Definitions
Atom –
Group 0 or 8 are
UNREACTIVE
They have a full outer shell of
electrons
Particles that make up all substances.
Element –
A substance made up of only one kind of atom.
Compound –
Periodic table arranges
elements by
ATOMIC NUMBER
(proton number/the
small one)
A substance made of different types of atoms joined
together.
Mixture –
A substance existing of atoms that can be easily separated
as they are not joined together.
No charge
Max 2 electrons
The number of outer shell electrons match the group the element is found in.
E.g. Lithium 2,1 is a group 1 element.
Max 8 electrons
Protons and neutrons
both have a mass of 1
Covalent Bonding
Non-metals sharing elections
H
H C H
H
Calcium Carbonate
Limewater
The test for CO2
Ca(OH)2
IONS
HEAT
(thermal decomposition)
= CaO
Calcium Oxide
Good: More jobs
QUARRYING
Bad: Destroy habitats and Landscape
Would you want to live next to one?
Ionic
Bonding
Charged particles
CaCO3
Or Calcium Hydroxide
comes from adding water to CaO
Lose or gain an electron
Get a charge +/Attract one another!
TRANSITION
METALS
Carbonates
Decompose when
heated
= Oxide + CO2
React with acid
= Salt + water + CO2
LIMESTONE
E.g. 2,8,8 (Argon)
The number of electrons an atom
has effect the way it reacts
Used for building
Limestone is heated in a
Rotary Lime Kiln
You then have Cement or Mortar by
adding water and sand.
If you add crushed rocks you get
Concrete
Metals which are un-reactive are found in
their NATIVE STATE e.g. GOLD
More reactive metals are found as
METALS ORES and need to be EXTRACTED
C1 CHEMISTRY
IRON
VEGETABLE OIL
Can be HARDENED by adding HYDROGEN
Pure iron is too soft to be useful.
making them solid at room temperature for
•Are extracted by
things like spreads and margarines
Adding small amounts of other
pressing or distillation
a different flavour, texture and
elements can improve its properties. •Are high in energy
High Boiling Point Gives
loads more energy (too much will
make you obese)
This is ALLOYING.
•Can be used as fuels
So useful for cooking
IRON + ‘other elements’
STEEL •Are UNSATURATED
(frying instead of boiling)
To harden you
will need:
•Nickel Catalyst
•60oC
•Hydrogen to be
added and break
double bonds
Unsaturated fats are better for you than Saturated fats
RECYCLING
CRACKING HYDROCARBONS
Make big molecules into small ones!
You can make
You can make
ETHANOL using
+ CO2
ETHANOL using
ETHENE and
STEAM with a OR YEAST enzymes.
(from plants)
catalyst
(from crude oil)
Non-Biodegradable plastics are
BAD!
They don’t rot away.
Biodegradable plastics will
decompose = less rubbish!
-heat them with steam and a catalyst
Reactivity
•Saves energy
Test for double bonds:
•Saves natural recourses Bromine water (iodine water will also work)
Series •Less pollution Alkenes (with double bonds) go CLEAR!
This helps you decide how to
extract a metal from its ORE.
If its below CARBON it can be
reduced in a BLAST Furnace.
If its a metal above it CARBON
cannot help extract it.
•CARBON NEUTRAL
•Lose farming land
e.g. ethanol from sugar
A mixture of hydrocarbon compounds
Impure
copper
(copper ore)
Impurities: include gold
and silver (can be sold)
Small molecules (monomers) added together
make new long molecules (polymers)
RENEWABLE ENERGY
CRUDE OIL
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
Size effects BOILING POINT
You might need to smelt or roast the ore
and then use electrolysis to make it pure
Cu 2+
Making Plastics:
•Less harmful to environment
•Disruption of habitats
Extracting reactive metals
Pure
copper
•Made from vegetable oils
Hydrogen
and Carbon
ONLY!
Filters and CATALYTIS CONVERTERS
can be fitted to factories and cars to
reduce pollution
Getting clever!
