Comparison of Transport Energy Consumption
and Population Density, Trip Rate
in Developed and Developing Countries
Hajime Daimon
Graduate Student
Department of Civil Engineering
Utsunomiya University
7-1-2 Yoto, Utsunomiya, Japan 321-8585
Phone/FAX: +81-28-689-6224
Email: [email protected]
Akinori Morimoto
Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Utsunomiya University
7-1-2 Yoto, Utsunomiya, Japan 321-8585
Phone/FAX: +81-28-689-6221
Email: [email protected]
Hirotaka Koike
Professor
Faculty of City Life
Utsunomiya Kyowa University
1-3-18 Ohdohri, Utsunomiya, Japan 320-0811
Phone/FAX: +81-28-639-0555
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to compare transportation energy consumption in
developed and developing countries and to explore the direction that developing
countries should take in terms of land use and transportation planning. Most unique
characteristic of this study is to utilize person-trip survey data in developing
countries. As a result, we showed that it is necessary not only to form a high density
city structure with controlled suburbanization, but also to establish land use policy in
the city in order to establish desirable energy efficient urban forms in developing
countries.
INTRODUCTION
Background and Purpose of Study
It has been a demanding issue in the city-planning field to shed light on the
interrelationship between land use and transportation system for a long time. The
mechanism how this problem occurs can be found by paying attention to the urban
form and the historical background of each city.
The progress of motorization has provided great mobility to people. However, the
traditional urban form that had been kept was destroyed, and rapid and extensive
sprawl of cities to suburbs took place, causing serious problems such as traffic
congestion and environmental pollution. Recently, the concepts like Compact City
and Transit Oriented Development have emerged to deal with this problem, and have
achieved successful results in the cities in Europe and North America. In other words,
a city that once was densely populated has changed to a low-density city due to the
progress of the motorization. Now this low-density city is attempting to form a
high-density city again in developed countries.
Developing countries, on the other hand, has accomplished rapid economic growth in
recent years, and follow the same path as the developed countries. In order for
developing countries to avoid the vicious circle of “high-density to low-density and
to high-density again,” it is necessary to understand the relationship between urban
form and transportation characteristics of cities in the developing countries. The
comparative analyses of urban forms and transportation characteristics such as
automobile energy consumption in developed countries using the person-trip data
have been studied by many researchers including the well-known study by P.
Newman and J.Kenworthy (1989). However, the similar comparative analyses of
urban forms and traffic characteristics using person-trip data in cities in developing
countries are not found.
This study tries to explore the relationship between urban forms and transportation
characteristics by using the person-trip data of developing countries. In addition, it
aims to compare the urban forms of developing countries and developed countries,
and to show the direction of land use and transportation planning in the developing
countries.
Review of Existing Studies
As discussed previously, Newman, P. et al. (1989) suggested the relationship
between population density and transportation energy consumption per capita with
32 cities. In addition, they suggested it with 46 cities in addition to 14 cities (1999)
(See Figure.1). This study that high dense city leads to the constraint of automobile
caused controversy among many researchers.
There are a lot of researches in association with this study in Japan. Hayashi et al.
(1992) showed “a global-environmentally-friendly city” wouldn’t always correspond
with “a regional-environmentally-friendly city” by analyzed transport energy
consumption per area in addition to that per capita. Taniguchi et al. (1999) similarly
grasped the relation between population density and transportation energy
consumption with 67 cities in Japan. They showed that not only population density
but also the number of railway station in cities and so on influenced automobile
usage ratio, and also assumed that the cities poorly-served by railway transport
increase automobile usage.
On the other hand, there is some criticism against the studies by Newman, P. et al.
Gordon, P. et al. (1989) questioned the purpose of minimization of fuel consumption
in market economy, the meaning of comparison between cities, and validity between
land use policy and public transport policy. Gomez-Ibanez, J. A. (1991) also
indicated other factors such as income and the difference of historic background on
land use and so on except population density. According to Richardson, H.W. et al.
(2004) Figure.1 wouldn’t show the relationship between population density and
transport energy consumption per capita in the first place, and it would be unclear
why people lived in high-density city constrained automobile usage. Moreover he
also noted that income in each city, relative fuel price, or railway capitalization trend
as an alternative transportation mode for an auto cause the relationship.
