SWINE AND RABBIT PRODUCTION (APH 308) COURSE-WARE
Basic Terminologies
Boar: Young or adult male pig.
Sow: Adult female pig after one parturition
Gilt: Young female pig between 8weeks and parturition.
Hog/Barrow: Castrated male pig before attaining sexual maturity.
Piglets: Young male/female pig under 8weeks that still depend on the dam’s milk for survival.
Litter: Group of piglets farrowed by a sow during one parturition.
Weaners: Piglets above 8weeks that do not depend on the dam’s milk for survival again or
piglets that are separated from their mother.
Finishers: Adult pig that are meant for slaughtering.
Runt/Crit/Card: Smallest pig in a litter.
Herd: Group of pigs.
Farrowing: Act of parturition
Service: Act of mating
Anorexia: Lack/loss of appetite
Weanning: Transferring of young pigs from dependence on the mother’s milk to another form of
feeding or separation of the sow and piglets.
Castrate: Removal of the testicles of pigs.
Scrotum: External sac or skin enclosing the testes.
Semen: Fluid secreted by the male reproductive organ which contains the spermatozoa.
Still-born: Dead at birth
Wallow: To roll about in water or mud
Colostrums: First milk secreted after sow gives birth, usually higher in protein and antibodies
than the normal milk and it confers immunity in the young.
Creep: A small entrance or enclosure in the sow’s pen where piglets have access to but
inaccessible to by the sow
Diarrhea/Scour: Frequent passage of faeces which is usually watery.
Gestation period: Period of pregnancy
Morbidity: Diseased or unhealthy pigs
Quarantine: keeping an animal having infectious disease away from others or keeping new set
of animals away from the original stock for certain length of time.
Historical Background of Pigs
Pigs are long-legged and very intelligent animals. Both wild and domestic pigs are called
Sus scrofa. Pigs were domesticated very early in south western Asia while pig live in Africa and
could have been independently domesticated by different people in different parts of Africa.
Remains of domesticated pigs were found as early as 8500BP in S/west Asia and by 6000BP in
Northern China.
Archeological evidence suggests that pigs were domesticated earlier than cattle. Pigs are
omnivores and as such compete directly with humans for food. Throughout most of the history of
domestication, pigs retain their typical long snouted, learn bodied, long legged look of their wild
ancestors.
RABBIT PRODUCTION
World Distribution, Characteristics and Importance of Rabbits
The rabbit, orctolgagus cuniculus, belongs to the small order lagomorpha which includes
picka (ochotoro), hares (Lepus) and the cotton tails (sylvilagus).
Rabbit was wild in European countries and is supposed to originate from Mediterranean
sea into inland between 11th and 12th century. Several breeds of rabbits were known in the 16th
century, been the 1st record on controlled breeding. Domestication can be traced to the late
middle age and in the 16th century breeding seemed to have spread across France, Italy and
England in 1595. Agricola mentioned the existence of grey–brown (white), white–black and the
ash–grey rabbit in 1606, Oliver de Scrres classified 3 types of rabbit namely: the wild, the semi–
wild (warren) and the domesticated rabbit. The semi–wild rabbits were raised inside walls while
the domesticated rabbits were raised in hutches. In the 19th century, raising of rabbits in hutches
sprang up all over rural western Europe and also in city suburbs and during the same period,
rabbits were introduced into many countries where they were not known before such as Australia
and New Zealand.
Rabbit production generally was not included in national statistics, based on FAO survey
and various personal contacts a possible world, output could be suggested to be roughly one
million tonnes of carcasses per year. USSR, the largest producer accounts for 24%, France 18%,
Italy 16%, Spain 12% and all other places combined (Australia, America and Africa – 15%).
The two main African producers are Ghana and Egypt both with 7,000 – 8,000 tonnes of
carcasses per year. Far behind them come Algeria and Sudan with 1,000 – 2,000 tonnes per
year. Rabbit production is gradually becoming an important component of animal production in
Nigeria. Evidence of this is the increasing number of aspiring rabbit producers and breeders.
Rabbits have a number of characteristics that would make them partly suitable as
important meat producing small livestock in developing countries. Among these are:
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Small body size: There are a number of advantages of small animal in developing
countries. They require small amount of feed and use inexpensive, easy constructed
houses. It provides a small carcass that can be consumed by a family in one meal,
eliminating the need for meat storage and refrigeration. Rabbits are biological
refrigerators.