Scientist are using
bacteria and plants to
remove copper from ores
where its too small to
mine.
BIOLEACHING or
PHYTOMINING
Electrolysis can be expensive but
will help extract Copper,
Aluminium and Titanium
Carbon Dioxide made from burning
fuels is a GREEN HOUSE GAS
adding to GLOBAL WARMING
Sulfur impurities also burnt cause …
Alkanes – Saturated hydrocarbons.
You can also get
PARTICULATES or
Soot!
Bad for you and the
environment (Global
Dimming)
No double bonds, Maximum Hydrogen, Formula: CnH2n+2
Burning fuels in plenty of oxygen gives CO2 + H2O
Alkenes – Unsaturated hydrocarbons.
COMPLETE COMBUSTION
Double bonds, Less Hydrogen
Burning without enough oxygen gives CO (carbon monoxide) + H2O
Formula: CnH2n
INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION – BAD!
OIL DOES NOT DISSOLVE IN WATER
Wegener’s Big Idea
Alfred Wegener
suggested the idea of
continental drift
(moving plates) but
people found it hard to
believe, they couldn’t
see it and had other
ideas like land bridges,
sinking continents and
the crust shrinking.
Also he couldn’t
explain HOW it
worked.
It took fossils and
rocks evidence to
convince people.
But they can be spread out in
each other to make an
EMULSION
Emulsions are used in:
•
Food
•
Cosmetics
•
Paints
Adding an EMULSIFIER stops the oil
and water separating – it will also
improve texture
Earth Structure
(Solid)
All our resources come
from the crust, oceans
and atmosphere.
Radiation in the mantle causes
CONVECTION CURRENTS which
move the plates
Earths Early Atmosphere
Experimental Variables
•Formed by volcanoes added CO2,
Water and Nitrogen
Independent Variable – the one
•Which cooled and condensed into
oceans
I CHANGE
Dependent Variable – the one you
RECORD
•Plants then appeared and changes
CO2 to oxygen! (photosynthesis)
Control Variables – the ones you KEEP
CONSTANT (the same)
When tectonic plates
meet and collide or
rub against one
another we get
natural disasters
The Primordial soup experiment suggested that life started with a
lightening spark, others suggested a meteorite or the deep ocean event.
Without a time machine we just don’t know what started life on earth!
The Carbon
Cycle
Death & Decay
Takes a very
long time!
Respiration
Carbon in the
atmosphere
has increased
because we
now burn more
fossil fuels!
Respiration of
microorganism
s
Answering Evaluation questions
You must give a balanced
argument if you can!
Mostly
oxygen and
nitrogen
Death & Decay
Food chain...
We don’t know when this will happen so
we cannot predict these events
Earths Atmosphere Now
Formation of
Fossil Fuels
The crust is made up of
tectonic plates which are
always moving.. Very very
very .. Slowly.
20%
2 reasons why you might agree or
think something is good.
2 reasons why you might disagree
or think something is bad.
Burning Fossil
Fuels
And a conclusive statement.
Respiration
Photosynthesis
Respiration
Returning Carbon to the Atmosphere
The Carbon
cycle: Shows
the movement of
carbon in and
out of the
atmosphere
Gases in the air
can be
separated by
fractional
distillation for
use in industry
80%
More exercise will require more energy! But if you don't use it all then you might become obese...
Obesity can cause: Arthritis, Diabetes, high blood pressure and heart disease.
A varied diet contains...
Metabolic Rate = The speed at which
chemical reactions occur in your cells
(can be effected by your genes)
Eating too much fat can lead to high
cholesterol which can lead to heart
disease.
Missing part of a
balanced diet
can make you
MALNOURISHED
= Deficiency
diseases
(can also be effected by your genes)
Tropism –
New drugs have to be tested and trailed to
make sure they are safe.
This means checking they’re not toxic and have
no side effects.
Beware: Could damage
the environment!
A PLACEBO is a pill that contains no drug.
