30
ONAR (V) AND COLLABORATORS
Byzantine Horse Skeletons of Theodosius Harbour:
2. Withers height estimation
V. ONAR1*, G. PAZVANT1, E. PASICKA2, A. ARMUTAK3, H. ALPAK1
Osteoarchaeological Research Centre, Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Istanbul University, 34320, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey.
Department of Biostructure and Animal Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland.
3
Department of Veterinary History and Deontology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Istanbul University, 34320, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey.
1
2
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
SUMMARY
RÉSUMÉ
This study is a continuation of our previous work that focused on
maintenance, intended use and pathologies of horses from the Byzantine
period. In the current research Byzantine horse skeletons were investigated in
order to estimate their withers heights and structural features. The skeletons
were found during Marmaray Project works at Yenikapı, Istanbul, where
Theodosius Harbour was located in the past. Materials have been collected
during archaeological excavations started in 2004 and covering an area of
58.000 m2. The data obtained were compared and classified. In general, the
specimens were “medium” sized (38.72%, withers height 136-144 cm), and
“large-medium” (36.31%, withers height 144-152 cm). According to the
classification based on Brauner’s metacarpal slenderness index, the horses
were described as “slightly slender legged” (40%).
Squelettes de chevaux Byzantins du port de Théodose: 2. Evaluation de
la hauteur du garrot
Keywords: Withers height, slenderness index, horse,
Theodosius Harbour, Yenikapı
Cette étude est une continuation de notre travail précédent qui se concentrait
sur le type de soins, le mode d’exploitation et les pathologies de chevaux
de la période byzantine. Dans les études en cours, les squelettes de chevaux
byzantins ont été étudiés afin d’évaluer leur hauteur au garrot ainsi que
leurs caractéristiques structurelles. Les squelettes ont été découverts lors
des travaux effectués dans le cadre du Projet Marmaray à Yenikapi-Istanbul,
Istanbul, où était autrefois situé le port de Théodose. Le matériel a été trouvé
lors des fouilles archéologiques qui avaient commencé en 2004 et avaient
couvert la surface de 58 000 m2. Les données recueillies ont été comparées
et classées. En général, les spécimens étaient d’une taille « moyenne »
(38,72%, une hauteur du garrot de 136 - 144 centimètres) et « d’une taille
moyennement plus grande » (36,31%, une hauteur du garrot de 144 - 152
centimètres). Conformément à la classification basée sur l’indice de gracilité
de l’os métacarpien, les chevaux ont été décrits comme « aux jambes
légèrement sveltes » (40%).
Mots-clés : hauteur du garrot, indice d’élancement,
cheval, port de Théodose, Yenikapi-Istanbul
Introduction
From past to present, keeping and maintaining animals
under control of humans has been an essential part of
economic activities. Among the animals, horses have an
important place in the domestic fauna due to being one of the
species with a close relationship with humans [12]. Course
of domestication process became the milestone of this
relationship. Dereivka, located on a tributary of the Dnepr
River in Ukraine, is the settlement site of the Eneolithic
period, dated 3380-4570 BC, has been accepted as a location
where the earliest evidence for the horse domestication was
found [25]. Although domestication of horses is accepted as
an important evolution in human history, the dynamics of
its course was relatively less studied [3]. Nevertheless, the
human-horse relationship played an essential role in social
and historical development of mankind, and has maintained
its importance beginning from the prehistoric period, when
the horse was domesticated, to the modern times.
Types and morphologies of horses show variations
depending on the purpose of use and breeding practised in
the past. For example, it has been propounded that in the
Iron Age there were two types of horses that originated
from different sources. These two types constitute two
major Europen horse groups. The first one has been named
“Eastern Group” and includes large and strong horses,
while the second “Western Group” encompasses horses
smaller in size. Eastern Group horses have been reported to
have an average withers height of 135 cm (121 - 149 cm),
a metacarpal index of 15.24, and metatarsal index of 11.59
[4, 9, 12, 22]. Purpose of use is essential in selection and
breeding of horses. For example, it has been claimed that
Greek and Persian horses originated from eastern type, and
these affected Roman horses [12]. It has been suggested that
breeding of Roman horses in particular was strongly affected
by the Eastern Group so that the large eastern horses spread
all over the whole Roman Empire (BÖKÖNYİ [12], quoted
by JOHNSTONE [22]).
The period of the Roman Empire holds particular
importance in understanding human-horse relationships.
Horse breeding and selection according to the intended use
gained significant importance during this period [21]. Visual
morphological characters have always been at the forefront
in designing ideal horse type. This accommodated defining
an “ideal Roman horse” in historical narrations about Roman
and Byzantine horse breeds. Although the definition of
Revue Méd. Vét., 2015, 166, 1-2, 30-42
BYZANTINE HORSE SKELETONS OF THEODOSIUS HARBOUR: 2. WITHERS HEIGHT ESTIMATION
extensive conformation with regard to horses is still in the
make, even in modern times, the concept of intended usebased breeding has been practised since ancient times. A
definition of the ideal horse conformation during the Roman
period was created, and desired characteristics based on
stallions was listed by Pelagonius (quoted by HYLAND [21])
and Columella (r.r. VI, 24, 2-3) (quoted by JOHNSTONE
[22]). With the exception of two traits, the excellent
conformation used to define an ideal Roman horse is similar
to these used to define modern horses and in compliance
with the traits desired by the modern horse riders [21, 22].
