SELF AND CONSCIOUSNESS
Indian
Interpretations
Edited
AUGUSTINE
by
T H O T T A K A R A
Published
for
Centre for Indian and Inter-religious Studies, ftome
Dharmaram
Publications
Banga!ore-560 0 2 9
INDIA
ν
C O N T E N T S
Preface
C o n s c i o u s n e s s : Permanent or Fleeting ?
Reflections on Indian V i e w s of C o n s c i o u s n e s s and Self
Ninian Smart
1
The Self, the U n k n o w n Knower of the Upani§ads
Daniel
Acharuparampil
13
The Self and C o n s c i o u s n e s s in Sankara's Advaita
Mariasusa/
Dhavamony
32
Self and C o n s c i o u s n e s s in Rämänuja's Perspestive
John
B. Chethimattam
44
A w a k e n i n g to Self - A w a k e n i n g to G o d
in the Spiritual Experience of Abhishiktananda
Jacques
Dupuis
61
Oberhammer
79
Self a s C o n s c i o u s n e s s in Classical S a m k h y a
Gerhard
A s p e c t s of S u n y a t ä a n d C o n s c i o u s n e s s in
Mahäyäna-Buddhism
Michael
von Brück
104
T h e C o n c e p t of Self and Liberation in Early J a i n a
Ägamas
Bansidhar
Nyäya Critique of the Buddhist Doctrine of
Bimal Krishna
Bhatt
132
Non-Soul
Mat/la/
173
Michel
193
Sufi Experience of Self
Thomas
P n e u m a a s H u m a n and Divine in Christian Theology :
a Critique
Joseph
vii
Pathrapankal
206
7
Aspects of Sunyata and
Consciousness in MahayanaBuddhism
Michael von Bruck*
1.
Introduction
The
B u d d h a ' s original teaching w a s not the philosophical
discourse but spiritual instruction.
T h e first sermon at Sarnath
does not contain any theory of c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
underlying
of karman.
come
T h e different s c h o o l s of thought
up with
but it
However, the
assumption for the Four noble truths is the theory
modified
is uncertain
philosophical
interpretations
whether
subtleties
the
which
Buddha
were
in India have
concerning
himself
karman,
knew
implied in this
of
concept.
His w a s an analysis of suffering, a n d this analysis w a s based
on
a unique
spiritual
It is an other
doctrine
does
experience.
question
to analyze whether
necessarily belong
Buddhist interpretation
or not.
historical evidence on earliest
question
answer
c a n be answered
*
the
W e do not have
sufficient
B u d d h i s m , and therefore
truths
1
the
Whatever the
that the w h o l e
rests on the
U n i v e r s i t y of T ü b i n g e n , W .
C p . J . P e r e z - R e m o n , S e l f a n d N o n - S e l f in E a r l y
Hague-Paris-New York), 1980.
anattastock of
might b e , it is obvious
DR. M I C H A E L V O N BRÜCK,
the
earliest
only by inference.
concerning the Four noble
1.
to
argument
assumption
GERMANY
Buddhism, Mouton (The
ASPECTS
O F
SUNYATA
of s o m e theory of
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
reincarnation.
The
basic
all later B u d d h i s t thought - whether the
aware of
it or
the other
side.
not-is anatta
2
It
the
development
(consciousness)
contradiction in
B u d d h a w a s already
on the one side and
rebirth on
is-depending on the w a y h o w anatta is
understood-a possible contradiction
behind
105
w h i c h is the driving force
of an
understanding
of
vijnäna
w h i c h can be understood as the meta-theory
w h i c h is to resolve precisely this contradiction
on the grounds
of a more comprehensive framework comprising both the attaj
artaifa-dilemma and the reincarnational view.
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s
level, and
asoning
this is precisely the
Indian
philosophies w e
1.
or pure
both
in
philosophical re­
Mädhyamika
and
later
can roughly
distinguish two
" s o u l " or "self" w h i c h seem to be
from the very
concerning the
ments,
attempt of
thought.
different perceptions of
prevalent
Thus, the theory
comprise this contradiction on a higher
in Mahäyäna-Buddhism,
Vijnanävada
In
is to
beginning
a s structuraiizing factors
psychological or metaphysical develop­
including B u d d h i s m .
There is a notion
of
3
" s e l f " w h i c h is pure
awareness
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , it is a factor of knowing and luminosity
without any
limiting adjunct or specific content,
absolutely
transcendental to any real perception; it is static and beyond
change.
This
is what
the basis for Vedäntic
the
Upanisads refer to and
is later
philosophy, but it is also the respective
principle in S a m k h y a .
2.
There is a notion
a specific
2.
content,
This problem
was
E. W o l f f , Z u r
Lehre vom
Buddhisten.
Unter
Winter (Heidelberg),
3.
of " s e l f " w h i c h
it is
shaped
and
has or is a l w a y s
bears the
marks
of
s e e n a l r e a d y in e a r l i e r B u d d h o l o g y in the W e s t , c p .
Bewußtsein
(Vijnänavada)
besonderer Berücksichtigung
:
1930, p.
des
bei d e n
späteren
Lankävatärasatra,
9f.
P r a t a p C h a n d r a , M e t a p h y s i c s of Perpetual
Change.
in E a r l y B u d d h i s m , S o m a i y a ( B o m b a y - N e w D e l h i ) ,
T h e C o n c e p t of S e l f
1978,
p.
190f.
106
SELF
individuality.
It
is an
individuality;
it
is and
entity
AND
which
remains
CONSCIOUSNESS
is the
distinct
very
focus
from other
of
similar
entities and therefore calls for realistic pluralism in any philo­
sophical analysis.
This is
J a i n i s m , but also of
of
obviously
the
basic
intuition
in
influence to Hindu and Buddhist schools
thought.
The Buddhist concept of c o n s c i o u s n e s s
s e e m s to
be a concept w h i c h
in s o far as it
is beyond
being a mere capacity
as the senses and
the
ordinary
which
depends on other
principle of
continuity
perpetuation
of the karmic chain leading
1. e. taking
on the function
other hand.
function
later
change
one
which
of the jiva
the
factors s u c h
hand, and a
accounts
mentioned
Mahäyäna developments - not
for
the
into the next rebirth,
of the
Jains,
Already in early Buddhism w e have the
of this vihnäna
two
c o n c e p t u a l factors in
s e n s e - o b j e c t s on the
in
(v/'nnäna/v//näna)
is trying to c o m b i n e
in many
on the
important
S u t t a s , and in
only in the
Vijnänavada-
S c h o o l - i t developed into a kind of ultimate principle in general,
but here a l w a y s understood in relation to the basic experience
of sünyatä
of the
as a
non-dualistic
early concept of
and
anicca
radicalized
and
anatta
interpretation
in their
mutual
relationship.
T h e following
explanations
points for
observation
2.
Developments
Early
T h e most distinct feature
other
Indian
philosophical
the anatta-aooXxme
sabbe
dhammä
formations
of
Buddhism
Buddhist
with
view.
regard
to
s c h o o l s at that time is certainly
a s stated
aniccä
are an attempt to rise a few
concerning the basic
dukkhä
are impermanent,
in S a m y u t t a - N i k ä y a
anatta,
which
miserable
and
III,
132:
m e a n s that all
without
"self".
A few questions arise already with regard to this classical
formula.
First of all it has to be understood that obviously the
c o n c l u s i o n : impermanence is suffering, w a s not at all questioned.