Especially the indication by Brindle, R is interesting. Brindle, R noted that it might
be a statistical problem to consider the relation between population density and
transport energy consumption per capita in the first place, because common variable
on “population” is included in the numerator of population density and the
denominator of transport energy consumption per capita. Therefore false correlation
occurs between both variables, even though there is no relation between urban area
and total transport energy consumption. Kenworthy, J. et al. (1999), however,
reviewed these indications and suggested again that there would be little possibility
of influence of population as common variable on the relation between both variable,
rather than more strongly relationship between urban area and total transport energy
consumption.
Recently Suzuki et al. (2006) analyzed the relation between urban area and total
automobile travel distance instead of population density and transport energy
consumption per capita by using 6 reliable urban data statistically. Concretely
speaking, urban area is defined as equal time area from CBD because it is difficult to
determine the urban boundary by using land use data alone. Then total automobile
travel distance consisted of 4 factors, i.e. ‘average trip speed’, ‘average trip time’,
‘automobile modal split’ and ‘trip rate’. In which most specific difference among
cities would be automobile modal split. Moreover, they also suggested that how
much stock for public transit each city holds (or how less stock for road
infrastructure each city holds) influences urban area and total automobile travel
distance concurrently. This is one of the reasons why there is great relationship
between population density and transport energy consumption per capita.
Thus there is a certain amount of validity between population density and
transportation energy consumption. However most of the cities in Figure 1 are
developed countries, it is significant to confirm the relation in developing countries.
METHODOLOGY AND ANALYSIS
Person-trip data of eleven cities in developing countries
Most unique characteristic of this study is to use person-trip data in developing
countries, which has never been obtained before. Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA) conducted person-trip surveys in eleven cities in developing
countries, such as Asia, Middle East and Central and South America, as is shown in
Table 1. These cities have a variety of metropolitan areas or economic conditions,
but in general, their per capita GDP are less than one tenth of Japan or United States,
and automobile ownership rate is extremely low.
Table 2 shows socio-economic characteristics and the data calculated by using
person-trip survey in eleven cities in developing countries, which contains the
surveyed date and the sample size. Average number of trips per day per person are
between from 1.97 trips to 2.71 trips, which show similarity. On the other hand,
urban population density or GDP per person or automobile ownership rate or average
speed varies by these cities. Moreover, Figure 2 shows modal share and Figure 3
shows the ratio of trip purpose in the eleven cities in developing countries. As is seen
these figures, Asian cities have high bicycle modal share compared with other cities,
and automobile modal share varies widely among these cities.
The focus of our research was to compare the urban forms among developing
countries and developed countries, and to show the direction of land use and
transportation planning developing countries should take. To accomplish this
objective we investigated the relationship between urban population density and
transportation energy consumption per person, which may be able to lead us to a
desirable urban form by comparing cities in terms of transportation energy
consumption.
Relationship between urban density and transportation energy consumption
Transportation energy consumption Eik of transportation mode k in the city i is
calculated by the following equations. Here, the value of basic unit of transportation
energy consumption for automobile is assumed as 584 (kcal/person km) which is
calculated by the Institute of Energy Economics, Japan.
Eik = Pi * Gi * rik * dik * ek
Population：P，Average number of trips：G
Composition ratio by transportation mode：rk,
Average trip length by transportation mode：dk (km)
Basic unit of transportation energy by transportation mode：ek (kcal/person km)
The relation between population density and transportation energy consumption per
person in developing countries was shown in Figure 4 in order to clarify the
relationship between urban form and transportation energy consumption. Thus, it is
found that the higher population density becomes, the smaller transportation energy
consumption. This is because modal split of automobiles decreases and the trip
length is relatively short in high-density cities.
Figure 5 shows the relationship between urban density and automobile dependence in
the eleven cities of developing countries, in addition to major cities in developed
countries which had been analyzed by Newman and Kenworthy, to compare with
energy consumption between developed and developing countries. Vertical axis
shows annual automobile energy consumption per person based on the conversion
unit value of 1[kcal]=4.185*103 [J].
Thus the transportation energy consumptions in developing countries tend to be
similar to those in developed countries. From this figure, it is observed that there is a
close connection between population density and transportation energy consumption
per capita not only in developed countries but also in developing countries. Moreover,
the energy consumption in developing countries is generally somewhat smaller
compared with the approximation curve of the major cities in developed countries
analyzed by Newman and Kenwothy. This can be explained that there is a big
difference in economic conditions, and correspondingly the difference in car
ownership rate between developed major cities and developing cities used in this
research.