In representing visual morphological characters of horses,
body measurements, such as withers height, thoracal (chest)
circumference, and cannon bone circumference are used
[13]. For the estimation of these basic body measurements,
the regression equations developed on modern horse
skeletons using osteometric measurements and basic body
measurements are used [20, 23, 24, 34]. Even though size
and morphological differences were reported between the
modern and past animals [32], it has been invaluable to use
the data of modern animals to estimate the visual morphology
of the horses reconstructed from their archaeological bones
[5, 35]. Thus, by estimating the visual morphological
characteristics (i.e., withers height, body weight) of past
animals, one gets an opportunity to compare the animals of
two different periods [1, 12], as well as to assess the extent of
selection and breeding practices of old times [22]. This can
be explained by the following example: there is a significant
(noticeable) difference in withers heights of Iron Age horses
and Roman horses. Withers heights of Late-Iron Age horses
are quite smaller than those of horses that lived in later
periods. The average withers height of Iron Age horses was
reported as 126 cm, while that of Roman horses were 137
cm. As shown, there was only a 10 cm increase in withers
height of Roman horses over Iron Age horses [1]. The large
size horses with taller withers heights were kept in numerous
military camps as well as villas during the Roman period. The
difference in withers heights in different settlements resulted
from intended use-dependent breeding of the horses [12].
For the current study the horse skeleton remains were
found in the Theodosius Harbour area that was explored
during the construction work of Yenikapı station. This
station is the most important transfer hub of Metro Railway
system and Marmaray rail tunnel at the European site. The
engineering project started in 2004. The archaeological
excavations covered 58.000 m2 and results of the radiocarbon
dating indicated that the period when the animals lived
varied from Early Byzantine (4-7th century) to the Late
Byzantine (15th century) [30], and majority of those animals
(32.64%) were horses [28, 29]. Detailed evaluations of these
horse skeletons were made in our previous study in which
care and management conditions of Byzantine horses as well
as pathologies observed were investigated [27]. In this study,
withers height, which is one of the basic visual characteristic,
and metapodial indices of these horse skeletons were
evaluated. In light of the data, comparisons of different time
Revue Méd. Vét., 2015, 166, 1-2, 30-42
31
periods will be made, and information about the structural
features of Byzantine horses will be shared.
Materials and Methods
In this work, withers heights were estimated in the
horse skeleton remains that were brought to light at the
Theodosius harbour area explored during the construction
work of Yenikapı Metro and Marmaray Excavation Project,
and the data was compared with information on horses
from different periods. In our previous study, data regarding
the visual morphological characteristics of the horses were
not included. With this study, the visual morphological
characteristics of the horses were evaluated.
With the permission of the Ministry of Culture and
Tourism, all remains of the horse skeletons recovered from the
Theodosius Harbour at Yenikapı and Marmaray excavation
areas were brought to the Osteoarchaelogy Research Centre
of Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Istanbul University.
The majority of the horse skeletons were fragmental, and
the parts were spread over the excavation area. From these
bones, morphological data (age, development, sex, marks,
pathology, and modifications) and morphometric data from
the bones of adult horses were collected. The structural
aspects of the Byzantine Horses were estimated using the
morphometric data.
Osteometric measurements were taken based on von
den DRIESCH [36]. For this purpose, digital callipers in
different sizes were used. All osteometric measurements were
converted to millimetres (mm) and transferred to a computer
for statistical analyses.
Osteometric measurements:
Humerus: Greatest length of the lateral part (GL1)
Radius: Greatest length (GL)
: Length of the lateral part (L1)
Radius and Ulna: Greatest length of lateral part (GL1)
Metacarpus: Greatest length (GL)
: Lateral length of the outer side (L1)
: Breadth of the proximal end (Bp)
: Smallest breadth of the diaphysis (SD)
: Breadth of the distal end (Bd)
Femur: Greatest length (GL)
Tibia: Greatest length (GL)
: Lateral length on the outer side (L1)
Metatarsus: Greatest length (GL)
: Lateral length of the outer side (L1)
: Breadth of the proximal end (Bp)
: Smallest breadth of the diaphysis (SD)
: Breadth of the distal end (Bd).
The following calculations described by different authors
were applied using the upper osteometric measurements.
32
ONAR (V) AND COLLABORATORS
Withers Height: KIESEWALTER [23]; quoted by von den
DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35]; JOHNSTONE [22] and
MÜLLER [26].
Size Classification: VITT [34]; quoted by von den
DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35]; MÜLLER [26].
Metapodial index calculation: BERTEAUX and
GUINTARD [7]; DAVIS [15]; EISENMANN and
BECKOUCHE [17]; GUINTARD [19]; JOHNSTONE [22].
The equation below was used for index calculations.