ASPECTS
O F
S U N Y A T A
AND
107
CONSCIOUSNESS
W h y n o t ? If w e look into the earlier V e d i c tradition w e cannot
take such a v i e w for granted, and even in the Upanisads there
is an implicit a n d explicit argument for the devaluation of what
later w a s called the vyävahärika:
w a s much
more
splendid than
the bra
hman-ätman-xeaWty
what the s e n s e s could grasp,
ordinary reality being a mere s h a d o w of what really is.
This
argument d o e s not work for the Buddhist view, because nothing
else than the
skandhas
have real
II, 5 3 just d e c l a r e s : yad aniccam
There is a reason for
being.
tarn
dukkham.
this implicit
link, and the reason is
precisely implied in the topic of this paper.
anicca
and dukkha
lies in the
the perception of sünyata,
Samyutta-Nikäya
The link between
nature of c o n s c i o u s n e s s and
in
w h i c h became a key concept much
later, of c o u r s e , but w h i c h is the
implicit experience already in
earliest B u d d h i s m that allows for the unquestioned relationship
between anicca
and dukkha.
But this w e shall develop later.
Is there a kind of permanent
principle in the human person
or n o t ? C o n c e r n i n g this question Buddhologists are as divided
a s the B u d d h i s t s themselves, and the whole history of the 18
s c h o o l s of early B u d d h i s m is a commentary on this unresolved
problem.
Not only the Pudgalavädins tried to introduce a principle of
continuity, but the
skandhas
postulated
the
even argued that it were the
incorruptible
nature of Man
of undestructible
dharmas
We
this out into a theory
w h i c h are s e e d s in the continuous
could go
o n , but
a s Edward C o n z e
" T h e s e ' p s e u d o - s e l v e s ' are not e a s y to study,
because there is little
precise information, and
E. C o n z e , B u d d h i s t Thought
132.
in
India, Allen & U n w i n
partly
partly b e c a u s e
the c o n c e p t s t h e m s e l v e s are distinctly indefinite''.
p.
of
w h i c h is the basis for that w h i c h
T h e Yogäcärins worked
stream and s o o n .
4.
They
s e e d s of g o o d n e s s w h i c h w a s s o m e kind
attains Nirvana.
says:
Sauträntikas
w h i c h transmigrated from one life to the other.
4
With regard
(London),
1962,
108
S E L F
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
to Western and a l s o recent Eastern s c h o l a r s h i p and reception of
Buddhism it is interesting to s e e h o w different ideological inte­
rests have influenced the reading
from S c h o p e n h a u e r to R h y s
(and misreading)
of texts,
Davids in controversy with
Kern
and Stcherbatsky, or Georg Grimm versus Heinrich von G l a s e n app.
5
A n a n d a K. C o o m a r a s w a m y tried to prove that the Buddha
and Sankara said the
negativa,
the
same,
preceptor
comparisons, I dare to
of
the
Enlightened
Vedänta
suggest, are
firstly they project later Vedäntic
via
not
one
only
6
eminentiae.
very
via
Those
useful, because
developments - there is a gap
of more than thousand years between the B u d d h a and Sankara
and considerable Buddhist influence on his Advaita Vedänta - onto
earlier history, and
secondly the terms for
"consciousness",
"self", " p e r s o n " etc. are used in an uncritical w a y mostly reflect­
ing the c o n s c i o u s or u n c o n s c i o u s philosophy of the interpreter
than
being founded
on a careful
tendency to a s s u m e that the
the
more
though
comprehensive
he definitly
attachment.
7
analysis.
Today
there
is a
B u d d h a did not deny a "self" in
and
totally
transcendend
sense,
negated the empirical " I " as the centre of
For Western
Buddhists this is the articulus statis
et cadentis e c c l e s i a e a s an interesting controversy in the J o u r n a l
" Y a n a " of the "Altbuddhistische G e m e i n d e " in Germany (Vol.4,
1 9 5 1 ) , and also the disputed position of Christmas H u m p h r e y s
8
show.
Let
us highlight
some
of
the
developments
in
early
B u d d h i s m . T h e basic insight of the Buddha is that all is univer­
sal flux,
and there
is nothing
5.
P r a t a p C h a n d r a , o p . c i t . , p.
6.
C p . L. de S i l v a , T h e
H. N a k a m u r a ,
T h e theory
of the
1975,
p.
and
Christianity, The
55f.
D i e G r u n d l e h r e n d e s B u d d h i s m u s , ihre W u r z e l n in G e s c h i ­
c h t e u n d T r a d i t i o n , i n : B u d d h i s m u s der G e g e n w a r t ( e d . by Η .
Herder
im
(Freiburg),
1970,
MahäVäna-Buddhismus
pp.
Dumoulin),
18ff.; s e e a l s o M. S h i m i z u , D a s
in J a p a n i s c h e r S i c h t und die
"Selbst"
" P e r s o n " im
C h r i s t e n t u m im L i c h t d e s N e u e n T e s t a m e n t s , B r i l l ( L e i d e n ) , 1 9 8 1 ,
8.
five
112ff.
P r o b l e m of S e l f in B u d d h i s m
Study Centre ( C o l o m b o ) ,
7.
else.
d e S i l v a , o p . c i t . , p.
60.
p.
;
15.
ASPECTS
O F
SUNYATA
khandhasjskandhas
They
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
wants to
bring out
109
precisely this
are combinations which decay as soon as they
synthesized.
T h e aggregates, however, are.
point.
have
A n d the flux is.
9
T h u s , w e have a realistic pluralism concerning the aggregates ,
and w e have an unchanging formative principle with regard to
the flux.
All the different
Buddhist schools took this a s a basis
to avoid both tho extremes, nihilism or better total negationalism
(uccedavada)
as well a s e t c r n a l i s m with regard to a "substantial
s o u l " (sassatavada).
The argument against atta has had a l w a y s
an analytical and an ethical dimension.
But this is not all.
There are sufficient scriptural passages
w h i c h hint to something as coordinator of the karmic impressions,
though this is definitely not an independent
a f e w examples I will c o m e up with
self.
T o give just
the famous story from the
Bhärahära-Sutta in the S a m y u t t a - N i k ä y a , I I I .
10
The Buddha com­
pares to human being with an entity bearing a burden
w h i c h is the combination of the
different
Yet, there is a bearer of the burden
(bhäraharam)
the five aggregates, and this is a kind of
with
(bharam)
factors of grasping.
apart from
"person"
(puggalo)
a specific name and a distinguishable family-background.
T h e three cravings are taking hold of the burden
and the end of craving is the
(bhäranikkhepan).
(bhärädänam)
t
act of laying d o w n the burden
It is obvious that the B u d d h a describes the
spiritual path to liberation, and there is a subject on that path.
There are other " s e l f - p a s s a g e s " in the Dhammapada (\ 6 0 , 380,),
the Mahäparinibbäna-Sutta etc.
There is a moral
who
has attained
transcendence of the " s e l f
liberation, a "higher s e l f
of a person
w h i c h is beyond
samsaric bondage, searched for by Mara, the enemy and temptator, and for him impossible to r e a c h .
9.
Th. Stcherbatsky, The
sidass (Delhi),
10.
An
B u d d h i s t N i r v a n a , MotilaJ B a n a r -
1 9 7 8 , II, p. 5 5 .
C p . the h i s t o r y of interpretation of t h i s
p.
11.
C o n c e p t i o n of
1 1
text in P r a t a p
Chandra, op. cit.,
120f.
e x e g e s i s of
c i t . , p. 2 7 8 f f .
the r e l e v a n t
p a s s a g e s is given
by
P e r e z - R e m o n , op.