This helps doctors see the real effect of a
medicine during trails.
Positive Phototropism – Growing toward light
How hormones
Negative Phototropism – Growing away from light
effect plant growth Positive Geotropism – Growing toward gravity (down)
Negative Geotropism – Growing against gravity (up)
to help with
Remember growing children need loads of
photosynthesis. Auxins are the
Works best
energy and men need more then women.
in the
important
shoots &
hormones
in
roots
Homeostasis – Keeping internal condition in balance
plants
Things you need to balance:
• Water levels (the amount you sweat/the amount you pee)
• Sugar levels – controlled by pancreas
Normal core body
(so you have constant energy)
temperature is 37oC
• Body temperature
(too hot your enzymes stop working)
Developing new drugs
Plant
hormones can
be used in
weed killers
and to help
cuttings grow
Statins
Lower the cholesterol in the
blood and reduce the risk of
cardiovascular disease
Biology Unit 1
Prescribed and nonprescribed drugs can
only be tested properly
in double-blind tests.
Immunity is when your
body has learnt how to
make the antibodies
needed to kill a
pathogen you’ve had
before. This means you
get better quickly the
second time.
The Reflex Arc – an automatic response
IVF – mixing the egg and sperm outside the body
Oral Contraception – Birth control
-contains hormones that stop the egg maturing
-must be taken regularly
Chemical (hormonal) control .. The Menstrual Cycle
Hormones travel in
the blood.
Effects can be slow
but are long lasting.
The nervous system uses
electrical impulses to send
messages along neurons.
These are super fast and allow
you to respond quickly to
changes in the environment.
A – Receptor (reacts to a stimulus)
B – Sensory Neuron (carries message to the co-ordinator/CNS)
C – Relay Neuron Gapes between neurons are called SYNAPSES
D – Motor Neuron (carries message away from co-ordinator/CNS
E – Effector (a muscle or gland)
Examples of a stimulus: Loud noise, Fire, Sharp objects
Examples of receptor organs: Ears, Eyes, Skin, Nose, Tongue
Produced in...
Causes...
FSH
Pituitary Gland
Egg to mature
LH
Pituitary Gland
Egg to be released
Oestrogen
Ovaries
Lining of the womb to
develop
Antibiotics only
work on Bacteria!
Not viruses!
Pathogens = Infectious Disease
Bacteria
Both micro-organisms
• Reproduce rapidly
•Make toxins
•Very small
If no egg is fertilized
the lining and egg are
lost during the period.
Hormone
Small amounts of dead or
inactive pathogens can be
used to create a vaccine.
Vaccinations work against
bacteria and viruses.
Growing your own bacteria
Useful for making cheese,
You will need:
beer and medicines
•Sterilised Petri Dishes
Pathogens
can spread by:
•Agar jelly (for food)
•Droplet
infection
•An inoculating loop
•An oven at 25oC (higher could cause dangerous pathogens to grow) •Direct contact
•Break in skin
•A few days to spare while they grow
•Contaminated food or drink
Viruses
• Reproduce inside
your cells
•Damage your cells
•Very very small
Antibiotics cant get into you cells!
First FSH is used to cause eggs to mature,
these are then removed, mixed with the
sperm and placed back in the womb.
• Great if you cant get pregnant naturally.
•Can be expensive and doesn't always work.
•Can cause multiple births (too many babies!!)
Painkillers only treat
the symptoms – they
can’t kill the pathogen
Semmelweis
knew that to
stop disease
spreading hand
washing was
important
White Blood Cells
Ingest (eat) pathogens,
make antibodies and
anti-toxins. All to
define your body!
You also have skin and mucus to
keep you safe. And your blood
clots when you bleed.
But he had a hard time
getting people to listen
;: (
Smoking Cannabis may be linked to mental health problems
later in life. (big problem in teenagers)
It can also be seen as a gateway drug leading to use of hard
drugs like Heroin and Cocaine.
Recreational
drugs are
usually taken
for pleasure.
Some are legal
some are illegal.