Slenderness index=Smallest breadth of the diaphysis
(SD) / greatest length (GL) x 100
Proximal articular index= Breadth of the proximal end
(Bp) / greatest length (GL) x 100
Distal articular index= Breadth of the distal end (Bd) /
greatest length (GL) x 100
Slenderness index classification: Classification was
made based on Brauner’s metacarpal slenderness index (DE
GROSSI MAZZORIN et al. [16]; listed by UDRESCU et al.
[33])
Results
A majority of the animal bones recovered from the
Yenikapı excavation area belonged to the horses (Equus
caballus L.) (32.64%). Although the number of in situ
complete horse skeletons was low, horse bones scattered over
the excavation area were recovered at different depths and
grids (fig. 1).
There were twenty near-in situ skeletons (with some
parts/bones missing). The evaluations and calculations for
these were made separately for each and kept separate from
general osteometric evaluations. The data and the estimated
withers heights for them are presented in table I.
extremities was not taken (fig. 1). Because the right scapula
was broken, withers height of this horse was estimated using
only profile length of its skull (table I). Indices for front and
rear legs were not determined.
Yenikapı Horse-8 was composed of only skull and
mandibula. Withers height was calculated using the profile
length of the skull (table I). Indices for the long bones were
not determined because of the lack of these bones.
Articulation of Yenikapı Horse-14 was severely impaired
and a number of bones were either missing or fractured with
multiple segments (fig. 1). Except for a fragmentary left femur,
bones of front and rear legs could not be found. As for the
skull, only some bone parts constituting neurocranium were
detected. Since morphometric data could not be collected,
visual morphological features could not be calculated for this
skeleton. However, by examining all the existing parts, it was
estimated that the horse could be of large-medium size.
Yenikapı Horse-19 skeleton, which was composed of
skull, mandible, and hyoid bone, was damaged during the
pilling works on Marmaray Tunnel, and postcranial parts
were left outside the excavation area. The skull, mandible
and hyoid bones could only have been recovered from the
excavation area. Thus, withers height were calculated based
on the profile length of the skull (table I).
Yenikapı Horse-20 skeleton composed only the cranial
and postcranial bones. The vertebrae thoracalis and
vertebrae lumbalis bones could not be found. Thus, visual
morphological features could not be estimated because skull
and long bones of the extremities were missing.
65% of these skeleton parts belonged to male, while 15%
were of female horses. The gender of the remaining 20%
could not be determined due to missing bones, such as skull
and pelvis bones, which are useful for sex determination.
Three of these skeleton parts were determined to be the
bones of horses below 5 years of age, and the remaining
bones belonged to adult specimens.
As previously mentioned, the Yenikapı Metro and
Marmaray excavation sites cover an area of 58000 m2.
Except for the twenty horse skeletons that were intact with
minimum losses, the number of horse bones scattered over
the entire excavation area were recovered from different
grids and depths. Among these bones, a total of 3239 skull
and postcranial bones of adult horses were used. From these
bones, a total of 3443 morphometric measurements (two
different measurements for antebrachium) were applied for
calculating withers height (table II). 7.75% of the data for
these calculations were from skull measurements, while the
remaining 92.25% were the morphometric measurements on
the long bones.
Since the Yenikapı Horse-4 skeleton was composed of
only the hind part bones (fig. 1), morphometric data for
the front legs is missing. Thus, withers height and index
calculation for this particular skeleton were made using only
morphometric data from the long bones of the rear legs.
Although articulation of the vertebral column of the
Yenikapı Horse-6 skeleton was intact, the front (with the
exception of a fractured right scapula) and rear extremities
were missing. Therefore, morphometric data of these
Results of the VITT [34] classifications based on
calculations made using skull and long bone measurements
revealed that most horses (38.72%) were “medium” size
with withers height ranging from 136 to 144 cm, followed
by “large-medium” (36.31%) size horses with 144-152 cm of
withers height. The number of horses with withers height
below 112 cm or greater than 168 cm were quite low (table
II). A majority of the horses were classified as “medium”
and “large-medium” classes. When only metapodial bones
were taken into account in calculating withers height, half
Revue Méd. Vét., 2015, 166, 1-2, 30-42
BYZANTINE HORSE SKELETONS OF THEODOSIUS HARBOUR: 2. WITHERS HEIGHT ESTIMATION
33
Figure 1: Horse skeletons in situ
(50.00%) fell into “medium” class, but frequency of “largemedium” (37.38%) was not that low.
When the VITT [34] size classification was made
according to basilar length of the skulls, the numbers of
“large-medium” size horses became higher. This could
Revue Méd. Vét., 2015, 166, 1-2, 30-42
possibly because of the higher number of male horses, as well
as the lack of basilar length measurements from skulls that
had only the neurocranium preserved.
The skulls with neurocranium only, for which
craniometric measurements that provide basis for VITT [34]
Male
Male
Male
Male?
Male?
Male
Female
Female
Female
?
?
?
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
?