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Short generation time and high reproductive potential: The reproductive capacity
of rabbits is legendary. Rabbits are induced ovulators and will breed within 24hours
of parturition. They are in constant state of reproduction unlike other types of
livestock, they do not heat period. They gestation period is between 30 – 33days. It
is quite feasible to produce 3 – 5 litters per year or about 20 offsprings per doe per
year under intensive system, 78 – 96 kits/doe/year is possible.
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Rabbits can utilize non – competitive feeds: Non–competitive feeds such as grainfree diet, forages and grasses, greens such as tree leaves, vegetable tops, legumes and
grass forages, fruits and vegetables with supplements of table scraps and by-products
such as rice bran and the corn bran. They can be successfully raised on diets that are
low in grain and high roughage being one of the best converters of feeds (forage) to
meat. They rank 2nd to chicken which needs 345MJ to produce 1kilo of meat for
rabbit, 430MJ, sheep – 1,780MJ, cattle 1,830MJ is needed.
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They have a very rapid growth rate: Their rate of reproduction is high with short
gestation period averaging 31days and they possess the ability to re–breed
immediately after parturition. Recent research has demonstrated the possibility of
post–partum is breeding. It is possible for a doe to have a litter then she rebreeds
immediately, wean the litter at 28days and have another litter 3 days after. This
attribute is of great significance in commercial rabbit production where rapid
characterization is vital.
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Nutritional valve of rabbit meat: Rabbit meat is low in fat, cholesterol, Sodium
(Na+) ion and saturated fatty acids but high in protein and essential amino acids. The
composition of rabbit meat is as shown below.
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Meat
% Protein
% Fat
% H2O
Rabbit
20.8
10.2
67.9
Chicken
20.0
11.0
67.6
Veal
18.8
14.0
66.0
Turkey
20.1
20.2
58.3
Beef
16.3
28.0
55.0
Lamb
15.7
27.7
55.8
Pork
11.9
45.0
42.0
There are few if any cultural biases or religious prohibition against the
consumption of rabbit meat.
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In some countries where rabbit is produced in large scale, specialized frozen rabbit
meat is common. The skin from such frozen rabbit meat factories would be tanned
and made into slippers, bed – side rugs, small rugs, hand bags and other leather
works. Also production of toys, craft work and garments are possible. Curing and
glossing of pelt is possible in developing countries just as cattle hides and sheep skins
could be processed to different products.
Saturated Fatty Acid
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Butyric acid: CH3 (CH2)2 COOH
Oleic
Caproic acid: CH3 (CH3)4 COOH
Linoleic
Caprytic acid: CH3 (CH2)6 COOH
Lionlenic
Capric acid: CH3 (CH2)8 COOH
Arachidonic
Lauric acid: CH3 (CH2)10 COOH
Myrintic acid: CH3 (CH2)12 COOH
Palmitic acid: CH3 (CH2)14 COOH
Stearic acid: CH3 (CH2)16 COOH
Arachidic acid: CH3 (CH2)18 COOH
Ligoceric acid: CH3 (CH2)10 COOH
Animal Fatty Acids
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Stearic
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Butyric
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Palamitic
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Pseudo-rumination coprophagy: This is a practice whereby the animal eats its own
feaces. Rabbits produce two types of faecal matter: hard type in the day and soft type at
night. By eating the soft droppings, the rabbit obtains two things, vitamin B complex and
bacteria protein. Rabbit would die within 2 days if prevented from eating the soft
dropping. Furthermore, rabbit manure is a useful fertilizer. For crops and breeding worms
which could be used in breeding fish and chicken.
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Very low capital is involved in running a rabbit business: Without much financial
input, a farmer can start a small backyard rabbitary to produce enough meat for the need
of the family. He can use weeds, forages, vegetable tops and kitchen waste as feed for the
rabbit. Rabbits can also be raised by city dwellers since they are noiseless animals and
require only a small space. Balcony partition or unused garage or even an old parking
material can be converted to rabbit housing without infringing on the peace of
neighbours. A commercial cooperation can also be started with few animals.
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Potential for genetic improvement: There is a high degree of diversity in the rabbit
genetic resource pool. Mature body with ranges from < 1kg to over 10kg while there is
much variability in traits such as maternal ability, fecundity, resistance to heat stress etc.
Thus, it is possible by selection and use of breed diversity to make rapid improvement in
animal performance.
