailing black box process, typical for creative disciplines
(urban design, architecture, landscape architecture) on the one hand or the confused
muddling-through process, typical for political decision-making context (regional, land-use
planning) on the other are not well amenable for including ‘outsiders’. Nevertheless, the
demands for openness of the planning process, as well as, wide usage of computer
technology made many of the processes more formalized and explicit, therefore enabling
easier communication and involvement of different stakeholders.
Computer aided evaluation was in the core of the phase of testing and evaluating
alternatives in the LILRW repository case. Public involvement was enabled by the internet
simulation model of the evaluation process. A version of a multi criteria expert suitability
assessment was slightly simplified in order to meet the requirements of the lay users and
the restrictions of the internet technology. The user can choose indicators from the set, as
8
M. Golobič
well as, adjust their weights and furthermore, devise a personalized set of criteria by
ascribing a suitability score for each indicator value. The suitability is then calculated and
shown as a suitability map, where the national territory is divided in areas (not suitable,
low, medium and suitable) according to suitability classes (Fig. 5). Visualization in the
form of a map is crucial in allowing user to see the impact that the selected parameters have
on the outcome and enable them to verify and calibrate the model, as well as, understand
the meaning of the evaluation criteria.
Fig. 5:
Interactive web-based model: suitability map as a result of user determined
evaluation mode (from: GOLOBIČ & BIZJAK 2004)
On a more strategic scale, the testing and evaluating of the alternatives in a cooperative and
interactive manner can prove to be even more complicated, since the alternatives are
usually affected by a plethora of assumptions and parameters. Among many different
hypothetical situations that could be imagined for the Alps in 2020, two different scenarios
were chosen differing according to the aims and influence of relevant policies. In the first
('inertial') scenario, policies don’t (effectively) contribute towards achieving objectives of
sustainable development and current trends continue to drive the development. The second
(‘towards sustainability’) scenario considers a situation, where the basic references of
sustainability are integrated into policies at different levels with considerable effects. These
scenarios were not intended to present accurate future situations, but to help understand the
complex set of driving forces and factors that guide the development trends and the
landscape changes, as well as, conceive measures to arrive at favourable situation.
Therefore they had both exploratory and normative functions. The scenarios were initially
Visualisation Methods as an Interface between Science and Democracy in Spatial Planning
9
developed by the researchers and presented to the public at the workshops in the pilot
regions in each of the six alpine countries for critical review and updates. The comments
and feedbacks were then integrated in a joint scenario. The project showed that the
discussion of complex and highly abstract issues such as policies on a trans-national scale,
requires careful use of communication methods. Again, visualization can help
communicating these issues to the lay public. In our case, three types of visualization
methods were used: abstract schemes, maps and pictures (photomontages) showing
changes through time (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6: Visualization methods used on a transnational scale; policy formulation task:
abstract schemes (top left), maps (top right), time series pictures and photomontages
(bottom) (from: CASTIGLIONI & GOLOBIČ, 2004)
2.3 Decision Making
In spatial planning practice, the final decision-making phase is often the only moment
where the views of the public are disclosed. This is the case with the obligatory public
displays of plans and public hearings. These formal provisions should (ideally) prove that
no planning decision is taken without public consent, but their role is often reduced to
granting the process the legitimacy or “selling” the predetermined plan proposals to the
public (TEWDWR-JONES & THOMAS 1998, STEINER 1999). In a ‘take-it-or-leave-it’
situation, opposition often becomes the only way for the public to show disagreement with
the process, from which they were effectively excluded. Even if the whole process is
reduced to voting for one of the proposed alternatives (as the most basic process of
10
M. Golobič
democratic decision making), visualization continues to play an important role: it is almost
the only way to present the complex proposed changes in a concise, yet explanatory way.
However, it is also most liable to misuse: as there are many evidence of how maps and
photomontages can be used to show what should be seen. This is one of the reasons why
visual material wasn’t used as a direct base for decision in any of the presented examples.