Yenikapı Horse-1
Yenikapı Horse-2
Yenikapı Horse-3
Yenikapı Horse-4
Yenikapı Horse-5
Yenikapı Horse-6
Yenikapı Horse-7
Yenikapı Horse-8
Yenikapı Horse-9
Yenikapı Horse-10
Yenikapı Horse-11
Yenikapı Horse-12
Yenikapı Horse-13
Yenikapı Horse-14
Yenikapı Horse-15
Yenikapı Horse-16
Yenikapı Horse-17
Yenikapı Horse-18
Yenikapı Horse-19
Yenikapı Horse-20
4-5
10-11
12-15
9
7-10
4.5-5
7-10
5-7
5-7
5-7
3.5-4
5-10
7-10
7-10
7-10
7-10
5-10
8
11-12
10-11
Age
-
-
136.40
-
-
-
-
-
158.42
-
-
140.76
-
-
-
158.42
-
144.40
146.60
157.42
Scapula
- -
144.68
146.40
153.20
-
-
-
155.15
-
149.77
141.72
-
149.60
-
155.15
-
138.05
142.65
153.97
Humerus
-
-
141.62
148.48
-
145.42
-
141.89
146.28
-
145.60
-
-
144.80
-
146.28
-
141.00
138.21
147.20
-
-
143.13
149.33
-
144.73
-
-
148.38
-
145.29
-
-
145.78
-
148.38
-
143.98
141.47
150.27
Antebrachium
Table I: Withers height (cm), size, and measurements of long bones (mm) of the Yenikapı in situ horse skeletons
Sex
Horse
(Equus caballus L.)
-
-
144.40
151.33
150.18
147.52
-
145.46
153.63
-
-
-
-
144.00
-
150.43
-
-
139.19
148.53
Mc III
-
-
138.45
140.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
145.62
137.81
-
-
-
-
144.59
134.62
142.04
151.63
Femur
-
-
145.84
-
144.00
149.23
-
148.87
-
149.23
-
-
-
141.60
-
150.55
149.63
140.54
141.73
153.86
Tibia
-
-
143.09
150.24
149.69
-
-
147.75
150.85
149.52
-
144.56
-
-
-
150.85
150.88
135.99
137.15
148.44
Mt III
Size (VITT [9])
large-medium
Medium
Medium
large-medium
large-medium
large-medium
large-medium
large-medium
medium
large-medium
large-medium
large-medium
large-medium
?large-medium
large-medium
large-medium
large-medium
medium
medium
?
Mean
(cm)
151
141
140
148
151
145
145
150
141
147
149
152
146
?
147
149
148
142
143
?
34
ONAR (V) AND COLLABORATORS
Revue Méd. Vét., 2015, 166, 1-2, 30-42
BYZANTINE HORSE SKELETONS OF THEODOSIUS HARBOUR: 2. WITHERS HEIGHT ESTIMATION
Size*
Dwarves
≤112 cm
0.12%
Very small
120-112 cm
0.32%
Small
120-128 cm
1.28%
Medium-small
128-136 cm
10.46%
Medium
136-144 cm
38.72%
Large-medium
144-152 cm
36.31%
Large
152-160 cm
12.20%
Very large
160-168 cm
0.52%
Giant
168cm≥
0.09%
n=3443
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
CR
4
113.96
118.90
116.61
2.17
5
120.23
126.41
124.18
2.76
9
131.06
135.74
133.91
1.41
64
136.38
143.91
141.16
1.99
131
144.07
151.96
148.23
2.17
48
152.00
159.92
154.12
2.147
6
160.33
167.00
162.89
2.61
-
SCA
3
84.38
108.68
95.05
12.42
25
128.79
135.99
133.38
2.11
91
136.00
143.97
140.23
2.03
88
144.20
151.58
147.46
2.20
26
152.03
159.69
155.18
2.53
3
161.38
162.23
161.72
0.45
2
171.23
176.40
173.82
3.66
HUM ANT-GL1 ANT-L1
1
104.45
104.45
104.45
0.00
1
119.95
119.95
119.95
0.00
5
3
3
121.19 124.45 121.13
127.35 127.65 127.47
125.36 125.56 124.95
2.74
1.81
3.36
41
23
30
129.50 128.85 128.28
135.96 135.85 135.83
133.84 133.69 133.08
1.53
1.85
2.18
151
101
133
136.21 136.03 136.06
143.99 143.91 143.98
140.24 140.22 140.22
2.24
2.25
2.36
148
67
117
144.01 144.10 144.00
151.98 151.89 151.80
147.45 147.28 147.09
2.36
2.11
2.25
152
10
25
152.02 152.00 152.02
160.03 158.96 159.12
155.33 154.59 154.24
2.02
2.13
1.98
-
Mc
3
117.38
119.05
118.00
0.92
5
121.15
127.76
125.67
2.70
33
128.42
135.83
132.63
1.96
159
136.01
143.99
140.51
2.14
155
144.01
151.97
147.26
2.18
46
152.04
159.71
154.75
1.99
2
161.58
165.65
163.62
2.87
1
183.78
183.78
183.78
0.00
FEM
2
116.64
119.37
118.01
1.93
16
120.16
127.99
125.68
2.16
112
128.24
135.95
133.24
1.92
261
136.07
143.98
139.96
2.16
137
144.00
151.94
146.91
2.09
13
152.66
157.57
154.09
1.35
-
TIB
4
120.79
127.77
125.69
3.30
28
128.68
135.89
134.09
1.70
156
136.07
143.88
140.71
1.95
190
144.04
151.89
147.69
2.27
69
152.03
159.07
154.67
1.89
7
160.14
164.31
162.02
1.81
-
35
Mt
1
119.17
119.17
119.17
0.00
3
123.21
126.93
125.57
2.06
59
128.69
135.90
133.46
1.95
217
136.14
143.97
140.79
2.17
217
144.00
151.93
147.04
2.03
31
152.02
158.27
154.47
1.95
-
*: According to VITT [34] quoted by von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35]; CR: Skull (cranium), SCA: scapula, HUM: humerus, ANT-1: according to
GL 1 value of antebrachium, ANT-2: according to L1 value of antebrachium, MC: metacarpus, FEM: femur, TIB: tibia, MT: metatarsus
Table II: Withers height values (cm) of Byzantine Horses calculated using morphometric measurements of the skulls and long bones, and distribution of the
horses by size according to VITT [34].