Limitations to Rabbit Production
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They are susceptible to heat stress: At high temperature above 300C production can be
highly limited. Rabbit production can be concentrated in highlands and the higher
elevation areas where the temperatures are moderate. In low elevation areas with high
temperature, the rabbit cages can be placed in shady areas with good air circulation, clay
or clement domes placed under the ground covered with soil can provide a cool
microclimate. In most tropical countries, there are ‘local breeds’ of rabbit which have
been raised in the local environment for many years. Typically, the local breeds are small
and slow growing but presumably are more adapted to the environment than imported
breeds. The use of the local breeds in cross breeding with imported breeds to improve
productivity while maintaining adaptation to the environment should be evaluated.
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Diseases: This is one of the most important problems facing livestock industry especially
in the developing countries where little or nothing is done to prevent or eradicated
diseases. The diseases of rabbit arise from different causes such as bacteria, fungi, virus,
protozoa, parasites, metabolic or physiological disturbances, mineral deficiencies or
excesses, inherited defects, trauma and the accidents. The most commonly reported
diseases of rabbits can be classified as: Enteric diseases, respiratory diseases, other
diseases such as pseudo-tuberculosis, mastitis, ring worm (dermatophytosis), infectious
mycomatosis, external parasites such as fleas, lice, mites, ticks and flies, physical injury.
Treatments of sick rabbits are difficult and frequently of no avail except for a few cases
e.g canker or mange. It is thus advised that sick rabbits be destroyed, culled or isolated.
Prophylatic and the sanitary measures are very important; a good preventive program will
eliminate most of the disease of rabbits.
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Rabbit can tolerate high level forages and unconvectional feeds but some essential
nutrient should be ensured in rabbit nutrition for high performance. Well chosen
feed can help keep the rabbit free from disease and produce good growth at low cost.
Breeding females must be well fed to produce healthy kitten and milk to feed them. The
high cost of ingredient involved in livestock feed production has called for the principle
of least cost combination in animal feeding system. The problem then arises in balancing
the rabbit diet and choice of various feed ingredients consumable by rabbits to give a
desirable level of production; this depends on the skill of the rabbit producer.
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An initial problem in rabbit production is housing: The stable should be designed so
that sun will not enter it and should not be in the direction of wind. The initial expenses
for stables seem high but will last for several generations so that cost per generation is
low. The real high cost from this perspective are feed, labour, dead or stolen animals,
care for sick animals and so on which could be precursor of bad housing system. For
instance, if one starts with a bad housing design, it will force the person day after day to
duck if the door is too low, to do unnecessary working, awkward cleaning, catch extra
rats which indeed is a low initial cost but a high recurring expenditure.
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Probably, the most important limitation to the success of rabbit production in developing
countries is that rabbit raising requires a reasonable degree of management skill and
commitment on a daily basis. Good management is required to ensure that does get
mated, that nest boxes are put in at their proper time, that animal are carefully observed
for signs of illness, that good sanitation is used etc. Not everyone has the patience,
affection for the animal and the inherent management skills to make a success of raising
rabbits.
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Consumer acceptance and marketing: People are reluctant to slaughter beautiful
rabbits but will readily buy dressed ones for eating. Many have not realized the value of
rabbit meat and breeders have not given it enough campaign to educate the public on this
product. Like every new product, the rabbit needs advertisement to make the consumers
accept it. Besides, rabbit meat supply is inadequate and irregular to meet the demand of
few who needs it. Furthermore, the prices for which rabbits are offered differ sharply
from one producer to the other. There is little or no effort to create a uniform price. To
stimulate the market, production should be increased in other to reduce price while the
producer will benefit by keeping to a low introductory people.
Rabbit Breeds
Breeds can be grouped by origin and the adult size which is also related to production
characteristics such as precocity, prolificacy, growth rate and age at maturity. Rabbits can be
classified as heavy breeds, average, light and small breeds.
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Heavy Breeds: Examples are Bouscat giant white, French lop, Flemish gaint, French
giant papillon. Adult weight exceeds 5kg. Lop has various colour shades such as
white, agouti, iron grey or black, it is a good meat rabbit and is bred for show in
France and other European countries such as Germany and Denmark. The Bouscat
giant white is a synthetic albino breed, highly prolific and of fast growth in traditional
French rabbi tarries. Flemish giant has its origin from Belgium. Adult weighs 7kg and
is one of the large rabbit that come in several colours and is still farm raised.