Other reasons could be attributed that the person-trip surveys of eleven cities were
home interview surveys in the urban areas, and neither the data of goods movement
in the city nor the trip data of intercity travel were included. In addition, what should
be paid attention is that the population density values in developing countries in this
study are the population density in metropolitan area because of data restrict.
Therefore these values vary depending on how to treat metropolitan area.
Urban form and intrazonal trip ratio
In the previous section, the relationship between urban forms and transportation
energy consumption in developing countries was clarified by analyzing the
relationship between population density and transportation energy consumption per
capita. It can be assumed that a high-density city is a sustainable city because of the
low energy consumption. The index of density alone, however, cannot explain the
details of urban form. For example, examining the relationship between population
density and transportation energy consumption in Figure 4 more closely, one can find
the transportation energy consumption per capita between Kuala Lumpur and
Chengdu has large differences, despite the population density values are quite
similar.
How is this phenomenon explained? We analyze from a viewpoint of transport
characteristics such as trip rates or trip lengths. For example, the large amount of
extensive public transportation network prevents metropolitan area like Tokyo from
becoming low density in spite of its sprawl. On the other hand, the low rate of the
long trip length and low mobility would form a high-density city in developing
countries. In other words, even if the population density values are quite similar
compared between metropolis where an extensive and well-established railway
system is in existence and the cities in developing countries where there are a lot of
people whose mobility is constrained, the transportation energy consumption values
are different. Then we calculated the ratio of intrazonal trips in CBD, which would
suggest great difference between the metropolis and the cities in developing
countries, by using commuting trip purpose in origin-destination matrix of
person-trip survey. We chose above two cities in developing countries, namely,
Chengdu, China and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. To compare with them, Tokyo is
chosen as the developed country city. Figure 6 shows zone map of central area in
three cities, and Table 3 shows commuting trip purpose origin-destination matrix in
the central area of these three cities. The ratio of intrazonal trips was calculated by
the following equation.
The ratio of intrazonal trip ＝
Intrazonal trips of one zone
Destination trips to one zone
Figure 7 shows the ratio of intrazonal trips for zones in the central area of Tokyo,
Kuala Lumpur and Chengdu.
First, the ratios of intrazonal trips in Tokyo, a developed country, it is found that the
ratio of intrazonal trips in zone 1 was less than 10% and is remarkably low compared
with other zones. Zone 1 is predominantly a business district with little residential
population. As a zone is apart from CBD, the ratio of intrazonal trips becomes
higher.
Second, as is seen in Chengdu, the ratios of intrazonal trips in each of the zones were
much higher compared with the zones in Tokyo. This is because there had been no
railway transportation at the time of person-trip survey and major modes of
transportation were predominantly bicycles in Chengdu (see Figure 2). It is
reasonable to consider that trip length is short and that the work place and home
tended to be closer.
Similar observation is found in Tokyo. Zone 2 is located in the southwestern part of
Tokyo inner city, where traditionally small to medium industries and home factories
are located. There are many intrazonal trips found in this zone.
Finally, in Kuala Lumpur, an interesting result was obtained. First of all, the ratio of
intrazonal trips of zone 1 was comparatively low, though it was not as low as in
Tokyo. Zone 1 is a CBD where people commute from other zones. This indicates the
remarkable economic growth of Malaysia in recent years. Next, the ratio of
intrazonal trip of zone 4 was very low. This is because land uses of zone 4 are
embassies and hotels and golf course, there are many work places and few residential
districts. And the ratio of intrazonal trips of zone 7 is also low. It could be explained
by attributing to the extensive railway network. In other words, it is possible to
access from other zones easily because a railway line is connected between zone 1
and zone 7. Thus transport characteristics such as the ratio of intrazonal trips and trip
length are one of the reasons why there is the relationship between population
density and transport energy consumption per capita. Transport characteristics
influences population density and transportation energy consumption concurrently.
DISCUSSIONS
Generally speaking, the ratio of intrazonal trips is low in developed countries and
high in developing countries. We can also assume that the transportation energy
consumption increases as social and economic developments progress in developing
countries.