110
SELF
Maybe
more
A N D
interesting is an other
CONSCIOUSNESS
evidence
because a
good amount of probability is there that w e touch o n historical
ground
of the
earliest Buddhist c o m m u n i t y : the question of
suicide of a liberated being, an arahat.
T h e r e w a s no question
that suicide cannot bring any gain, b e c a u s e it is only the body
w h i c h could be killed. The karmic imprints
(sankhäralsamskära)
would remain, and more, by committing suicide one w o u l d only
add two problems: a) an other and n e w violent act w o u l d only
result in further karmic c o n s e q u e n c e s , and b) a good opportunity
of Dhamma-practice in this precious h u m a n
wasted. But what about an arahat
so that
nothing
could
travel
Samyutta-Nikäya I, 120f.
(Khandhasamyutta 87)
birth w o u l d
into
the
next
(Märasamyutta
reincarnation?
23)
and
obstruction, moves
around in a smoky cloud in order to search for
the
rebirth-consciousness of an arahant
Naturally
who
the
had
" s o u l " or
committed
M ä r a failed to find anything, b e c a u s e that
being w a s already liberated and no
around.
ll/lll, 344
reports the strange story that M ä r a , the
personification of karmic hindrances and
suicide.
be
w h o had burnt up all Karma
Yet, what
"karmic stuff"
the story s h o w s is that early
could be
Buddhism
obviously did not deny a certain kind of " c o h e r e n t s u b s t a n c e ' '
w h i c h after death - i.e. independent of the aggregates - w a s left
behind.
Needless to say that the B u d d h a himself w o u l d never
have indulged to answer the possible question w h a t this c o h e ­
rent entity would be.
Rather unusual (and therefore
aground?)
L ( 16/1 f t )
Mara.
1 2
is also
the
story
with s o m e historical b a c k -
in the
w h i c h recollects the "treaty"
Mahäparinirväna-Sütra
b e t w e e n B u d d h a and
B u d d h a had attained enlightenment,
and
Mära wanted
to persuade him to enter Nirvana immediately in order to prevent
12.
E . W a l d s c h m i d t , D a s M a h ä p a r i n i r v ä n a s ü t r a . T e x t in S a n s k r i t u n d T i b e t i s c h ,
v e r g l i c h e n mit
d e m PßW
nebst einer
Ü b e r s e t z u n g der c h i n e s i s c h e n E n t ­
s p r e c h u n g im V i n a y a der M ü l a s a r v ä s t i v ä d i n s , A b h a n d l u n g e n d e r D e u t s c t
. h e n A k a c t e m i e der W i s s e n s c h a f t e n zu B e r l i n , K l a s s e f ü r S p r a c h e n , L i t e r a ­
;
tur und K u n s t J g . 1 9 5 0 , 2 , A k a d e m i e - V e r l a g ( B e r l i n ) , 1 9 5 1 ,
p.
209ff.
ASPECTS
O F
SUNYATA
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
111
other beings from becoming enlightened, i.e. freed from Mära's
o w n power and influence. The B u d d h a had refused but offered
to enter Nirvana as soon as the teaching had spread sufficiently
and the S a m g h a be established firmly.
life in Vaisäli
bhagavan
Mära
returns and
Parinirvönasamayah
N o w at the end of his
asks the B u d d h a :
sugatasya,
parinirvähi
it is time, Nirvana is
there, may the Exalted One please enter into Parinirväna. Again,
this refers to a kind of continuous principle
which
Mära
has
control of if it is not liberated or transferred into an other level of
existence.
T h e motive
of the
" p a c t with the d e v i l " is old and
appears here and there in the history of religions, and Buddhism
is by no
m e a n s an exception.
The
unusual story
(including
A n a n d a ' s failure to c h a n g e the mind of the Buddha to stay o n ) ,
however, w o u l d
not
have entered the
canon if it would
not
have had a strong support in the belief-system of early Buddhists.
But w h a t then is this "entity" leaving the body after death
and entering a n e w body or N i r v a n a ? Buddhism compares it to
the
flame, w h i c h in the s e c o n d case is blown out.
Western
scholarship has often interpreted this comparison as extinguish­
ing the
e x i s t e n c e of this
"entity".
But this is w r o n g .
1 3
In
M a j j h i m a - N i k ä y a (I, 487ff.) it is one Vacchagotta w h o asks the
B u d d h a about the destiny of an Enlightened O n e after death.
The
B u d d h a a s k s the c o u n t e r - q u e s t i o n : What happens to the
flame w h e n a lamp is blown o u t ? It is a good question, b e c a u s e
the flame is energy w h i c h returns into a status of potentiality or
a more subtle realm of reality.
Buddhist interpretation,
reality.
Even
This is by no means a specific
but c o m m o n
Indian understanding of
in Vedanta it is not a gross " s u b s t a n c e " w h i c h
travels from o n e life to the next, but an energy.
It is not the
gross form of life, but the flame of life, i.e. reality (energy) on
a more
subtel level of reality w h i c h is passed o n , a s Muncjaka
Upanisad III, 2 et al. states.
13.
P r a t a p C h a n d r a , o p . c i t . , p. 1 2 5 ,
O o t h e Problem of N i r v a n a ,
refers to O . S c h r a d e n s f a m o u s a r t i c l e ,
i n : J . P . T . S 19Q4f.,
p;
163.
112
S E L F
Further, on the
bhavanga
was
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
basis of the Milindapanha
developed
which
Abhidamma and w a s taken over
found
its
the
theory
of
way
into
the
by B u d d h a g h o s a .
This was
conceived of as a causal factor of e x i s t e n c e , s o m e "life-conti­
nuum"
into
1 4
between
a kind
two
rebirths, a n d this w a s later developed
of stream-of-being-theory
century A . D . ) .
by
Anuruddha
(12th
1 5
H e n c e , asking for " s e l f " and " p e r s o n " in early B u d d h i s m w e
have to be a w a r e that for them
are subtle realms w h i c h
reality h a s many levels.
There
present an entity a s " s o m e t h i n g " , but
not as an independently existing reality as it is the c a s e in the
manifestation
Buddha's
indicate
of
latent
majjhimä
patipadä
processes.
(middle
path)
Therefore,
might
not
that the world
intelligible-neither
v i e w of early
" s o u l " nor
"not-soul"-
than often admitted. T h e Sauträntikas d e v e l o p e d their
doctrine of continuity not
without reason.
structures,
1 6
and this is the
basis for
(särüpya),
perception.
vasanas
w h i c h form
later Yogäcära
Instead of mere contact (sparsa)
samtäna-
Here, the
imprints into the continuum of c o n s c i o u s n e s s
ments.
just
in present day understanding of reality.
could go on in arguing
Buddhism is more
are
the
the inexpressibility of reality, but c o u l d be something
like complementarity
We
energetic
develop­
it is n o w coordination
i.e. a structuralized relationship, w h i c h a c c o u n t s for
T h e S a m m i t i y a s certainly speak of s o m e i n d e p e n ­
dence of a " p e r s o n " , and it is no d o u b t that the Pudgalavädins
had been a strong s c h o o l of thought at least right into the 7th
century A . D . , especially in the N o r t h w e s t ,
been
impossible if they
heterodoxy
17
which would
could be simply a c c u s e d
(which of course w a s the
of
have
blatant
charge of other s c h o o l s
w h i c h finally survived) and the question of " s e l f " a n d " n o - s e l f "
could be easily answered on the basis of the c a n o n .