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Average Breeds: Some examples are silver rabbit (English and German),
Champayne d’ Argent, Burgundy Fawn, Newzealand Red, California, Newzealand
white, Grand Chinchilla. Burgundy fawn and the Champayne d’Argent are developed
with selection over many years, Champayne d’ Argent is known for its fur and
productivity (high fertility, quick growth, quick muscle development and good meat
quality). Its adult weight is 4 – 4.5kg. It is farm bred in France. Newzealand Red was
first developed by selection in California and was raised on wire mesh floors which
were introduced much earlier in USA than they were in France. The California is a
synthetic American breed developed as a meat animal with very good muscle
development. The adult weight is 3.6 – 4.0kg. The NZ white originated as a breed in
USA. It is the albino offspring of colour rabbits bred selectivity in large meat
production unit, for its breeding qualities such as prolificacy, maternal performance,
fast growth rate and precocious body development which makes it ready for slaughter
at 56 days. The NZ white adult weight 4kg slightly exceeds that of the California.
The Grand chinchilla is of German origin, its adult weight averages 4.5kg. They can
be used for meat and fur. The presence of dewlap distinguishes it from other rabbits.
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Light weight breeds: Example are Himalayan found in France, small Chinchilla,
Dutch and the French Havana. The adult weight is 2.5 – 3.0kg. Himalayan originated
from China and spreads to USSR and Poland. It is white with black extremities. The
light weight breeds usually develop very fast and make excellent mothers. They eat
less than the medium and large breeds and could be crossed or used pure in
developing countries to produce a light meaty canvass of 1.0 – 1.2kg.
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Small Breeds: These weigh about 1kg at maturity. They are mainly Polish rabbit
with its many variations of coat colour. Selection for small size had led to very low
fertility and a marked decrease in growth rate. They can’t be used for meat
production. They are bred for show, laboratory and as pet.
Selection
The objective of selections is to upgrade performance by enhancing an animal’s genetic
values where breeding and feeding techniques permit expression of genetic value. The main
objective of selection is to improve annual numerical productivity per doe. Selection should
therefore aim at having fertile does which accept the buck and can produce many litters with
good kindling to weaning and survival rate. The following characters can be considered for
selection: acceptance of the buck, gestation, fertility, viability of young, milk production and
longevity. These characters and performance can be summed up by the selection criteria which is
the average number of weaned per liter from the first 3litters obtained within pre-determined
period. There is a close correlation between performance during the first 3litters and the does
total output.
Crossbreeding to take advantage of heterosis or average vigour as nicking good health
condition ability requires the selection of several pure population. Firstly, then the local
population and strength derived from imported animal could be crossbred to test the potential
improvement of the local population. Crossbreeding system include simple or 2–breed crossing.
3-breed crossing, rotational or alternative crossbreeding.
Rabbits can be reared under any of the 3 major management systems which are extensive,
semi–intensive and intensive systems.
Extensive Reproduction Scale
This is also called small scale, substituent and back yard rearing. It is a small operation
marked with low output. The number of animal involved may be one buck and about 10 does. It
is supported by the farm unit. The production cost is kept to a minimum. This system is for a
beginning farmer especially if farm based resources are adequate. Such farm based resources
include family labour, forage and other feed stuffs (e.g. kitchen scraps) acquired from the farm.
The family should have interest and time to successfully raised rabbits. Other inputs obtained off
the farm but at a minimum cost might include locally available building materials for shelter and
hutch construction. A low capital outlay and limited economic risk justifies this approach. Low
investment operating capital is required to initiate and sustain the enterprise. The beginner farmer
should be advised to start with not more than 1 buck and 5 does. He will gradually learn good
management practices before expanding the size of the operation. This patience period may take
less than 1year.
The extensive system is often less dependent on technical services such as production
advice, breeding stock, market information and medication than intensive operation.
Semi–Intensive System
As the extensive scale operation achieves success, a shift from this system to an intensive
scale system may be desirable. This assumes that the change is economically justified in terms of
financial records maintained by the farmer and a reliable market source of rabbit sales. The
farmer must have kept accurate receipt and expense record, income generated from rabbit sales
will be used to purchase some farm input such as concentrate feeds and welded wire. This
transition phase represents a semi–intensive production system. The characteristic of both
extensive and intensive production systems are found in the semi–intensive system.
Intensive Production System
This is a more sophisticated level of rabbit production and it presents greater economic
risk. The enterprise may either be private, owned by one person or jointly owned through a
partnership or cooperative group. In either case there may be a need to hire labour even a
manager to run the operation. This labour pool may need to be trained to learn, the necessary
skills required for optimal production. The operation should be run like a business, other special
inputs may include purchased forage and feed concentrate or a complete formulated ration, cage
wire, feed and watering equipments, medications, office supplies and transportation of supply for
marketing. In intensive production, more rabbits may be produced per doe but the rate of
mortality may be higher. A higher rabbit population density can contribute to greater risk or
spread by disease. Therefore, disease prevention measures such as culling, quarantine and
sanitation become critical. Another reason for the high disease rate is management related such
as less time devoted per rabbit than in a smaller operation. An internal operation can only stay in
business as long as the farm market exists.