However, there are two directions to follow. One is the expansion of city area by
public transit, and the other is the sprawl by automobile. A city can sprawl to suburbs
if long distance transportation mode such as railway or LRT was developed and
urban area is formed along railway, especially around transit stations. This is the
so-called TOD. Another choice is the progress of the motorization, which also
makes it possible to commute from suburbs to the center of a city, and the ratio of
intrazonal trip of CBD can decrease remarkably even in developed countries.
Therefore, what is important is the direction a city in a developing country is going
to choose. If it takes the direction of public transportation system, as well as the land
use with high intrazonal trip ratio, that city will be environmentally sustainable
because of low transportation energy consumption. However, it a city choose the
uncontrolled motorization, it will follow the undesirable path of many developed
countries with high transportation energy consumptions, and sooner or later faces to
change the direction in the long run in order to become environmentally sustainable.
Therefore, if we are able to measure the trip length of the commuting purpose and
intrazonal trip ratio quantitatively, as well as the predominant mode of transportation,
we can estimate the transportation energy consumption of that particular city, and
suggest the desirable path to take. In addition, in order to establish preferable urban
form, it is necessary to consider the relationship between the land use and
transportation systems in developing country not only to form a high-density city
with controlled suburbanization but also to establish land use policy in the city which
keep the trip length short.
CONCLUSION
In this research, urban forms among developing countries and developed countries
were compared by using the index like the relationship between population density
and transportation energy consumption per capita, and the ratio of intrazonal trips in
terms of urban forms. The finding obtained from these could be summarized as
follows.
First, from the relationship between population density and transportation energy
consumption, it could be said that the higher population density becomes, the smaller
automobile energy consumption. Thus the transportation energy consumption in
developing countries can be plotted in the same diagram of urban form and
transportation energy as Newman and Kenworthy developed for developed countries
with minor modification.
Second, as was found in the ratios of intrazonal trips in Kuala Lumpur and Chengdu,
both have similar population density, the ratios of intrazonal trips in any zone were
very high in Chengdu, however in Kuala Lumpur, the zones of CBD and non
residential district were low. In other words, even if population density was same,
transportation energy consumption was different because the ratio of intrazonal trips
was different.
In order to establish sustainable urban forms in cities in developing countries, it is
necessary to establish a policy to coordinate the relationship between land use and
transportation systems in such a way to form high density urban area to keep the trip
length shorter or use public transport for longer trips.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their thanks to Japan International Cooperation Agency
for the provision of person-trip data of eleven cities in developing countries.
REFFRENCES
Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1989). Cities and Automobile Dependence, A Source
book, Gower Technical.
Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1999). Sustainability and Cities, Overcoming
Automobile Dependence, Island Press.
Y, Hayashi. Y, Tomita. K, Doi. S, Rithica. and H, Kato. (1992). A Comparative
Study on Urban Transport Energy Consumption and its Influences on the
Environment, Proceedings of Infrastructure Planning, Japan Society of Civil
Engineers, No.15(1)-2, pp.939-944.
Y, Hayashi. (1992). Urban Land Use and Transportation Policy for Reduction of
Environmental Burdens, Environmental Research, No.86, pp.66-73.
M, Taniguchi. T, Murakawa. T, Morita. (1999). Analysis on Relationship between
Urban Character and Car Usage Based on Personal Trip Data, City Planning Review,
The City Planning Institute of Japan, No.34, pp.967-972.
Gordon, P. and Richardson, H.W. (1989). Gasoline consumption and cities: a reply.
Journal of American Planning Association, No.55, pp.342-346.
Gomez-lbanz, J.A. (1991). A global view of automobile dependence, Journal of
American Planning Association, No.57, pp.376-379.
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D.A. Hensher, K.J. Button, K.E. Haynes, and P.R. Stopher, Handbook of Transport
Geography and Spatial Systems. Pergamon, pp.333-355.
Brindle, R. (1994). Lies, damned lies and “automobile dependence.” Australian
Transport Research Forum, 19, pp.117-131.
Kenworthy, J.R. and Laube, F.B. (1999). An International Sourcebook of
Automobile Dependence in Cities 1960-1990, University Press of Colorado.