classification (basilar length in particular) could not be taken
and were classified by “comparison method” (table III).
In this type of skulls, any possible measurements taken
were compared with the corresponding measurements of
Revue Méd. Vét., 2015, 166, 1-2, 30-42
the classifiable skulls. Results of these analysis indicated that
most of these skulls were “medium” and “large-medium” size
(67.67%).
36
ONAR (V) AND COLLABORATORS
Size and withers height
%
Dwarves ≤112 cm
1.01
Very small 120-112 cm
4.04
Small 120-128 cm
2.02
Medium-Small 128-136 cm
8.08
Medium 136-144 cm
30.30
Large-medium 144-152 cm
37.37
Large 152-160 cm
17.17
Very large 160-168 cm
0
Giant 168 cm≥
0
Table III: Distribution of size of skulls that were classified by comparison (%).
Horse
(Equus caballus L.)
Sex
Age
Yenikapı Horse-1
Yenikapı Horse-2
Yenikapı Horse-3
Yenikapı Horse-4
Yenikapı Horse-5
Yenikapı Horse-6
Yenikapı Horse-7
Yenikapı Horse-8
Yenikapı Horse-9
Yenikapı Horse-10
Yenikapı Horse-11
Yenikapı Horse-12
Yenikapı Horse-13
Yenikapı Horse-14
Yenikapı Horse-15
Yenikapı Horse-16
Yenikapı Horse-17
Yenikapı Horse-18
Yenikapı Horse-19
Yenikapı Horse-20
Male
Male
Male
Male?
Male?
Male
Female
Female
Female
?
?
?
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
?
10-11
11-12
8
5-10
7-10
7-10
7-10
7-10
5-10
3.5-4
5-7
5-7
5-7
7-10
4.5-5
7-10
9
12-15
10-11
4-5
Metacarpus III
Metatarsus III
Bp/GL*100 SD/GL*100 Bd/GL*100 Bp/GL*100 SD/GL*100 Bd/GL*100
24.30
23.72
23.18
21.53
22.77
22.22
21.74
21.71
-
15.47
15.76
14.66
14.63
15.04
14.36
14.53
14.87
-
23.84
22.30
22.28
20.87
22.65
23.05
20.82
20.54
-
19.68
19.35
18.01
19.08
18.68
17.31
18.05
18.05
18.92
18.34
17.93
-
12.06
12.00
11.34
11.55
11.62
10.96
11.10
11.10
11.77
11.93
11.43
-
19.10
18.86
17.90
18.38
18.20
16.07
16.83
16.83
18.50
17.32
16.58
-
Table IV: Metapodial slenderness and articular indices of Yenikapı in situ horse skeletons
In our study, slenderness (SD/GL*100), proximal (Bp/
GL*100) and distal (Bd/GL*100) articular indices were
calculated using metapodial bone measurements. These
calculations were made according to the size classification
based on the greatest length (GL) of the bones concerned
(metacarpus or metatarsus) as described by “VITT [34]”.
metapodiums scattered around the excavation area (table
IV).
Metapodial slenderness and articular indices of the 20
horses referred to as near-in situ skeletons (some parts/
bones were missing) were evaluated separately from other
According to the Brauner’s metacarpal slenderness index
classification and the size classification based on the greatest
length (GL) of the bone as described by “VITT [34]”, these
Metacarpal and metatarsal indices of all horse skeletons
that were not in situ and scattered over the excavation area
are given in table V.
Revue Méd. Vét., 2015, 166, 1-2, 30-42
BYZANTINE HORSE SKELETONS OF THEODOSIUS HARBOUR: 2. WITHERS HEIGHT ESTIMATION
animals were regarded as “slightly slender legged” (44%)
(table VI and VII). These were followed by “slender legged”
animals. There was one horse in the very large class and “very
slender legged” (N=1) suggesting that this specimen might
have been castrated (table VI).
Discussion
In our previous study, care and management conditions
of Byzantine horses and pathologies observed in these
animals were investigated [27]. However, data regarding the
visual morphologies of the horses were not included in that
paper. With the present study, withers height and structural
aspects of the Byzantine horses were evaluated.