14.
E. C o n z e , o p . c i t . , p.
15.
de S i l v a , o p . c i t . , p.
132.
16.
E . W o l f f , o p . c i t . , p.
17.
N. Dutt, M a f i ä y ä n a B u d d h i s m , M o t i i a l B a n a r s i d a s s ( D e l h i ) ,
48.
17ff.
1977.
ASPECTS O F S U N Y A T A AND CONSCIOUSNESS
Now
we
c o m e to the
crucial point.
113
O n e of the
central
t e a c h i n g s of all B u d d h i s t s c h o o l s (though differently interpreted,
of c o u r s e ) is paticcasamuppädajPratityasamutpäda,
dependent
origination.
T w o links in the
here: c o n s c i o u s n e s s (vinnäna/v/'/näna)
rüpa).
What
on
basically
in the
mental
is the
intentional
chain
factors
Anguttara-Nikäya
which
II,
of
stuff.
and vinnäna are the factors
rebirths.
equates
or
18
process
Therefore,
right
sancetanä
volition and action
of karman
Buddhists action
(cetana)
vinnäna
as a kind
is basically a
w h i c h directs the
other
is not just one among
the
for the
whole
centre for
freedom
Buddhist path and finally
A s it is stated at the beginning of the D h a m m a p a d a :
manopubbangama
Indeed,
a distinct
and
but it c a n control their flux on the basis
is n e c e s s a r y
liberation.
are
into a specific Buddhist
karmic conditions a n d is therefore the
which
sankharas
person's character-
sankhära
relationship between
For the
aggregates,
The
a
prefiguration of a determinate or
T h i s leads
result of a mental
aggregates.
of
(nama-
is distinct from the J a i n view
material
other
and individuality
determining
motivation
action.
of
157f.
understanding of the
which
interest
is this c o n s c i o u s n e s s ? ,
It is o b v i o u s that both sankharas
carrying
the inter­
chain are of
dharnma,
ail is directed by the
already in early
function
which
B u d d h i s m vinnäna
in
other s c h o o l s of
mind.
khandha
thought
has
are
attributed to s o m e kind of self or person. T h i s is supported by
a
look
whole
into
Rhys
Davids
s p e c t r u m of the
to five different
(khandha),
sets of
P a l i - E n g l i s h Dictionary w h e r e the
term is quite
meanings:
c l e a r ; vinnäna
is linked
it is one of the aggregates
it is listed a s an element
(dhätu),
it is one of
the links in paticcasamuppada,
it is a kind of s u s t e n a n c e (ähära)
and
(käya).
finally refers to
general
empirical
18.
concepts
a
behind
consciousness
Pratap C h a n d r a , op. pit.,
8
body
it,
one w o u l d
which
pp.
There seem to be t w o
be vinnäria
depends on
188ff.
as
sensations,
an
the
114
SELF
sense-organ
and
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
and the s e n s e - o b j e c t , the other
individuated
vinnäna
being a distinct
w h i c h is something
like
a
subtle
body.
The first
is the
generally
accepted basis
for
Buddhist
epistemology and theory of perception, as it is stated concisely
in
Majjhima-Nikäya
uppajjati
III,
281:
cakkhuvinhänam
cakkhun
capaticca
tinnam sangati phasso,
rüpe
ca
based on the
eye and connected with an object for seeing an e y e - c o n s c i o u s n e s s
arises, the
c o i n c i d e n c e of the three is perception.
with regard to
the
c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s , including manovinnäna
Majjhima-Nikäya 1, 2 9 5 ,
that
Likewise
other s e n s e s s o that w e have six s e n s e w h i c h , according to
coordinates the others in s u c h a w a y
it allows for a multi-sensual perception.
Otherwise w e
would perceive different worlds of forms, s o u n d s etc. without
being able to link them.
connected
on the
with the
Thus,
w h e r e a s the c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s
s e n s e s are basically passive
s e n s e - o r g a n a s directing
active coordinator
which
we
could call
a
"self".
This
has
often
been
is an
"subjectivity" in a
certain sense, there is even a tendency to
19
in relying
agent, manovinnäna
substitute it for
and
requires
e x p l a n a t i o n - w h a t does this subjectivity imply for our
overlooked
interpre­
tation of anatta?
The s e c o n d concept, vinnäna
body,
births.
at
It is said that vinnäna
the moment
In the
of
Mahanidana
(okkamissatha)
of
in the
chain of
rüpa.
It is
19.
as an individuated
subtle
has to do with the karmic interconnection between two
d e s c e n d s into the w o m b
physical copulation
Sutta of
vinnäna
between the parents.
D i g h a - N i k ä y a II, 6 3
the descent
is a precondition for the next link
interdependent
näma-rüpa
right
origination
w h i c h provides a
which
is
"foothold"
näma20
A n a n a l y s i s of r e l a t e d t e x t s in g i v e n by P e r e z - R e m o n , o p . c i t . , p. 6 1 ,
for
69,
118.
20.
Pratap
Chandra, op. cit.,
" W h a t jiva
192.
However,
d o e s in J a i n i s m for the
d o e s in e a r l y B u d d h i s m . " ( p .
191),
his
generalizing
statement:
p e r p e t u a t i o n of p e r s o n a l i t y ,
i s an o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n .
vinnäna
ASPECTS
O F
vinnäqa,
and
S U N Y A T A
AND
b a s e d on
115
CONSCIOUSNESS
the
elements there
is descent into
the w o m b (gabbhassavakkanti),
Anguttara-Nikaya 1,176. What
is interesting
between
function
of
depending
being
is the
difference
mental factors
on
all the
in a
other
personality
w h i c h is the
related
it be possible to take
which
vinnäna
and
which,
it. Would
as a kind of dependent factor
order of subtlety? It is, after all, not only Karma
transmigrates, but maybe this vinnana w h i c h is certainly
not an entity of independent
maybe
an
all-pervading
actualization
other
to
aggregates, and vinnäna,
a precondition in the chain, must be beyond
of a different
under
nature but a function or capacity,
latent
energy,
certain conditions and
which
comes
to
in dependence on
factors a s is s e e n both in the theory of perception and
in the theory
interpretation
of
to
"subtle field"
No
descent.
is being
in the
it is able to
for the
would
also give a coherent
vinnäna
searched for.
is
not an
independent
self,
with regard to substantial self-nature
is a structuralizing
formed
This
the stories of suicide of an arahant where a
doubt,
empty (sünya)
It
näma
is
potentiality w h i c h forms and is being
p r o c e s s of becoming and decaying.
" c a r r y " karmic
necessary
it
(svabhäva).
continuity
seeds so that it can
in the
chain of
Therefore,
account
rebirths.
Since
it is not a static self, but a self related to all other factors, the
question w h e t h e r it is distinct in e a c h individuality would be an
abstraction.
But t h e s e are the problems discussed in the philosophical
circles w h i c h
history:
later
Mahäyana.
means the
only
formed a kind of new paradigm in Buddhist
T h e philosophical developments are by no
and most important factors accounting for the
emergence of M a h ä y a n a . S o c i a l factors, cultural-religious influ­
ences, e s p e c i a l l y the emergence of bhakti-movements all over
India w h i c h
and
influenced
Buddhism
Brahmanical culture ( B h a g a v a d - G i t ä )
(Lotos-Sütra)
simultaneously and partly with
the same effects, the necessity to bridge laity and monks, finan­
cial developments
in
connection with the Stüpa-worship etc.