T. Suzuki, Y. Muromachi. (2006). Re-evaluation of Population Density - Automobile
Use Relationship in Mega-cities, Urban Area and Vehicle Kilometers, City Planning
Review, The City Planning Institute of Japan, No.41-3, pp.151-156.
TABLE 1 Case Study Cities
Continent
Asia
Africa
Middle East
Central and South
America
Europe
City
Chengdu
Kuala Lumpur
Jakarta
Manila
Phnom Penh
Cairo
Tripoli
Damascus
Managua
Belem
Bucharest
Country
China
Malaysia
Indonesia
Philippines
Cambodia
Egypt
Lebanon
Syria
Nicaragua
Brazil
Romania
TABLE 2 Social Economic Characteristics and The data
calculated with Person-trip Survey
Country
China
Malaysia
Indonesia
Philippine
Cambodia
Egypt
Lebanon
Syria
Nicaragua
Brazil
Rumania
Urban
Population GDP per
PT sample Average trip
area
Area
Survey
density
person
data
per day
City
population
date
1000
trip
/person.day
km2 person/ha dollar/person
person
Chengdu
3,090 586
53
2,442 2000.6-7
70,199
2.25
1,391 243
57
4,826
1997 218,460
2.71
Kuala Lumpur
Jakarta
8,300 650
128
710
2000 1,083,280
2.56
Manila
9,454 636
149
1,030 1996.8-12 471,035
2.03
Phnom Penh
591
27
219
215 2000.5-8
40,369
2.16
Cairo
6,801 640
106
1,470 2001.9-10 268,360
1.97
Tripoli
331
38
87
3,990 2000.1-12
7,615
2.11
Damascus
1,488 101
147
1,088
1998
81,698
2.12
Managua
1,117 124
90
620 1998.1-3
54,138
2.18
Belem
1,782
89
200
2,930
2000
59,529
2.48
Bucharest
2,016 252
80
2,830 1998.1-12 143,311
2.70
Note:
Urban area population and areas are from JICA reports.
GDP per person is from The World Fact book in Central Intelligence Agency.
Average trip per day and automobile energy consumption are calculated by authors.
automobile
energy
consumption
kcal/person
4,348
7,089
3,067
2,084
1,271
4,064
5,613
1,789
6,574
1,685
6,131
TABLE 3 Commuting Trip Purpose Origin-Destination Matrix
in Tokyo, Kuala Lumpur and Chengdu
Tokyo
o
d 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Total
Destination
Trip
2
Total
Destination
Trip
4
5
6
7
Total
Origin Trip
78,485
419,206
295,787
307,014
531,403
480,510
554,981
55,175
114,071
91,852
82,298
167,963
117,866
132,256
5,299
225,795
13,962
11,690
42,548
17,615
20,068
8,656
47,197
140,655
31,995
132,045
113,496
50,397
6,296
13,203
16,082
152,328
19,982
26,821
88,979
1,537
12,792
13,543
4,001
153,146
19,639
7,505
675
3,745
15,917
6,472
12,413
177,155
10,430
847
2,403
3,776
18,230
3,306
7,918
245,346
761,481
336,977
524,441
323,691
212,163
226,807
281,826 2,667,386
Kuala Lumpur
d
o
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
68,297
39,927
40,517
14,922
21,504
20,614
16,138
5,485
60,975
8,475
1,338
2,387
2,813
2,606
2,992
4,986
32,509
2,474
1,143
1,541
614
3,846
3,410
5,335
7,173
4,272
3,014
964
2,938
2,208
1,556
1,567
23,563
4,684
628
3,227
3,360
1,597
931
3,236
32,888
1,410
6,529
6,469
5,567
1,208
2,679
7,503
25,542
Total
Origin Trip
93,314
121,334
95,554
29,612
58,783
73,056
47,902
221,918
84,079
46,259
28,013
37,143
46,647
55,496
519,555
1
2
3
4
5
Chengdu
d
o
1 102,285
2 26,650
3 17,013
4 34,210
5 39,179
Total
Destination
Trip
219,338
Total
Origin Trip
219,385
289,693
186,014
404,517
286,139
26,575
220,933
13,474
11,455
11,403
28,786
18,223
127,349
25,736
13,384
33,932
10,899
17,413
312,630
27,505
27,807
12,988
10,765
20,486
194,668
283,842
213,481
402,383
266,719 1,385,748
Automobile Energy Consumption Per Capita (MJ)