People might start using drugs because
they make them feel good or due to peer
pressure.
Once addicted you
need more drug for the
same effect. Stopping
can lead to withdrawal
symptoms
Drugs change the chemical processes
in your body making you addicted.
Some are more harmful then others
Legal drugs often have a bigger effect because more
people use them. (Think Alcoholics and Binge drinkers)
Adapt to Survive
I use drugs to help me win,
others use them anyway, I
don’t think the risks are real.
What do you think?
Plants are producers .
Remember: When drawing pyramids of biomass you
need a labelled layer for each thing in your food chain
(this should good in order of what eats what)
•
Thin fur
Little body fat
Stick to the
shade or come
out at night
Have large SA:V
ratio
•
Helps you to hid in your habitat.
Death
Death & Decay
Respiration of
microorganisms
Food chain...
Plants lose water by
transpiration
(evaporation from their leaves)
Respiration
Photosynthesis
Respiration
through holes called
stomata
Remember: Plants have
adaptations too.
They need light, water and
space with nutrients to grow.
Animals in cold climates
•
•
Thick fur
Lots of body fat
•
Have small SA:V ratio
•
The producer is always the biggest layer and it is
always pyramid shaped.
have adaptations
for living in
extreme
conditions. Such
as high heat and
pressures e.g.
deep ocean
volcanoes!
•
•
•
Energy lost to environment
Pyramid of Biomass
Steroids – help build muscles
Performance enhancing drugs are
often used by athletes.
They're use is banned because it is
unethical and unsafe!
Camouflage can be used by
predators and prey
Energy is lost at each step of a food
chain because not all energy taken in
is made into new biomass (new parts
of the next animal)
Some is used in respiration and
movement, or lost as heat and
waste like poo and pee.
They are always at the start of food chains,
pyramids of numbers and pyramids of biomass.
What special features does an organism have to help it
survive and how do they help?
Extremophiles
Animals in hot climates
Energy that will
become part of the
animals biomass
Radiation (heat) from the
sun provides the energy for
all living things. It is
captured by producers at
the start of food chains in
photosynthesis.
(the holes also let in gases for
photosynthesis and respiration)
Carbon in the
Atmosphere
Plants that want to survive in
the desert need small leaves to
stop water loss, be chunky to
Plants grow and flower at
different times to reduce
store water and have loads of
competition for light. They also
roots to find water!
Do you think I’m handsome?
To survive I need to compete
for food, territory and a
MATE!!
have different ways of
spreading their seed to reduce
competition for space to grow.
(insulation)
Large SA:V - If you are small/thin a lot of you will be near you skin and less will be in your
middle by comparison. This means you’ll lose heat quickly.
Small SA:V - If you are rather large/fat more will be hiding the middle of your body away from
the surfaces and so you will keep your heat better.
Remember if you eat
something no one else
likes you will have less
competition for food.
Burning Fossil
Fuels
Carbon is constantly recycled
though our atmosphere.
It is removed by
photosynthesis and returned
by respiration, decay and the
burning of fossil fuels.
Decay
Is caused by decomposers
which are micro-organisms
like bacteria.
The digest the material to help
return it to the environment
providing substances plants
need to grow.
(remember combustion releases CO2)
Using Decay – decay helps to recycle resources.
Sewage treatment plants use micro-organisms to break down our waste
and gardeners use compost heaps to do the same.
The decaying material makes good fertilizer.
Recycling waste reduces landfill and is much better for the environment.
As environmental changes happen the distribution of organisms
(the numbers of animals and plants you find in a area) also changes.
We can collect information on these changes but it is difficult to do it a way that can
be repeated by others making it difficult to draw conclusion and say why the change
has happened.
Changes in the numbers
of birds and bees in
England are a good
example of organisms
that may be effect by
environmental change.