116
SELF
21
are other p o i n t s .
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
What I wanted to s h o w is that developments
in M a h ä y ä n a , as for instance the concept of sünyata
in Mädhyamika
and the notion of älaya-vijnäna
(emptiness)
(store-consci­
ousness) in Vijnänaväda are c o n s e q u e n c e s and logical
sions on the basis of early
3.
Buddhist v i e w s and
conclu­
interpretations.
A s p e c t s in M a h a y a n a
Early
Buddhism taught
person on the basis of
selflessness
the outside world, i.e. khandhas
pluralism.
with
the intuition of anicca,
and dhötus,
regard to
the
but concerning
they held a realistic
T h e s e aggregates or elements did exist, though in
a specific s e q u e n c e of time w h i c h w a s a c c o u n t a b l e for uninter­
rupted new formation. T h u s w e have a realistic momentariness.
It is my
impression that the fundamental
paradigm
shift
between early B u d d h i s m and M a h a y a n a - taking place already
in certain s c h o o l s s u c h as the Mahäsamghikas - is the refutation
of this realistic pluralism, not any theory of soul or not-soul I
T h e Prajfiäpäramitä literature, based on the cultural develop­
ments
mentioned at
the end of the last section and a n e w and
deeper, to my mind also more consisting, interpretation of w h a t
w a s experienced
in trans-rational
meditative states, this litera­
ture interprets the Buddhist path to realization or liberation from
an entirely transrational point of view.
which
is actually
symbolic
more
interpretation
philosophical
T h e key term is
a programme or a matrix
of
term with
reality
sünyata,
of a specific
(or reality a s symbol) than a
a definite or even definable meaning.
This became the corner-stone for all M a h a y a n a philosophy, both
Mädhyamika
against the
and
Yogäcära.
The
meaning
of sünyata
over
earlier and more limited anatta is simply that there
is no limited entity w h i c h
would
be characterized by
svabhäva
whatsoever. There is no objective reality w h i c h is distinguished
by any marks giving it an absolute
(and
21.
only
N.
as s u c h ! )
identity, a n d in that s e n s e
there is universal unreality or emptiness.
D a t t , o p . c i t . , p p . 8 1 f f . , et a l .
ASPECTS
O F
S U N Y A T A
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
117
T o realize this truth is supreme enlightenment because it frees
from any
p o s s i b l e attachment - there
attached to.
The one
attached
is not
anything
to
be
and the thing being attached
to are no objective realities or distinct entities, and therefore the
process of attachment reveals its true nature: it is empty.
lack of inherent existence (n/Jjsvabhäva)
is the core of
This
sünyatä,
or expressed w i t h regard to early Buddhist philosophy, there is not
only pudgalanairatmya
but,
much
consequent, dharmanairätmya.
more
comprehensive and
This, o n c e more, is the great and
n e w insight of M a h ä y a n a . It sheds a completely new light on the
process of liberation and its social implications, thus paving the
w a y for a bodhisattvayäna
garbha
based on the teaching of
tathägata-
w h i c h w o u l d be impossible without the comprehensive
matrix of sünyatä.
It sheds n e w
light on the understanding of
reality a s s u c h , including, of course, understanding of c o n s c i o u ­
sness.
A n d this is the only
though w e
will
realize
point w h i c h interests us here,
that
it
is
the
fundamental
point,
b e c a u s e this n e w understanding of c o n s c i o u s n e s s is the frame­
work in w h i c h all the other
Before I will
to give a brief
our t o p i c .
questions are being resolved.
d i s c u s s only some points I will, however, try
s u r v e y on the different s c h o o l s with regard to
22
For all s c h o o l s
there is no dispute that sünyatä
mean that nothing exists.
Rather, sünyatä,
out quality, m e a n s , that all,
w h a t is, exists b e c a u s e of a c a u s e
(different from itself in Präsangika-Mädhyamika)
to other
things a n d
Präsangika-Mädhyamika adds,
B a s e d on T h . S t c h e r b a t s k y , B u d d h i s t L o g i c V o l . I-II,
1962; T.R. V . Murti,
The
Central
(London),
1980;
Universal
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d the
Ein
that
Dover ( N e w Y o r k ) ,
P h i l o s o p h y of B u d d h i s m , U n w i n
Pb.
N. Datt, op. c i t , e s p . pp. 178ff.; The X I V . Dalai L a m a ,
& Archives (Dharamsala), 1981,
Bewußtsein.
in and relation
causes. A n y phenomenon has actually no
real Origin but is empty.
22.
does not
though being w i t h ­
B e i t r a g zur
G o o d H e a r t , L i b r a r y of T i b e t a n W o r k s
p p . 9 7 f f . S e e a l s o M. S c h o t t , S e i n a l s
Mahäyäna-Philosophie,
K u n d e d e s B u d d h i s m u s H. 2 0 , W i n t e r ( H e i d e l b e r g )
Materialien
1935, pp.
16ff.
zur
118
SELF
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
things are only nominally imputed by c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
are not self-existent as they appear to be.
i.e. they
But this does not
mean that things do not exist.
The
Self does not exist in the ordinary s e n s e .
What act­
ually is positively accepted is different in various schools.
Yogäcära has two
in relation
explanations.
T h e self is not explained
to the aggregates, i.e. the form of a body etc.,
only on the basis of c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
but
N o w there are two v i e w s :
one is to count eight c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s (five s e n s e - c o n s c i o u s n e ­
sses,
mental c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a ''negative" or linking c o n s c i o u ­
23
sness (manas)
vijnäna-),
and the fundamental
consciousness
'älaya-
and this fundamental c o n s c i o u s n e s s has the function
of self or I;
the
consciousness,
other
(earlier)
view
has only six levels of
and here the sixth one is that w h i c h exists
as "I".
Mädhyamika also has two s u b - s c h o o l s : S v ä t a n t r i k a - M ä d h y ­
amika and Präsangika-Mädhyamika.
In Svätantrika there again
are two v i e w s (Yogäcära-Svätantrika-Mädhyamika
and Sauträ-
ntika-Svätantrika-Mädhyamika), and both a c c e p t the sixth level
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s as a "self" independent of body and the other
consciousnesses.
The argument, of course, is, that body
the c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s depending on the s e n s e s
so it must be something else w h a t is responsible for the
chain.
and
perish at death,
karmic
Präsangika-Mädhyamika, however, holds that all p h e n o ­
mena, including different aspects or levels of c o n s c i o u s n e s s , exist
in mutual d e p e n d e n c e . The " s e l f " , too, exists only in d e p e n d e ­
nce both of the physical aggregates and c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
23.
It is a l s o c a l l e d klista
mano-vijnäna,
intellection
g o i n g on
objectivity.
is a l w a y s
b e c a u s e the
in it
process
w h e r e a s älaya
is
There-
of
defiled
indeterminate
It w o r k s out the d e t e r m i n a t e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n w h i c h ; is n e c e s ­
s a r y for l i n k i n g
{pravrtti-vijndnas).
the
älayavijnäna
For a d e t a i l e d
with
the s i x
analysis
Y o g a c a r a I d e a l i s m , M o t i l ä l Öanarsidass ( D e l h i ) ,
sense-consciousnesses
see A.K. Chatterjee,
2
1975 ,
p.
101ff.
The
ASPECTS
O F
S U N Y A T A
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
119
fore, ' T ' is a mere designation referring to the process of c o n n e ­
ction between
body and consciousness.