20 horse skeletons referred to as near-in situ skeletons were
classified according to VITT [34] withers height classification
Size and
withers
height
Small
Mediumsmall
Medium
Largemedium
Large
Very large
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
%
0.74
7.92
50.00
37.38
3.71
0.25
(quoted by von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35]) and
were found to belong to “medium” (withers height 136144 cm) and “large-medium” (withers height 144-152 cm )
animals. It is thought that the reason why a great majority of
these horses (70%) were “large-medium” can be explained by
the fact that males constituted 65% of them. Considering the
withers height values calculated using the GL measurements,
it is believed that the gender could have had an effect on the
values obtained [31].
Results of the calculations from the skull and long bone
measurements of the horses that were scattered around the
excavation area showed that, according to VITT [34] withers
height classification (narrated by von den DRIESCH and
BOESSNECK [35], MÜLLER [26]), more horses (38.72%)
were “medium” size (withers height 136-144 cm). However,
the percentages of those in “large-medium” (withers height
Metacarpus (n=404)
Bp/GL*100 SD/GL*100 Bd/GL*100
3
3
3
21.93
15.83
22.36
24.12
16.40
23.69
22.92
16.17
23.04
1.11
0.30
0.67
32
32
32
21.04
13.29
18.71
24.99
17.80
24.44
22.58
15.10
21.86
0.88
0.94
1.37
201
200
202
19.04
12.35
17.66
24.95
17.15
24.31
22.17
14.83
21.55
1.00
0.87
1.22
151
151
151
19.21
12.57
18.77
25.32
16.57
23.58
21.97
14.65
21.39
1.04
0.79
1.12
15
13
13
20.70
13.12
19.91
24.19
18.61
23.59
22.19
14.84
21.52
1.07
1.44
1.19
1
1
1
15.65
9.35
14.12
15.65
9.35
14.12
15.65
9.35
14.12
0.00
0.00
0.00
%
Metatarsus (n=529)
Bp/GL*100 SD/GL*100 Bd/GL*100
4
4
4
17.08
10.91
15.57
0.76
21.91
15.21
19.37
19.01
12.36
17.32
2.28
2.01
1.73
35
36
36
17.01
10.46
16.96
6.81
20.55
13.66
20.41
18.82
11.79
18.39
0.88
0.79
0.83
188
188
188
15.08
10.22
15.43
35.54
22.00
14.23
21.67
18.40
11.53
17.90
0.96
0.61
0.98
255
255
254
16.24
10.00
16.07
48.20
20.46
13.09
19.84
18.27
11.41
17.78
0.84
0.62
0.83
46
46
46
16.07
10.21
16.24
8.70
20.05
12.65
19.30
18.23
11.35
17.85
0.84
0.55
0.74
0.00
-
Table V: Slenderness and articular indices of all metapodiums scattered over excavation area
Revue Méd. Vét., 2015, 166, 1-2, 30-42
37
38
ONAR (V) AND COLLABORATORS
Size
Small
190-205 cm
% 0.74 N=402
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
SD/GL*100
3
15.83
16.40
16.17
0.30
Medium-small
205-220 cm
% 7.92
N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
32
13.29
17.80
15.10
0.94
Medium
220-235 cm
% 50.00 N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
200
12.35
17.15
14.83
0.87
Large-medium
235-250 cm
% 37.38 N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
151
12.57
16.57
14.65
0.79
Large
250-265 cm
% 3.71 N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
13
13.12
18.61
14.84
1.44
Very large
265-280 cm
% 0.25 N
Min
Max
Mean
SD
1
9.35
9.35
9.35
0.00
Slenderness*
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
%
100
9.38
12.50
43.75
31.25
3.13
10.00
27.50
46.50
14.00
2.00
8.61
35.10
44.37
11.26
0.66
15.38
46.15
15.38
15.38
7.69
100.00
-
1: Very slender legged; 2: Slender legged; 3: Slightly slender legged; 4: Medium slender legged; 5: Slightly massive legged; 6: Massive legged; *: Brauner’s
classification (listed by DE GROSSI MAZZORIN et al. [16] and UDRESCU et al. [33])
Table VI: Distribution of metacarpal slenderness indices according to body size of Yenikapı Horse skeletons
Slenderness
1
2
3
4
5
6
%
9.75
29.50
44.00
15.00
1.25
0.50
1: Very slender legged; 2: Slender legged; 3: Slightly slender legged; 4: Medium slender legged; 5: Slightly massive legged; 6: Massive legged
Table VII: According to Brauner’s classification, frequency of metacarpal slenderness index in Yenikapı Byzantine Horses (%)
Revue Méd. Vét., 2015, 166, 1-2, 30-42
BYZANTINE HORSE SKELETONS OF THEODOSIUS HARBOUR: 2. WITHERS HEIGHT ESTIMATION
144-152 cm) were appreciably close (36.31%). The number of
horses with withers height below 112 cm or greater than 168
cm were quite low (table II). As seen, the intensity of sizes
was in “medium” and “large-medium” classes. When only
metapodiums are taken into account for his classification,
density of the distribution (50%) accumulated in “medium”
class. The interchange observed in density is considered to
be associated with the variation range of the horses. A low
variation range is usually observed in samples originating
from the same region and from a homogenous population
[14, 31]. In addition to the effect of gender on morphological
changes observed in animal herds that were under human
control, effects of regional variations should be taken
into account. Situations of the morphological variations
depending on the regional difference can be explained by
the BERGMANN’s [6] rule that predicts a decrease in size
of animals with increasing temperature. Depending on
the intended use, it is expected to find horses of various
morphologies in Byzantine Empire, which encompasses
quite a large land area.