If you are well
adapted you can
However your
live anywhere! You
environment
can
can put up with less
change due living
oxygen, thorns and
factors like a new
poisons and even
Changes in an environment can
predator
or disease or
pollution. You may be measured by looking at living
even grow to like indicators (Mosses and Lichens) a non-living factor like
a temperature rise or
These are very sensitive to
you habitat.
changes in pollution.
lack of sun and water.
new branch shows where a
Each cell in the body contains a nucleus. Lamarck - Inheritance of Acquired Each new
species appeared.
This holds chromosomes made of DNA.
Characteristics
He suggested the more you do
Small sections of DNA that code for a
New traits/genes are caused
by mutation of DNA
something the better you get at it.
A common
Useful changes are passed on.
Problems: He said people came from ancestor
You have 23 pairs of chromosomes worms, they didn't like that . You can
Different genes code for
different thing e.g. hair colour
that hold all the genetic
see that a father with big muscles
or tongue rolling
information you need to make you. doesn't mean a child with big muscles.
Evolutionary trees help us see
Genetic information is passed from parents to Species are the smallest group. An idea developed
how different species are linked
These animals are so similar
to a common ancestor
children using the egg and sperm cells.
they can interbreed.
characteristic are called
Sexual reproduction
produces variation.
Asexual reproduction
produces clones.
The best adapted survives
Reproduction can be
sexual or asexual.
If we keep dividing and
grouping organisms we
get smaller groups.
Kingdoms split using into
animals and plants
Classification
Grouping organisms according to their
Asexual reproduction involves only
similarities.
In sexual reproduction two
parents are involved. A
one parent. So there is no genetic
mixture of genes is created.
variety.
This variety is good as it helps However this works really well if you
us cope with changes and
need to grow or repair your cells.
diseases as a species.
Remember: Differences between people aren’t just because of different
genes. The environment can have a big impact on how we turn out.
Genes and Lifestyle effect who we are and our health.
Cuttings
Tissue Cloning
We might also be able to use
this technology to cure
humans with genetic diseases.
Replacing their faulty genes.
But we would have to do this when
they were just embryos as adults have
too many cells that would need fixing.
Adult Cell Cloning
An electric shock is used to
fuse the egg and DNA
Many cuttings can be taken
from an older plant. If planted
correctly each will grow into a
new plant.
This is cheap and easy and will
give you exact copies of the
original plant.
Plant hormones are often used
to help the process.
This is an expensive technique but
allows you to make loads of plants
from one tiny pieces of tissue.
Giving you lots of new plants that have
just the characteristic you want!
Adult cell cloning produces true
animal clones. In the diagram
the lamb is identical to sheep A
because they have the same
DNA.
Sort of cloning… Embryo transplanting
Animal clones can be made by taking a embryo ( created by sexual reproduction, fusing egg and sperm)
and splitting it after its is made. This splitting creates lots of identical new embryos making
many clones. Each is then be implanted into a surrogate mother.
Survival of the fittest
These sex cells are also called gametes.
This means half the information comes from each parent
and explains why you might look like your parents.
genes.
Darwin had a lot of trouble
getting his ideas excepted
because...
People believed in god and felt his
ideas went against this.
He couldn’t show them any
evidence.
He couldn’t really explain how it
worked. (no one knew about genes)
Genetic engineering involves transferring
genes from one organism to another.
You have to do this early on in a organisms development but if you do
it’ll be born with the special characteristic you wanted it to have.
BUT... It’s a new science and we don’t know the long term effects it
might have. There are also people that are concerned about eating
GM food in case it makes them ill. What if people started changing
their children's genes to have designer babies. Would it be right?
GM’s good if you want bacteria to make proteins and medicines.
We can also improve the way crops grow so we can feed more
people or grow plants where they wouldn’t normally grow.
We can also make plants that created their own herbicides and
pesticides.
Cloning could be used to help bring extinct
animals back to life or bring back beloved pets
after they have died.
It could also be used to make lots of genetically
modified animals that make useful products.
But beware! Some people worry we might start cloning people and the
technology would be abused. Also lots of clones reduce variation and make
it hard for a species to survive big environmental changes.