C o n s c i o u s n e s s and
"self", therefore, are not identical.
a)
Mädhyamika
I will start with Candrakkti's view of self and c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
b e c a u s e it has b e c o m e the
basis for
later
discriminations concerning mind, mental
classifications and
states and so on
Madhyamika, especially the Präsangika s c h o o l .
Candrakirti starts from the discrimination
different kinds of
notion
of
self.
25
in
2 4
between
two
First, self c a n mean
the
person or I as a conventionally existing phenomenon w h i c h is
nominally imputed onto the collection of the five
physical aggregates.
mental
and
S u c h a self does exist only conventionally,
b e c a u s e it cannot be found under logical analysis as Candrakirti
explains by his Sevenfold Reasoning.
S e c o n d , self can
mean
inherent existence or self-sufficient existence, and s u c h a self
d o e s not exist at all, not even conventionally.
w h i c h does not
This kind of self
exist at all is the object being negated w h e n
o n e meditates on the selflessness (sünyatä)
of persons.
Thus,
the emptiness of a person is its lack of inherent existence.
To be a little bit more precise it is useful to distinguish eight
different meanings of self in Präsangika-Mädhyamika, but all of
24.
C a n d r a k i r t i , C a t u ^ a t a k a , in: V . B h a t t a c a r y a , T h e C a t u h s a t a k a of Ä r v a d e v a , with
Press
E x t r a c t s from the Commentary
of
Candrakirti,
The
( A l l a h a b a d ) , 1 9 2 8 , p p . 8 3 1 f f . ; H. T a u s c h e r , C a n d r a k i r t i :
makävstärali
VI,
166-266),
W i e n e r S t u d i e n zur T i b e t o l o g i e und B u d d h i s m u s k u n d e , H. 5 :
Universität
Wien/
und
Madhyamakävatärabhäsyam
1981; Candrakirti,
Middle W a y ,
Supplement
Dharamsala ed.
to
(Kap.
Indian
Madhya-
Nägärjuna's
T r e a t i s e on the
For the f o l l o w i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s I rely a l s o
on J . H o p k i n s , M e d i t a t i o n on E m p t i n e s s , W i s d o m P u b l . ( L o n d o n ) ,
25.
J . Wilson,
Chandrakirti's
Sevenfold
Reasoning:
Meditation
1983.
on
the
S e l f l e s s n e s s o f P e r s o n s , L i b r a r y of T i b e t a n W o r k s & A r c h i v e s ( D h a r a m s a l a ) ,
1 9 8 0 , pp.
12f.
SELF
120
AND CONSCIOUSNESS
them c o m e under the two different types w h i c h I have explain­
ed.
2 6
1.
Self in terms of Ί " or person (pudga/a)
as that w h i c h
is being nominally imputed on the five aggregates as a kind of
functioning
modus concerning their collective interplay.
is, says Candrakirti, h o w the self should be apprehended.
basis for
imputation
are the aggregates
which
This
The
are empty of
inherent existence, and this is precisely w h a t is being negated.
2.
This self w h i c h is a referent object of a false conception
because it appears to s h o w inherent
any existence at all.
(svabhäva-siddhi)
existence, does not have
It is what is called inherent
existence
or natural existence (svalaksana-siddhi).
It is
a subtle concept and difficult to remove, probably, b e c a u s e it is
the root cause for attachments.
3.
This notion of self c o n c e i v e s a person (being imputed
on the aggregates) being of different character from the a g g r e g a ­
tes, b e c a u s e it is in control of them and not seen as dependent
on them.
This,
says
Candrakirti,
is based on
a secondary
intellectual reasoning once the l is imputed.
4.
T h e self as permanent, partless and independent entity
is the self referred to in other s y s t e m s s u c h a s Vedänta and is
negated, of course, in Präsangika-Mädhyamika.
5.
T h e view of " m i n e " (atmiya)
subdivided.
is m u c h debated and again
It arises as false view in dependence on the colle­
ction of aggregates regarding them or their functional o c c u r e n c e s
(feelings, actions etc.) a s " m i n e " .
We
could say that it is a
mental substructure in the person's o w n continuum, an i m p u ­
tation on imputation,
from Samsära.
Words":
2 7
w h i c h is crucial in obstructing
T o quote
Candrakirti
who
liberation
states in his " C l e a r
"That w h i c h pertains to the self is the m i n e ; the term
26.
C p . the u s e f u l c h a r t by W i l s o n , o p . c i t . , p p .
13ff.
27.
Candrakirti, Clear
Fundamental
Words. Commentary
on
" W i s d o m " X V I I I : 2 c d , q u o t e d a c c . to W i l s o n , o p . c i t . , p.
Text
27.
called
ASPECTS
OF SUNYATA
AND CONSCIOUSNESS
121
refers to one's o w n five aggregates. The conventionally existing
self is the
object
aggregates and
mine.
Due
of the
conception of
so on, are the
to
the
an I.
pacification, i.e. the
observation of the true
T h e mine, the
objects of the
conception of
non-arising or
non-
existence (of the I and mine) the yogi
annihilates the conception of an I and the conception of mine".
6.
T h e self as a mode of c o n s c i o u s n e s s conceiving a " s e l f
(ätmagräha) of type 2 - 4 , i.e. a " s e l f " within the " s e l f having
a wrong
conception
of
reality
in
c o n c e i v i n g the
same as
inherently existent.
7.
T h e self as a mode of c o n s c i o u s n e s s conceiving an I
in o n e ' s o w n
continuum of c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h is not aware
of the mechanism of imputation and is therefore w r o n g .
8.
This conception of I and mine
ciousness
conceiving I ( N r . 7 ) .
corresponds to a c o n s ­
T h e self being
negated
here
is a " c o n c e i v e r " w h i c h is a s it were the subject of " l - a n d - m i n e arising", and
it appears differently
than
it is in
reality.
W e s e e , the differentiation being made here is quite subtle,
but
all is an application of sünyatä
process
reasoning.
other
In
Präsangika-Mädhyamika
28
levels or
mental
stages of
both persons and all
phenomena are lacking inherent existence, i.e. they are
sünya.
five
with regard to the
conceiving I or self on different
T h e mere
I, however,
aggregates.
But n o w
exists a s an imputation
on the
If they do not appear, this I cannot
appear.
comes a crucial addition:
T h e false view
of
an
inherently existing self w h i c h does not recognize this imputation
as s u c h ,
can come
into
being
are conceived as truly existing.
sünyatä
concerning the dharmas
for ! Nevertheless,
meditation
with regard to the
28.
Der X I V . D a l a i
(Ithaca),
1984,
only w h e n
and skandhas
aggregates
on
emptiness
is being called
occurs
person, because that is where
Lama, Kindness, Clarity
pp.
the
T h u s , the general insight into
162f.
and
Insight, S n o w
always
clinging
Lion
Publ.
122
SELF
and
all the
klesas
are to be
AND
removed.
CONSCIOUSNESS
Or to put it in other
w o r d s : " P e r s o n s , however, also lack existence as self-sufficient
or substantial entities and as permanent partless and i n d e p e n d ­
ent selves.
upon
Phenomena
a s being
simple
other than persons are not
empty of these
reason that there
of these two
is no
in phenomena
meditated
modes of existence for
innate
other
conception
than
of
persons".