Reproduction in Rabbit
Buck: Sexual maturity is reached at 32 weeks by NZ white rabbit in temperate climate.
A young buck can be used for reproduction from the age of 20 weeks. The first manifestation of
sexual behaviour appears at days 60 – 70days when the rabbit makes its first attempt at riding.
Coitus may occur for the first time at a 100 days but the viability of the sperm cells in very weak
or nil in the first ejaculate. So, first mating should be timed for age 135–140days. The onset of
puberty varies from breed to breed but conditions in the rabbitary also play an important role
partly feeding which is even more important than climate. The volume of semen ejaculate is
about 0.3–0.6ml, concentration is evaluated at 150 – 500 x 106 spermatozoa/ml. But volume and
concentration are liable to variation. False mounting one or 2 minutes before copulation
increases the concentration of the ejaculate in 2 successive services, the first act as a preparation
for the 2nd which in less voluminous but more concentrated. The volume decreases in subsequent
mating while concentration increases between 1st and 2nd ejaculate and then diminishes. Many
spermatozoa production is obtained by using the buck regularly once a day.
Doe: The productive life cycle of the doe
Generally, does reach puberty when they have grown to 70 – 75% of their mature weight
and this depends on the breed types and body development. Female rabbit doesn’t have an
oestrus cycle with regular periods of heat during which ovulation will occur spontaneously.
Does are considered to be on oestrus more or less permanently. Ovulation occurs only after
mating, a female rabbit is therefore considered to be on heat when she accepts service and in
dioestrus when the refuses. A doe on heat assumes a characteristic pose called LORDOSIS with
the back-arched downward and hind quarters raised. A doe in dioestrus tends to crouch in a
corner of the cage or exhibits aggregation towards the buck. The doe can stay on heat for several
days running.
On the ovary follicles not having evolved to the ovulation stage through lack of
stimulation undergo regression and are replaced by new follicles which remain for a few days in
the pre–ovulating state and may then regress. Mechanical stimulation of the vagina can cause
ovulation but the outcome is quite random. Injection of LH (Luteinizing hormone) or LRH
(Luteinizing releasing hormone) can produce results though repeated injections of the LH will
lead to immunization and the loss of effect beyond the 5th or 6th injection.
Mating and Artificial Insemination (AI)
Before mating, the buck to doe pair must be free of signs of diseases. Rabbits should be
bred during the cool times of the day. The does should always be taken to the buck cage for
breeding because the doe is quite territorial and strange rabbit is not welcome in her cage. This
behaviour is a good one and should be encouraged by sound management practices. The doe and
the buck should be left together for some minutes, when the buck suddenly falls to his side
making a snorting sound in the process, mating has probably occurred. One good mating is
adequate, if a mating doesn’t take place during this time, return the doe to her cage and try again
after 1 or 2 days. Under no condition is it good to leave the pair unattended, it’ll not be known
when or if a mating took place. Also the pair could fight causing serious injury such as
castration.
Through the stimulation of mating, a doe in oestrus will release her eggs about 10hrs
later. This process is known as Nerve–Induced Ovulation. The colour of the vulva is often a
reliable inoculators of oestrus or receptivity. A doe with a reddish coloured vulva with a
glistering, moist surface is better than one with a pale or grayish coloured vulva that appears dry.
If a successful mating occurs, record keeping is very important.
A force-mating whereby the doe is restrained should only be used as a last resort. The
practice of artificial insemination (AI) is not feasible for most farmers. An improvement in
reproductive performance through AI is only feasible in large commercial and intensive
production with careful attention to hygiene, proper apparatus and the execution of the
insemination itself. Natural mating is still the general rule considering the performance of small
rabbitaries. However, AI is also important for gene transfer as an alternative to importation of
breeding animals. It is also used to establish gene reservoir of deep frozen semen.
In natural mating, the buck may be used again the following day, 2 services (1 service
each for 2 does) per day followed by a day of rest can be used in larger operations. This assumes
that the buck always display good libido or sex drive. This amounts to 365 services per year.
The breeding schedule and fertility level will dictate the effective buck to one ratio for the herd.
The main concern is to avoid inbreeding if only a few bucks are kept in a herd.