70000
Sacramento
Houston
60000
Diego
Phoenix San
San Francisco
Portland
Los Angeles
Denver
Detroit
Boston
Washington
50000
Chicago
New York
40000
Canberra
Perth Calgary
Melboume
Winnipeq
Adelaide
Edmonton
Brisbane Vancouver
Toronto
30000 Sydney Montreal
Ottawa
Frankfurt
Hamburg
Brussels
Zurich
20000
Stockholm
Vienna
Copenhagen Paris
Munich
London Amsterdam Singapore
Kuala Lumpur
10000
Tokyo
Bangkok
Jakarta
Seoul
Manila
Surabaya
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
Population Density (person/ha)
250
Hong Kong
275
300
FIGURE 1 Urban Densities and Automobile Energy Consumption in Developed Countries
Note: P.Newman and J. Kenworthy:
SUSTAINABILITY AND CITIES: p.101, 1999
Walking
Bicycle
Train
40%
60%
Bus
Car
Chengdu
Kuala Lumpur
Jakarta
Manila
Phnom Penh
Cairo
Tripoli
Damascus
Managua
Belem
Bucharest
0%
20%
80%
FIGURE 2 Modal Shares in the Eleven Cities of Developing Countries
100%
To work
To school
Business
Private
To home
Chengdu
Kuala Lumpur
Jakarta
Manila
Phnom Penh
Cairo
Tripoli
Damascus
Managua
Belem
Bucharest
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
FIGURE 3 the Rate of Trip Purpose of the Eleven Cities in Developing Countries
8,000
Kuala Lumpur
Automobile energy consumption
per person（kcal/person）
Managua
Bucharest
Tripoli
6,000
Chengdu
4,000
Cairo
Jakarta
Manila
2,000
Belem
Damascus
Phnom Penh
0
0
50
100
150
200
Population Density（person/ha)
FIGURE 4 Urban Densities and Automobile Energy Consumption in the Eleven Cities
250
Automobile Energy Consumption Per Capita (MJ)
70000
Sacramento
Houston
60000
Diego
Phoenix San
San Francisco
Portland
Los Angeles
Denver
Detroit
Boston
Washington
50000
Chicago
New York
40000
Canberra
Perth Calgary
Melboume
Winnipeq
Adelaide
Edmonton
Brisbane Vancouver
Toronto
30000 Sydney Montreal
Ottawa
Frankfurt
Hamburg
Brussels
Zurich
20000
Stockholm
Vienna
Copenhagen Paris
Munich
London Amsterdam Singapore
Kuala Lumpur
Managua
10000
Bucharest
Tripoli
Tokyo
Chengdu
Bangkok
Jakarta
Seoul
Jakarta
Manila
Cairo Damascus Manila Surabaya
Phnom Penh
Belem
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
Population Density (person/ha)
250
Hong Kong
275
300
FIGURE 5 Urban Densities and Automobile Energy Consumption
in Developed and Developing Countries
Note: New data (square shape) are plotted on
the figure by P.Newman and J. Kenworthy:
SUSTAINABILITY AND CITIES: p.101, 1999
325
Chengdu
Kuala Lumpur
56
71
123
124
125
77
75
3
2
43
49
48 46
90
91
89
88
64
73
110
68 104
70
72
2
111
76
3
112
57
59 54
58
99
100
50
52
107
63 24
101
65 51
60
38
97
61 30
31
34 12 93
106
40
41
103
39
47 35
15 8 11
105
94
27 5 10
19
95
85
83 80
3 2
109
79
87
108
18
78 1
115 113
81
82
20
116
4
84
74
45 44
1
5
120
119
117
4
122
1 4
7
121
22
21
23
118
6
Tokyo
6
7
3
1
5
4
2
FIGURE 6 Zone Locations in Tokyo, Kuala Lumpur and Chengdu
5
1
Chengdu
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
the ratio of intrazonal trip
the ratio of intrazonal trip
1
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
Kuala Lumpur
0
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
zone number
4
5
6
7
zone number
1
Tokyo
0.9
the ratio of intrazonal trip
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
zone number
FIGURE 7 The Ratio of Intrazonal Trip in Tokyo, Kuala Lumpur and Chengdu