On this basis w e do not have to comment on
the
either
29
Candrakirti's
mode of Sevenfold Reasoning concerning selflessness in d e t a i l
yet the seven steps shall be just m e n t i o n e d .
the
aggregates
with
He
compares
parts of
a chariot
with that what is called
"chariot"
but does not
exist inde­
pendently
the
is other
its parts.
or apart
the
30
from
chariot
and the
"self"
parts:
1.
There
is no
which
2.
There
is no
3.
There is no chariot w h i c h inherently possesses its parts.
4.
There is no chariot w h i c h inherently depends on its parts.
5.
There is no chariot upon
6.
There
chariot
which
is the
than
same as its parts.
w h i c h its parts are inherently
dependent.
is no
chariot
which
is the mere collection of
its parts.
7.
There
is no chariot
which
is the shape of
Likewise there is no self w h i c h
from the
6
the
basis of designation,
is a refutation of the
continuum
is said to
tenets.
be the
be directed
separate
aggregates.
Position
Svatantrik as w h o
held that
self w h i c h
against
be found
of the mental
takes rebirth.
non-Buddhist
cons­
Position
systems
of
31
29.
W i l s o n , o p . c i t . , p.
30.
C a n d r a k i r t i , C o m m e n t a r y on
op. c i t ,
31.
i.e. the
view of
or collection of moments
ciousness w o u l d
7
could
its parts.
pp.
25.
30ff.
W i l s o n , o p . c i t . p.
33.
" A Supplement",
quoted
a c c . to
Wilson,
ASPECTS
OF
SUNYATA
AND
I do not want to go into details
of
the
Präsangika
summarize the functioning
regard
to the understanding
What
given by the
actually
Mädhyamika?
concerning the
rationality
system concerning our subject but shall
briefly
explanation
123
CONSCIOUSNESS
of
of the
XIV.
Dalai
is c o n s c i o u s n e s s
Human
argumentation
consciousness,
Lama.
with
based on the
3 2
according to Präsangika-
beings have
five sense organs, t h u s -
on the basis of the collaboration of organ,
sense-consciousness
and object being
e a r l i e r - o n e can see,
perceived, as explained
hear, smell, taste and touch something.
when
one
meditates
these sensual
mind
and
cuts
off
impressions, what
meditator
present,
also disappears with continuing
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
non-dual
all, the
memories and so o n .
has gone through this stage there
be still an a w a r e n e s s of
and
awareness from
remains? First of
gets o c c u p i e d with inner imagery,
O n c e the
Now, w h a t happens
mental
past
and
purification
future,
of the process
What remains n o w is a clear,
mind.
W e shall come
might
but this
undisturbed
back to the
notion
of
n o n - d u a l w h i c h is different in Präsangika and Yogäcära thought.
Now,
when
this mind is investigated
intoit is clear that it
does not have any characteristic marks of form, location, origin
and so o n .
Thus, w h e n c o n s c i o u s n e s s is out of contact with an object
it is empty
comes
like a vast limitless o c e a n .
in contact with an object
reflection
of the
same, it is, as it were,
by the qualities of objects and
mirror,
put
w h i c h is w h a t it is, but
in front of
comprises both,
But a s soon as it
it gets an experience
it.
Thus,
getting
or
shaped (passive)
reflects them
(active), like a
reflects immediately the
the true nature
of
a clear knowledge
image
consciousness
about any
given
object and reflecting that experience to the one w h o experiences
the object.
32.
Now,
The X I V Dalai
op. cit., pp.
is this vast or limitless emptiness the true
Lama, Universal
53ff.
Responsibility
and
the
Good
Heart,
124
SELF
nature of
consciousness?
No.
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
B e c a u s e w h a t has been said
so far w a s an analysis of the function of c o n s c i o u s n e s s only
w h e n it is related to a concrete experience.
This,
therefore,
is an understanding of the relative nature of c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
There are more levels and
a s p e c t s to be taken
into a c c o u n t ,
however.
If you take all the
attributes and aspects of
ness you come from level to
composed things,
however, are
impermanent.
ciousness has levels, modes etc.
impermanent.
conscious­
level, from mode to mode. All
Since
cons­
it is c o m p o s e d , therefore
This impermanence is one of the aspects
of
its nature.
C o n s c i o u s n e s s d e p e n d s on factors like anything c o m p o s e d .
Only on
entity.
Any
the superficial
level it appears as a
moment
of
consciousness
moment of c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
on the
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
S o you
ciousness.
attribute.
it
depending on a
former
depending
levels: the
nature of the self.
ultimate
nature of
k n o w l e d g e of this ultimate
T h e first one is the
basis,
and
cons­
nature of c o n s ­
the s e c o n d
its
C o n s c i o u s n e s s or self is the basis - being not i n d e ­
pendently existing - ,
are its attributes.
same
existing, therefore, is the true nature
is the ultimate
have two
c i o u s n e s s and the
nature:
existing and
and all possible modes of c o n s c i o u s n e s s
But basis
and attributes are of o n e a n d
Consciousness
its nature,
as its true
which
emptiness with
existence, are one and the s a m e .
thing
is
But more, it is also
conditions for its arising, as explained by Candrakirti.
T o be not independently
the
self-existing
But it is also not a mere designation, as s h o w n a b o v e .
is not
regard to
inherently
inherent
Emptiness penetrates every­
nature.
If w e regard c o n s c i o u s n e s s as subject and the final nature
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s its object w e c a n comprehend the ultimate
nature of c o n s c i o u s n e s s properly. This is thedirect e x p e r i e n c e of
emptiness as direct and n o n - d u a l experience of c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
ASPECTS
The
OF SÜNYATÄ
result is that
eradicated,
and
AND
greed,
hatred
they
depend
because
125
CONSCIOUSNESS
and
all other
klesas
are
on the duality of grasper
grasped.
For
Candrakirti,
33
and
consequently in
Präsangika-Mäd­
hyamika, non-duality means prajiia w h i c h is free from both the
extremes of the
hilation.
Thus,
view of permanence and
it is an other
principle of mädhyamika
description of
of
matter
the
and
the
word for the
view of a n n i ­
epistemological
and not an ontological or psychological
nature of
reality
consciousness.
concerning
This is
the
duality
precisely the
point of difference between Präsangika and
basic
Yogäcära-Svätant-
rika-Mädhyamika but mainly between Präsangika and Yogäcära/
Cittamätra.
b)
Yogäcära
With regard to the Lankävatära-Sütra
D.T.
Suzuki
3 4
has
observed that three terms refer to the s a m e reality of the deepest
level of c o n s c i o u s n e s s from different
historical background : 1. citta,
of
Buddhist
history of
angles and on different
w h i c h from the very beginning
thought
w a s related to the theory of
perception and functions of the mind, 2. älayavijnäna,
the most
comprehensive
w h i c h is
psychological term in relation to the
w/wäf/ra-tradition, 3. tathagata-garbha,
w h i c h is a religious term
referring to the possibility of liberation for everybody.
Citta
in a general sense refers to all possible mental pro­
cesses,
but in a specific s e n s e it is different from manas and the
vijnänas
of the different s e n s e s . They signify specific functions,
whereas citta
is the
"principle of unification by w h i c h all the
activities are understood as issuing from one c e n t r e " .
33.
Candrakirti, Supplement
to
Nägänuna's
T r e a t i s e on the
35
Manas,
Middle
Way,
q u o t e d a c c . to W i l s o n , o p . c i t . , pp. 4 f . note 5 .
34.
D.T. S u z u k i ,
1930,
35.
p.
S t u d i e s in
254.
S u z u k i , o p . c i t . , p.