Palpation
The rabbit’s pregnancy or gestation period is usually between 30 – 32days. The
pregnancy can be determined by abdominal palpation. The advantage of palpation is the savings
in feed and labour in supporting non–pregnant does. A doe found to be open can be immediately
returned to the buck for a re-mating. This skill can be accomplished through much practice,
competency in palpation is achieved by a good understanding of the anatomy of the female
reproductive tract, the various stages of foetal development, the application of firm yet gentle
pressure when searching for the foetuses.
Causes of Infertility
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Sterility: This is a permanent infertility although it is somewhat rare. Does or bucks
which continually fail to reproduce while other rabbits in the same herd have normal
reproduction should be culled. Only 2 or 3 consequtive infertile matings should be
permitted before the decision to cull is made.
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False Pregnancy: This is a condition which is usually the result of a mating accompanied
by ovulation without fertilization. Even though the doe is known to be pregnant upon
palpation she may refuse service when a re–mating in attempted. Generally, false
pregnancy lasts for approximately 17days. In extreme cases, however, the doe will later
pull her fur, build a nest and even produce milk. Does that repeat this abnormal condition
should be culled.
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A rabbit underweight lose flesh and have rough fur or one that appears to be moulting
should not be bred. The cause of this condition could be related to early stresses of
reproduction, dry season, inadequate diet, diseases etc. This should be corrected through
proper management.
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High temperature stress can also reduce fertility levels.
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There are some diseases of reproduction that also reduces fertility level.
Kindling in Rabbits
A pregnant one should be given a sanitized nest box on the 28th day following mating to
give the doe about 3 days to build a nest and develop maternal behavior. The nest box should
contain dry beddings such as grass hay, shredded paper, bush cotting/hulls and wood shavings.
The doe will combine her fur with the bedding materials to provide a warm absorbent nest for
the litter. Do not disturb the doe when she is kindling. After the doe has left the nest box, wait for
at least 10 minutes before inspecting the litter. Promptly remove any still-born, after birth
(placenta) or bl0oo soaked beddings from the nest. Count the number of young and enter this on
the record form. Make sure you cover the litter back with fur and shut the gate to the cage.
Average litter size at birth varies from 3 – 4 kits for small breeds raised in adverse environment
to 10 – 12 kits for medium and heavy breeds raised in favourable environment.
Nursing and Litter Management
New born rabbits are born blind, naked and deaf. They depend entirely on the doe for
protection and nourishment in order to survive. The best way to determine whether or not the doe
is nursing her litter is to inspect the kits, bulging stomachs and content are obvious signs of
proper mothering. If you find the kits uncovered, they are preparing for the does’ daily feeding.
A doe normally nurses her litter once a day. The kits must consume a large volume of milk at a
time. The milk is very concentrated in nutrient. The average daily milk production may vary
form 100 – 300g depending on the stage or days into lactation. The total 21-day weight of the
liter is an excellent indicator of cumulative milk production of the doe. The management practice
referred to as fostering can be adopted i.e. transferring kits from large litters to smaller litters to
minimize competition. The farmer must plan to have at least 2 litters born not more than 4 days
apart. If a doe produces 10 kits and the 2nd 4 kits, 3 kits could be fostered to the 2nd doe so that
both does will have fostered 7 kits each. The doe usually will not mind the transferred or addition
of kits.
By 1week of age the kits would have develop their first coat of fur. By day 10, their eyes
have opened. From 2 – 3weeks of age, the kids are crawling almost hopping and searching for
planned food. The nest box can be removed at this time while less milk is produced by the doe
once the litter reaches 3 weeks of age, the litter will continue to become more independent on the
milk and consume more solid food up to weaning age. On a four litter/doe/year breeding
schedule, the doe can be rebred on the same day.
The choice of a breeding schedule is an important decision. Under subsistence
production, a doe may be allowed to produce only four litters per year. This is because the
environment for example as in arid or tropical stressful environment, the combination of climate,
intrusion and management factors cannot adequately support high and regular level of
reproduction. Under intensive condition, a doe may be allowed to produce 6 litters or more/year
but only under favourable environmental conditions, the farmer must have assessed to high
quality stock, a commercial diet source, mediations and sanitation products and shelter which
provides ideal comfort to the stock. The reproductive lifespan is usually 1year and for buck, 1 –
2 years.
Early Litter Mortality
A high kit mortality can be traced to one or more of the following factors:
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Negligence by the doe or farmer
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Unhealthy or weak parents
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Inbreeding
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Breeding the doe too early or too often
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Feeding the does and the young ones on succulents or on too much immature greens
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Insufficient food supply
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Exposure to rain
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Cold – If the doe hasn’t provided enough fur or bedding materials.
