The structure of this lecture
1. Introduction (coordination vs. subordination)
2. Types of subordinate clauses
3. Functions of subordinate clauses
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1. Introduction
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1.1. Intro: structure reduction vs. expansion
A (modified) reminder
MEANS OF STRUCTURE REDUCTION
MEANS OF STRUCTURE EXPANSION
(to avoid redundancy of
expression):
(complex sentences consisting of
more than one clause):
• pro-forms
1) John will write a letter on
Monday, and Mary will do so
on Tuesday.
• coordination
3) John will write a letter on
Monday, and Mary will help
him.
• ellipsis
2) John will write a letter on
Monday, but Mary won’t.
• subordination
4) John hopes that Mary will
help him.
5) John will write a letter,
although Mary won’t help him.
cf. 3)
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1.2. Intro: coordination vs. subordination
A reminder
[clause vs. sentence]
sentence
main clause
main clause
S
V
O
I
admire
her
but
S
V
O
I
hate
her cat.
S
V
O
I
hate
her cat.
sentence
main clause
A
subordinate clause
Although
S
V
O
I
admire
her
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1.3. Intro: coordination vs. subordination
A reminder
Sm
Sa
NP
Conj
VP
NP
V
I
Sb
NP
admire
her
but
I
VP
V
NP
hate
her cat.
[ Sm [Sa] Conj [Sb] ] vs. [Sm [Sb] Conj [Sa] ]
Sa
Sb
Comp
Although
NP
NP
I
VP
V
NP
admire
her
I
[ Sa [Sb Comp ...] NP VP ] vs. [ Sa NP VP [Sb Comp ...] ]
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VP
V
NP
hate
her cat.
1.4. Intro: coordination vs. subordination
subordinator
(subordinating conjunction)
= complementizer
that, whether, if, although
coordinator
(coordinating conjunction)
= conjunction
and, or, but
subordination
subordination is a non-symmetrical relation,
holding between two clauses in such a way that
one is a constituent part of the other, cf.
1)
2)
He tried hard, but he failed. 
Although he tried hard, he failed. –
He failed, although he tried hard.
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1.5. Intro: subordination
each subordinate clause may be superordinate to one or more other
clauses:
(I know (that you can do it (if you work hard (when it is necessary))))
S
I know S
that you can do it S
if you work hard
S
when it is necessary
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2. Types of subordinate clauses
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2.1. Types of subordinate clauses
Clause types in general
finite clause
its verb(al complex) is finite
1) John visited Paris. – I know (that) John visited Paris.
2) John has visited Paris.
3) John may have visited Paris.
non-finite clause its verb(al complex) is non-finite
4) To carry heavy parcels is a challenge.
5) For John to carry a heavy parcel was a challenge.
6) Having seen the pictures, John decided to leave.
verbless clause
it contains no verbal element
7) Although always helpful, John doesn’t work too hard.
8) John, then in Paris, very often visited Mary.
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2.2. Types of subordinate clauses
Clause types in subordination
non-finite and verbless clauses very often don’t have an overt subject
infinitive
with to
1) The best thing would be to tell everybody.
2) The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
infinitive
without to
3) All I did was hit him on the head.
4) Rather than John do it, I’d prefer to do it myself.
-ing participle
5) Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
6) Mary having left, I decided to watch a film.
7) With the tree growing tall, we get more shade.
-ed participle
8) Covered with confusion, I left the room.
9) The job finished, we left the room and went home.
10) With the tree grown tall, we get more shade.
verbless clause
11) Dozens of people were stranded, many of them kids.
12) Whether right or wrong, he is always sure of himself.
13) With the tree now tall, we get more shade.
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2.3. Types of subordinate clauses
Indicators of subordination
simple subordinators
that, if<, whether, (al)though, because, since,
after, when (!), …
compound
subordinators
in that, so that, except that, in order that …
now (that), provided (that), supposing (that) …
as far/long/soon as, so long as …
correlative
subordinators
if … then, (al)though … yet, no sooner … than,
whether … or, the … the
• The more I think about this, the more
disappointed I am.
wh-elements
• I don’t know when John left.