Another issue that should be noted is that the sample
size is important in interpretation of the withers height
calculations [22]. A population range obtained from the sites
where only few bones were recovered is unlikely to represent
a whole period. Interpretation of such limited data can be
misleading. This can only be compensated by obtaining a
larger sample size. We believe that sample size examined
in the current study which contained 20 of near-in situ
horse skeletons together with 3443 (NISP=3443) bones was
sufficiently large. Accumulation of these samples in two size
categories (medium and large-medium) suggests that the
population in question was relatively homogenous.
It has been reported that the Roman horses, with a
significant role in the Empire’s period, were affected by Greek
and Persian horses, which originated from an eastern stock
type. Large eastern horses probably spread over the Roman
Empire by means of these strongly affected breeding horses
[12]. Although horses for various work types (i.e. race,
hunting, transportation etc.) existed within the borders of
the empire, efforts were mainly focused on improving the
size of military horses.
For this purpose, Scythian type large horses were exported
and used for improving the size of native horse breeds [22].
Considering the extent of the borders of the Roman Empire
and complex cultural structure, variation range in withers
height is expected to be even higher. This can include a range
varying from 112 cm to 148 cm [8].
Horses were also important during the period of the
Byzantine Empire, which was a continuation of the Eastern
Roman Empire. Considering the empire’s land and the
wideness of the geographical surface area, it is believed that
the same cross-breeding tradition was maintained. In the
58000 m2 excavation area, which was in the capital city of the
empire, even though there were horses with a withers height
Revue Méd. Vét., 2015, 166, 1-2, 30-42
39
below 112 cm or above 168 cm, the majority fit between 136
and 152 cm. There were probably horses used for different
needs.
In this study, the withers height calculations were
made based on KIESEWALTER [23] factors (listed by
von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35]). However,
some of the errors that exist in the original publication of
KIESEWALTER [23] (i.e. about humerus) were corrected
by von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35], and the
latest factors presented by these authors were applied in this
study to prevent potential calculation errors. Even though
size and morphological differences were reported between
the modern and ancient animals [32], use of recent data of
modern animals for determining the visible morphologies
of archaeological equine bones have always been the most
preferred method [35]. KIESEWALTER’s [23] factors were
not calculated from the living heights of individuals. These
factors were based on the estimation of the withers heights
from mounted skeletons (as stated in von den DRIESCH and
BOESSNECK [35]; AMBROS and MÜLLER [2]; FOREST
[18]). It has been reported that they could underestimate the
withers height of archaeological horses by using long bone
but will definitely not overestimate them [22]. Therefore, we
preferred the corrected factors, which are used by mostly
archaeozoologists, in our study.
Among the bones of skeletons, metapodial bones are the
most frequently discovered in archaeological sites because of
their rugged structure. They can usually be found intact in
the sites [11]. Therefore, metapodia have become the bones
that are most used for characterizing the structural features
of the horses [10]. For this purpose, metapodial indices were
developed.
Metapodial slenderness index (SD/GL*100), important
in evaluating the slenderness of a skeleton, has been used
for differentiating slim and fattened individuals [7, 15, 19].
Therefore, this index remarkably contributed to evaluating
the visual morphology. Slenderness index in horses has been
accepted as an indicator of strength of a given item, and
alongside with the withers height, it plays an important role
in representing the animal. As a result, using this index, a
given animal can be determined whether it is slenderer or
stronger [22].
The withers height of the domestic mammals which
is calculated by using the lengths of the long bones is
of common use in archaeozoological syntheses and
comparisons. Yet this value is obviously very imprecise, and
it is useless for the analyse of the biological variation of the
real size of domestic animals. For this, it is claimed that only
the crude measurements of the bones are mostly useful [18].
Considering this point of view, in classification of the withers
height results in our study, the VITT [34] classification
method narrated by von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK
[35] and MÜLLER [26] was used. Meantime, in the
metacarpal slenderness index evaluations, size classification
40
ONAR (V) AND COLLABORATORS
was made by using the greatest length of metapodia.
Comparing Byzantine horses of different periods was made
looking at this detail. When the 20 horses referred to as nearin situ skeletons (some parts/bones missing) were classified
according to Brauner’s metacarpal slenderness (DE GROSSI
MAZZORIN et al. [16]; listed by UDRESCU et al. [33]), these
horses were generally described as “slightly slender legged”.
Due to some missing bones, general evaluation of the
existing parts was taken into account in classification of these
20 skeletons. When size classification of horse metacarpi that
was scattered around the area was made using the greatest
length (GL) as described by “VITT [34]”, according to
Brauner’s metacarpal slenderness index classification, these
specimen were generally “slightly slender legged” (40%).