EFFECT OF CLIMATIC FACTORS ON BREEDING
The best season for rabbit breeding is during dry season when vegetations are scarced.
This period falls between October and February. Rabbits do not breed well when the temperature
is high. Temperature above 38oC is bad for rabbit. Most West African regions partly in the south
do not experience such high temperature and are favourable for commercial breeding. It is
important to keep rabbits away from the direct rays of the sun. They should not be housed under
any material which conducts heat easily.
A rabbit suffering from heat stress or exhaustion would become weak, high humidity or
high humid area most be avoided. The forest region has the highest death toll among rabbits
because of the high humidity coupled with the rapid spread of diseases. The onset of the rains in
March and April promote the growth of new leaves. The immature, succulent leaves can cause
diarrheoea resulting in a high rate of infant mortality.
Nutrition and Feeding
The best feed mixes have been estimate and recommendations made for four categories
of rabbit.
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Resting adult (bucks) and non–producing does
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Pregnant but not lactating does
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Lactating does (pregnant or not)
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Young rabbits from weaning to slaughter age about 1 – 2 ½ months
Lactating does need the richest most concentrated feed. Crude protein requirement is
about 18% with metabolizable energy of 2500kcal/kg, next category is the growing rabbit CP =
16%, ME = 2400kcal/kg.
These are followed by pregnant non–lactating does; their feed can be slightly less rich
than that of young growing rabbits. The last category is bucks which do not need a rich diet.
Proteins must supply the elements to build and re–build rabbits. The indigestible part of
fibre serves to provide the slight congestion essential for the proper functioning of the digestive
tract. Energy is needed to regulate body temperature. Mineral and Vitamin are building blocks
for certain parts of the animal (skeleton etc) and for the enzyme which use energy to build and
re–build the body proteins continually. In intensive production, all rabbits except bucks are fed
ad-lib on balanced pelleted feeds or on dry feed (cereals, straws, dry forage). One watering point
is sufficient for 10 – 15 animals. The watering system must be checked regularly to ensure that
the animal do not suffer from lack of water due to a defective apparatus. The rabbit therefore is
very resistant to hunger and relatively resistant to thirst but any reduction in water supply in
terms of water requirement causes a proportional reduction in dry matter intake with a
consequent area in performance.
Feeds and Feeding
Proper nutrition allows the rabbit to maintain and physical conditions and to be
productive and profitable for the farmer. The basic experience, training and some planning, the
farmer can learn how to properly feed rabbit. It is not always practicable to provide a
nutritionally balanced or complete diet for rabbits reared under substituent conditions on small
farms. However, there are certain basic measures that ensure the rabbit thrifty condition and
reasonable productive level.
Feed Sources
It is necessary to know suitable feed sources and basic dietary requirement. Feed sources
for rabbits can be obtained from a variety of sources. These include: wild indigenous plant
stands, cultivated forage plot, farm crop residues, farm surplus feeds, agric by–products, kitchen
waste and market sources. The farm might rely mostly on one or two of these sources or one
several depending on local factors.
Wild indigenous plant stands, include a variety of native plants such as grasses, legumes,
weeds, forbs. Many suitable species have not been exploited as forages; the forage maybe of
poor quality not accepted due to poor palatability may only be seasonally available. The farmer
must closely inspect all collected forages to prevent the risk of collecting toxic poisonous plant
species.
Cultivated forage on the farm may be ideal. The farmer can plant the recommended
specie, management the plot for best yield and harvest and feed the forage at the proper time.
This has some advantages such as (1) the plots are ready by the time the farmer obtains the rabbit
(2) using surplus forage to make high quality hay for dry season feeding (3) availability of
processed forage called silage especially in areas with a prolonged dry season. A mixture of
grass–legume stand could improve the quality of the diet, example of this is beans and maize
intercropping. The legume specie might be a shrub or tree such as Glyricidia sepium or Leucana
leucocephala
Housing and Equipment
Rabbit behavioural characteristics like territorial, social, sexual, maternal feeding and
their reactions to environmental temperature and humidity govern the design of rabbit housing.
Rabbitary should have durable living quarters with a rest area which can also serve as a refuge
from disturbances. To prevent conflict, adult rabbits should be kept in a separate individual
cage, before puberty, young rabbits can be reared in groups. For servicing, it is the doe that
should be moved to the buck cage. Does should be provided with a private area or a nest box for
kindling, feed and water should be available over period of several hours. Whether feed is
rationed or ad-lib.