• I don’t know whether John left. (!)
subj—operator
inversion
• Should you arrive late, call me immediately.
• Had I known about your arrival, I would have …
that is often omitted
• I suppose (that)
you are right.
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3. Functions of subordinate clauses
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3.1. Functions of subordinate clauses
An overview
*subject*
That we need more equipment is obvious.
*direct object* (Q!)
I know that she is pretty.
subject complement
The point is that we’re leaving.
(= object 1)
*indirect object* (Q!) I gave whoever it was a cup of tea. (= object 1)
*direct object* (Q!)
I gave John whatever he wanted.
object complement
I imagined him overcome with grief.
adjunct
When we meet, I shall explain everything.
disjunct
To be honest, I’ve never liked him.
conjunct
What is more, he has lost all his friends.
postmodifier in NP
I need a friend who always remains loyal.
*complement in PP*
It depends on what we decide.
complement in AP
He is always ready to act promptly.
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(= object 2)
3.2. Functions of subordinate clauses
* nominal clauses can have the same functions as NPs!
S
(XP)
NP
subj
(Aux)
VP
(Aux) (Aux) (Aux)
V
(NP) (NP)
obj1 obj2
XP*
PP
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P
NP
on
our decision
3.3. Functions of subordinate clauses
finite nominal clauses
that-clauses
That she is alive is a relief. – I told him that he was
wrong. – The assumption is that things will improve. –
I’m sure that things will improve.
wh-interrogative
clauses
How the book will sell depends on its author. – I can’t
imagine what made him do it. – The question is who
will go. – I wasn’t certain whose house I was in. –
Nobody was consulted on who should have the prize.
yes-no
interrogatives
Whether/*if it rains or not doesn’t concern me. - Do
you know if/whether the banks are open?
nominal relative
clauses
What he is looking for is a wife. – I want to see
whoever deals with complaints. – He gave whoever
came to the door a winning smile. – Home is where
your friends and family are. – You can call me
what(ever) (names) you like. – Vote for which(ever)
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candidate you like.
3.4. Functions of subordinate clauses
non-finite & verbless nominal clauses
to-infinitive
clauses
For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable. – He
likes everyone to be happy. – My wish is to be a pilot. –
I’m glad to help you.
bare infinitives
All I did was (to) turn off the gas. – Turn off the gas
was all I did.
-ing clauses
Telling lies is wrong. – No one enjoys deceiving his own
family. – His favourite pastime is playing practical
jokes. – I’m tired of being treated like a child. – The
children were busy building sandcastles.
verbless clauses
Wall-to-wall carpets in every room is very expensive.
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3.5. Functions of subordinate clauses
adverbial clauses (1)
time
When I last saw you, you lived in Paris. – Our host,
once everyone had arrived, was full of good humour. –
I was reading a book when John entered.
place
They went wherever they could find work. – Where the
fire had been, we saw nothing but blackened ruins.
condition &
concession
If you treat her kindly, (then) she’ll do anything for
you. – Although he hadn’t eaten for days, he
(nevertheless) looked very fit. – Even if he went down
on bended knees, I wouldn’t forgive him.
reason & cause
I lent him money because he needed it. – As/since Jane
was the eldest, she looked after the others. – Being a
man of ingenuity, he soon repaired the machine.
circumstance
Seeing that the weather has improved, we shall enjoy
our game. – The weather having improved, we enjoyed
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the rest of the game.
3.6. Functions of subordinate clauses
adverbial clauses (2)
purpose
I left early to catch the train. – They left the door open in
order for me to hear the baby. – John visited London in
order that / so (that) he could meet Mary.
result
We planted many shrubs, so (that) the garden soon looked
much more beautiful.
manner &
comparison
Please do it (exactly) as I instructed. – (Just) as a moth is
attracted by a light, (so) he was fascinated by her. – He
looks as if he is going to be ill. – He treated me (just) as if
he had never met me.
proportion &
preference
As he grew disheartened, (so) his work deteriorated. – The
more he thought about it, the less he liked it. – The harder
he worked, the happier he felt. – Rather/Sooner than go
there by air, I’d take the slowest train. – Rather than
sitting quietly at home, he preferred to visit his friends.
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