History of China and Japan
1
HISTORY
Subject
:
History
Paper No.
:
Paper - VIII
History of China & Japan Unit No. & Title
:
Unit- 1
History of China
Topic No. & Title
:
Topic - 3
Popular & Reform Movements
Lecture No. & Title
:
Lecture - 3
Self-strengthening and Reform
Movements in China 1860-98
(For under graduate student)
FAQs
1.
How did the Opium Wars impact Chinese policy
makers?
There was a distinct difference of opinion among
Chinese bureaucrats regarding the defeat at the Opium
Wars. Some dismissed it as merely a historical accident,
while others were shocked into a greater awakening
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and sensed the advent of a new era in China’s relations
with the outside world. Foremost among the latter was
Wei Yuan, who compiled a large work in 1844 with the
objective of using ‘barbarians against barbarians’ and
‘learning the superior techniques of the barbarians’ to
control the barbarians. It was the first significant
Chinese work on the West. Feng Kuei-fen also took the
lead in promoting the idea of Self-strengthening.
2.
What were some of the more notable reforms
initiated as a direct response to the Convention of
Peking?
After the Convention of Peking in 1860 there arose the
need for a foreign office to centralize the direction of
foreign affairs. This led to the establishment of the
Tsungli Yamen in 1861, which engaged not only in
foreign affairs but also in some modernization projects
like, promotion of modern schools, Western science,
industry
and
communication.
Besides
this
a
superintendent of trade for the three northern ports
was established at Tientsin. In 1862 the Tung-Wen
Kuan or the Interpreter’s College was established for
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3
the joint instruction of Western and Chinese languages,
as China needed to train able language experts.
3.
What political developments followed the defeat
of the Taiping rebellion?
The capture of Nanking from the Taiping rebels had
extinguished the Taiping Kingdom, and Emperor Tungchih (1862-1874) was placed on the throne. He was a
minor during eleven of his thirteen years, and the
power of state was firmly in the hands of his mother,
the Empress Dowager Tzu-shi who controlled the court
for forty-eight years till her death in 1908.
As
coregent
for
her
son,
she
used
the
imperial
prerogatives of appointment, promotion, dismissal and
punishment of officials to make herself the real ruler of
the empire. She was a woman of remarkable ability and
sinister schemes.
4.
What were the different phases in which Selfstrengthening was carried out?
The Self-strengthening Movement can be divided into
three phases. The first was from 1861 to 1872 when
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the adoption of Western firearms, machines, scientific
and
the
training
of
diplomatic
personnel
were
emphasized. The second was from 1872 to 1884 when
along with defence industries, greater attention was
directed to the development of enterprises such as,
shipping, railways, mining and the telegraph. The third
lasted from 1885 to 1894 when the idea of enriching
China through light industries gathered momentum.
5.
What
were
the
weaknesses
of
the
Self-
strengthening Movement?
The efforts at modernization represented superficial
attempts at modernization, with the scope of activity
being
limited
to
firearms,
ships,
machines,
communications and light industries. But no attempts
were
made
to
assimilate
Western
institutions,
philosophy and culture. The provincial promoters of the
movement
failed
to
cooperate
with
one
another.
Moreover the advocates of Self-strengthening only
attempted to strengthen the existing order rather than
to replace it. They had no conception of economic
development or modern transformation.
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6.
Should
the
Self-strengthening
Movement
be
considered only a failure?
In spite of all its shortcomings it has to be considered
that
the
Movement
industrialization
and
did
mark
sowed
the
the
beginnings
seeds
of
of
modern
capitalism in China. Moreover the development of
metropolises like Shanghai, Nanking and Tientsin, due
to most of the modern enterprises being located in
these
port
cities,
drew
people
from
neighbouring
agricultural areas to work in the industries in these
cities and thereby paved the way for the emergence of
a new working class.
7.
What was the immediate cause of the ‘Hundred
Days Reform’?
The defeat at the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) once
again exposed the inherent military weakness of China
in spite of all the efforts at Self-strengthening, and
raised the idea of institutional reforms among scholars,
officials and the Manchu court, although they differed
on its scope, nature and leadership.
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8.
What were Kang Yu-wei’s views on reform?
Kang Yu-wei held that the old imperial system had
become completely outdated and that the government
must consider new problems of foreign relations and
industrialization
and
modernize
its
structure
accordingly. He demanded reform of the examination
system, the creation of a parliament in Beijing, the
adoption of a constitution and the principle of division of
power, among other changes.
9.
What
was
the
scope
of
the
Hundred
Days
Reforms?
For a hundred and three days from June 11 to
September 20 1898 some forty to fifty reform decrees
were
issued
in
rapid
succession
in
the
fields
of
education, administration, industry and international
cultural exchange. But although Emperor Kuang-hsu
and
Kang
Yu-wei
vigorously
pushed
the
reform
programme, it was boycotted by most of the high
officials in the central and provincial administrations.
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10. Why did the Hundred Days Reform fail?
The principal causes of the failure of the reforms were
the
inexperience
of
the
reformers
and
their
ill-
considered strategy, the reluctance of the empress
dowager
to
give
up
conservative opposition.
power,
and
the
powerful