In the tropics, rabbits should be reared either on litter in hutches out in the open or in
cages placed inside a building which will serve as a buffer against the heat. Buildings can be
constructed with local materials such as laterite bricks, frames made from hardwood and a straw
roof. The temperature in a building like this is more constant than in a more costly one made
with concrete. Also, satisfactory rabbit housing can be made by building small round hutches of
unbaked earth bricks covered with straws, can be used for both cage and housing. However, the
litter has to be changed often. The floor should slope slightly and well off the ground. Parasitism
can be partially controlled by demolishing the hutch every year and rebuilding it a few meters
away such housing is only suitable for backyard rabbitaries in which case labour is not a
problem.
Health Care
Disease is almost always the result of poor surroundings and environment coupled with
the onslaught of pathogenic agents such as
•
Entereirc diseases – Diarrhoea, an example of enteric disease of rabbits in a very
serious economic treat, primarily of young weaned rabbit (4 – 10weeks). Diarrhoea
appears later in young rabbits than in other young domestic mammals such as piglets,
calves, lambs and even young hares. This is probably due to their been born hairless
and blind and thus confined for weeks to their nest sheltered from outside attacks.
Signs of diarrhoea include: decrease feed intake (especially solid feed) and growth.
This is followed by full appearance of diarrhoea consisting of a small quantity of
fairly solid faeces which soil the animal’s hind quarters. Death is possible at this
stage. Diarrhea often gives way to constipation, if the animal survives a full day in
coma of acute phase of enteritis, it may recover fully within few days.
Causes of diarrhea may either be non–specific or specific
Non–specific causes include: transportation, change of environment, unusual objects and
sounds, too much protein, insufficient CF, feed changes, composition and irregular
supply. Specific causes include: (1) chemical agents such as various antibiotics
(ampicillin, lycomycin, clyndamycin, penicillin etc), high nitrate content in drinking
water and mouldy feed, (2) virus and bacteria (corynebacterium, clostridia, pasteurella
and E–coli etc), (3) internal parasite such as trematodes (flukes), cestodes (tapeworm)
nematodes (roundworm) and protozoa (coccidia) are the major specific agents of
diarrhoea in the rabbit.
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Respiration disease: These are common among domestic rabbits especially breeding
adults. Young rabbits can also be affected. Symptoms are clear fluid nasal discharge and
frequent sneezing, rubbing its nose with its force paws, matted and dirty fur, common
coryza (which is an attack on the upper respiratory tract). Later symptoms are purulent,
thick yellow discharge, coughing, pneumonia, difficulty in breathing–in. Complications
are frequent such as diarrhoea, ophthalmia, sinusitis, torticolis (wri neck) and abscesses.
Females can die suddenly during lactation or gestation. Bacteria such as pasteurella,
Staphyloccocus, E. coli etc, viruses such as myxomitosis and parasites are the infectious
agents.
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Other disorders of rabbits: Myxomitosis transmitted by insects such as mosquitoes and
fleas and it is viral contageious (2) Foot pad abscesses, buck teeth, ear and skin mange,
other skin diseases e.g. ringworm, zoonosis e.g. rabbit fever, diseases and disorders
associated with reproduction such as genital infections such as rabbit syphilis, metritis or
white discharge which is often associated with metritis and respiratory complaints (3)
sterility (4) Twisted uterus (5) Carnibalism (6) Abandonment of litters
Control, Treatment and Prevention
Sulphan drugs such as sulfadimethoxine, sulfaquinoxaline, sulfadimerazine are effective
in treatment of diarrhoea. Good sanitation and feeding hygiene is the proper way to
prevent diarrhoea.
Parasitism can be controlled by frequently changing of the straw litter and overall
sanitary and health conditions. Regular treatment can also include broad spectrum
antihelminthics or cupper sulphate based preparations in drinking water (about 1%) for (1
or 2 days).
Chemotheraphy (antibiotics, sulpha drugs) will be effective in testing respiratory disease
only if the rabbitary environment has been improved. Tetracycline, chloranphenocol are
also effective.
Generally, the following preventive measures can be adopted
•
Rabbitary should be located far from nuisances as noise and dust, rats, dogs, cats and
mice and also sheltered from wind and sun. The design of rabbitary should ensure
easily and regular cleaning, feed and water hygiene is basic as both can carry
numerous rabbit diseases such as coccidiosis and worms. Also cage and nest hygiene
is partly important while the does are nursing.
Some operations in rabbits production
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Fattening and slaughtering
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Castration
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Handling
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Identification