The other reason why the involvement of the public in a decision-making phase should not
be over-emphasized is that, despite the desired influence of both experts and the public in
the whole process, the final decision should stay with the responsible authority and should
be taken in accordance with the required procedure. However, the responsibility to make
the decision does not release the authorities from the liability to transparently and clearly
provide arguments for the decision. Here, the visual material is also important, again with
the cautionary principle concerning manipulation. Therefore the types of visual material
chosen should enable explicit and transparent argumentation. Suitability maps (with clearly
traceable evaluation process) are, for example, better than photomontages or 3D
renderings. We can assume that the manipulation effect is less if stakeholders have been
involved in the previous phases.
Suitability maps can be used to search for alternative sites, but can also be used in the
decision making phase to evaluate the proposed locations and chose the least problematic
one (Fig. 7). In the case of wind turbines, the parameters for the vulnerability model were
obtained from responses to the questionnaire and combined with visual exposure calculated
by computer algorithm.
Fig. 7:
Suitability maps can be used in the decision making phase to evaluate the
proposed locations for wind turbines. Darkest areas are most vulnerable to visual
degradation due to wind turbines (from: BRECEVIC ET AL. 2001 )
Visualisation Methods as an Interface between Science and Democracy in Spatial Planning
11
In the case of land-use in the municipality of Komenda, the results of the survey were used
as parameters for the suitability models for the main planned land-uses. Suitability maps
were used to verify new areas to be designated in the land-use plan. In one specific case,
the suitability map for industry was used as an argument to replace the existing proposal for
an industrial zone with a new location, which was more acceptable for local inhabitants
(Fig. 8).
Fig. 8:
3
Suitability map used as an argument for decision: darker areas show most
suitable areas, the proposed industrial zone (site A) was replaced by a new
location (site B)
Conclusions
Making the connection between science and democracy work is not an easy task. Even
when talking about present reality, the world of experts and lay people are far apart,
influenced by underlying values and different languages. This gap only widens, where the
future is concerned. Evaluation and forecasting are therefore two tasks which require, and
at the same time, enable the joint use of research and democratic methods, as well as, active
cooperation of the lay public and experts. In this respect, the attention that is presently
concentrated on the last decision-making phase of the planning process is not entirely
justified. To achieve genuine influence from the public on the decision-making, as well as,
synergy with the experts, the previous phases of exploring the decision context and testing
and evaluating the alternative solutions, seem to be of much stronger importance. People
should have a chance to actively and equally participate in the conception of alternative
solutions. Therefore, they should be given the access to the information that they can
understand and use, as well as, an opportunity to explore the decision-making context. If
M. Golobič
12
these conditions are both met, then the last step should be an easier task. Otherwise,
offering the public an option to participate in the decision-making phase is really only
tokenistic, with no influence on the decision.
From the aspect of visualization methods, these can be applied to different effects and with
different restrictions in each of these three phases. Some of the options have been
illustrated by the examples from the planning practice. The lessons learned mostly regard
the importance of the visual material in its helping communicate complex and abstract
concepts to the public; as well as the use of maps to bridge the gap between holistic,
intuitive thinking and explicit, analytical procedures, required to ensure transparent process
and opportunities to communicate different opinions and incorporate them in the decision
criteria. The objectives of using visual methods as an expert-public interface include:
providing people with information about the decision problem which they can understand
and process, improving the transparency of the decision making process, establishing
communication between the public and decision makers, obtaining and incorporating
people's opinions and values in the decision making process, helping to design new
solutions and provide arguments for the decision. Due to the highly sensitive nature of
visual material and its potential misuse; its use as the exclusive and direct base for decision
making can not be recommended. The extensive use of visual representation in the
previous steps, exploration of the decision making context and conceiving alternative
solutions, is of much higher value and can provide a much better decision making context
which should lead to improved decisions, as a result.
4
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