These were followed by “slender legged” animals. Considering
the difficulties differentiating the mule and horse bones
by their structure (PETERS [32]; quoted by JOHNSTONE
[22]), it should be remembered that some of the animals that
were classified as “very large and slender legged” could have
been castrated or mules. It is known that mule bones are very
slender.
From comparing the data of the Yenikapı Byzantine
horses with modern horses (table VIII), it can be seen that
their withers heights are higher than that of Przewalski
and Pony, and the large ones are of the size of Arab horses.
However, when Brauner’s metacarpal index classification was
taken into account, compared to Arab horses, they fell into
the “slightly slender” category. Thus, characteristics of their
extremities are observed to be similar to those in Ponies.
Results of comparisons of metacarpal slenderness indices
of Yenikapı Byzantine Horses between the periods indicated
that these horses had similar structural features with other
Roman period horses (table IX).
Changes in structural aspects of horses occurred during
the years of interaction between horses and humans. The
most evident example of this was observed during the Iron
and Roman periods. It has been reported that there is a
remarkable difference in withers heights of Iron Age horses
and Roman horses. The average withers height of Iron Age
horses was 126 cm while that of Roman horses was 137
cm. As it can be seen, there was a 10 cm increase during
the Roman period [1]. However, horses varied significantly
in size depending on different use (military, race, hunting,
etc.), and the most evident increase in size was particularly
observed in military horses [22]. Notably, skeletons of large
horses were usually unearthed in military sites [4].
Yenikapı Byzantine horses, the majority of which were
“medium” and “large-medium” in size, were within the range
of the Roman period horses in terms of withers heights.
In fact, large-medium horses can be said to have the body
conformation of Roman military horses. As shown, the
size of Byzantine horses had higher withers height than the
horses of the Iron age and later periods in middle Europe,
and this may suggest that the effects of traditional Roman
horse breeding can be seen and even continuing (see fig 2).
Considering that horses were usually exploited for riding
and carting during the Byzantine period [27], it is thought
that there were effects of eastern group horses on the size and
visual morphological aspects of these horses, as seen during
Withers height
Metacarpal SD/
GL*100
Metatarsal SD/
GL*100
154
128
133
131
13.59
15.02
15.52
14.58
10.75
11.17
0.00
11.67
Brauner’s metacarpal slenderness
index classification (DE GROSSI
MAZZORIN et al. [16]; listed by
UDRESCU et al. [33])
Very slender legged
Slightly slender legged
Slightly slender legged
Slender legged
Yenikapı Byzantine Horse1
141
14.83
11.53
Slightly slender legged
Yenikapı Byzantine Horse
147
14.65
11.41
Slightly slender legged
155
14.84
11.35
Slightly slender legged
Modern reference data*
Arab Mean
Pony Mean
Pony Exmoor
Przewalski Mean
2
Yenikapı Byzantine Horse
3
: Medium size; : Large-medium size; : Large size; *: Data of Modern horses were taken from JOHNSTONE [22]. p.402. table 6.80.
1
2
3
Table VIII: Comparison of results of withers height and slenderness indices between modern references data and Yenikapı Byzantine Horse
Bronze Age*
Iron Age
*
Roman*
Yenikapı Byzantine Horse
*
Very slender and medium slender legged horses
The majority is slender or slightly slender legged horses
Usually medium and slightly slender legged horses
Usually slightly slender legged horses
Comparison data were taken from DE GROSSI MAZZORIN et al. [16].
Table IX: Comparison of frequencies in slenderness categories of Brauner classification in different periods
Revue Méd. Vét., 2015, 166, 1-2, 30-42
BYZANTINE HORSE SKELETONS OF THEODOSIUS HARBOUR: 2. WITHERS HEIGHT ESTIMATION
Roman period. Withers height of the eastern group horses
was calculated as 136 cm by using metacarpal length, while
it was 126 cm in the western group [12]. Based on these data,
it is seen that Byzantine horses had higher withers height
compared to the western group horses, and from time to
time, large size horses were used in crossbreeding of horses
depending on the intended use. It is thought that general
structural aspects of Byzantine horses were carrying the basic
aspects of the “ideal Roman Horse” [21, 22], yet the target
use, as well as breeding preferences, were also a factor.
Figure 2: Periodic comparison of Yenikapı Byzantine Horses
Acknowledgements
The authors of this study offer their grateful thanks to
Mrs. Zeynep Kızıltan, the director of Istanbul Archaeological
Museums for her contributions by expertise and knowledge at
every stage of Yenikapı project works. Also the vice directors
Mr. Rahmi Asal, Ms. Tuğce Akbaytogan, Ms. Gülbahar Baran
Çelik, to archaeologist Mr. Metin Gökçay, Archaeologist
Mr. Sırrı Çömlekçi, Archaeologist Mr. Mehmet Ali Polat,
Archaeologist Mr. Emre Öncü. We thank also to Krzysztof
Tarnawski, M.Sc.Eng. for his invaluable contribution to the
hard task of translating this article into English. This work
was supported by TÜBİTAK (Project Number: 107O518).
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