248.
the
Lafikävatära
Sütra,
Routledge
(London),
126
SELF
however,
develops within
(a) it reflects (manyati)
as object iyidiyate).
the citta,
in the
way:
makes citta see itself
During this process of differentiation
citta
älayavijnäna),
CONSCIOUSNESS
and it has two functions,
on citta and (b)
the one citta the karmic seeds {bija),
than
AND
(and
in this
within
stored up nowhere else
connection
usually
called
get actualized. T h e Lankävatärs Sütra puts it this
cittena
ciyate
karma...,
Karma
is
accumulated
c o n s c i o u s n e s s and structuralized by the analytical function
36
c o n s c i o u s n e s s - jiiänena
gets " e n v e l o p e d "
by
ca vidhiyate.
the
by
of
T h e result is that citta
cloud of vc7sa/?f7-formations w h i c h
Suzuki calls very appropriately "habitenergies".
In early
Buddhism these
caittas
or cetasikas
distinct realities besides the contentless citta.
were really
In Yogäcära they
are just phases in the process of c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h explica­
tes the
implicate complexity of the one citta. Therefore, in early
B u d d h i s m one moment of c o n s c i o u s n e s s is the combination of
citta
and the a c c o m p a n y i n g caittas,
w h e r e a s in Yogäcära one
moment of c o n s c i o u s n e s s is only one phase of the citta
differentiating different aspects of its o w n .
though
3 7
There are a view beautiful p a s s a g e s in the Lankävatära, and
I quote
nal
according to Suzuki ( p . 2 5 6 f . ) : " T h e Citta is in its origi­
naturel
pure,
but the
them various karmas
Manas
and others are n o t and by
are accumulated, and as the result there
are t w o sorts of impurities". ( 7 5 4 ) " O n a c c o u n t of external defile­
ments from the beginningless past the pure self is contaminated:
it is like a soiled garment w h i c h
an unintelligent man
body of the
lute,
look for a soul
c a n be c l e a n s e d " . ( 7 5 5 ) " A s
seeks for the abode of s w e e t s o u n d in the
c o n c h - s h e l l , or kettle-drum,
within
the S k a n d h a s " .
(757)
so d o e s he
This p a s s a g e
makes it quite clear that the pure citta is not to be misunder­
stood a s a kind of self or substance or individual reality
besides
anything else.
36.
Lankävatära Sütra, 1 5 8 - 3 ,
37.
A . K . C h a t t e r j e e , o p , c i t . , p.
quoted a c c . to S u z u k i , o p . c i t . , p.
113.
401.
ASPECTS
O F
SUNYATA
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
T h e citta now becomes obscure.
phenomena
127
H e n c e , the citta is full of
and experience of past karmic events, and all what
is a possible phenomenon of experience is nowhere else than in
this citta, in fact, it is citta. Even the dhätus
do not exist apart
from it i.e. they are empty of inherent existence, as the Latikävatära explicitely mentions in Sagäthakam 20. Cittamätra therefore
means the ground of all differentiation
w h i c h is beyond pheno­
menal reality, and that is w h y cittam hi sarvam, as Sagäthakam
1 3 4 has it.
But w h e n this ground (citta)
evolves
(pravartate),
all forms c o m e into (dependent) being.
T h u s , what is stated here is a radical ontological n o n - d u a ­
lism.
All forms, energies, formative
or gross matter
is nothing
but
energies, subtle realities
explication
of an
implicate
potentiality.
This, of course, is possible only on the
which
can unify
all different
b e c a u s e it allows for their
aspects
mutual
and
basis of
sünyatä
levels of
interpenetration.
reality
This, in
turn, is not just an ontological or epistemological device, but a
soteriological instrument in order to bridge not only the different
worlds of samsära
consciousness.
38
and nirvana,
but the
defiled and
undefiled
This, again, is the great insight in Mahäyana
underlying all s c h o o l s .
T h e much disputed älayavijnäna
is no " s e l f " in the sense
of an inherently existing entity at all.
It is precisely this ground
38.
i s b e c a u s e of S ü n y a t ä that the
G a r m a C . C C h a n g puts it very w e l l : " I t
merging or d i s s o l v i n g of all d u a l i t i e s is m a d e
possible.
This we
have
s e e n in the d i s c u s s i o n of the N o t - T w o D h a r m a P r i n c i p l e (or the D h a r m a gate
of
Without
non-duality)
mentioned
before
in
S ü n y a t ä , the u n i f i c a t i o n of S a m S ä r a
of the f i n i t e a n d
ment of a l l
infinity,
and
the
b e i n g s on a i l l e v e l s
a B o d h i s a t t v a are
not
Vimalakirti
interpenetration and mutual
would
r e a l i z a t i o n of E m p t i n e s s , the i n f i n i t e
the
a n d N i r v a n a , the
Sütra.
merging
contain­
not be p o s s i b l e . . . w i t h o u t the
c o m p a s s i o n a n d a l t r u i s t i c d e e d s of
possible . . . The
w a y to B u d d h a h o o d i s to d o a l l
good d e e d s w i t h a s p i r i t i m b u e d w i t h T h o r o u g h E m p t i n e s s , free from a l l
attachment".
(London),
(The
1 9 7 2 , p.
Buddhist
116f).
Teaching
of
Totality,
Allen & Unwin
128
SELF
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
of potentiality, depending on everything else.
vijnanas,
all the karmic impressions of the past.
matrix
for
the
sciousness.
functioning
But in the
Tathögata-garbha
processes of c o n ­
Lankävatära it is identified with
self, very much
Buddha's answer: " 0
No
w o n d e r that
B u d d h a whether
like
the ätman.
Mahämati
this is not a
A n d here is the
M a h ä m a t i , the doctrine of the ätman
the philosophers is not the s a m e as my teaching of the
gata-garbha.
For
(hlnyatä),
the
as the original and pure nature, the s u c h n e s s
confused and asked the
permanent
It forms, a s it w e r e , the
of all the other
of reality dormant in every being.
got
It is one of the
though the most fundamental one in so far as it stores
what
the
Tathägatas
limit of reality (bhütakoti),
appearance, no-desire (apranihita),
with w h i c h the tathägata-garbha
by
tathä-
teach is emptiness
Nirvana, no-birth, no-
and s u c h other c o n c e p t i o n s ,
is characterised, and by w h i c h
the ignorant are saved from the o c c a s i o n of cherishing a s e n s e
of fear about the Buddhist teaching of n o n - e g o . . . " .
T h e vijnanas
turn
depend
on
the älayavijnäna,
mistake phenomena for independently
instead of
levels of
realizing that they
citta.
But w h e n
and
they
in
existing "things''
all are projections of different
all the
karmic seeds in the
are stilled and eradicated, emptiness appears.
non-duality
3 9
älaya
In other w o r d s :
arises a s s o o n as the discriminating factors within
citta disappear.
T h i s is an extremely
nature of
consciousness
brief
attempt to
characterize
in Yogäcära thought,
being neglected here. I doubt that it is useful to call
a form of
the
idealism, as Suzuki does.
history of Yogäcära thought.
that V a s u b a n d h u in his Trimsatikä
cosmic
consciousness,
but
about
cittamätra
W h y ? First b e c a u s e of
It is rather well established,
does not speak about a
the
appearance of
in an individual c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i.e. in their subjectivity
39.
the
all subtleties
L a n k ä v a t ä r a S ü t r a , q u o t e d a c c . to S u z u k i , p. 2 5 9 f .
things
{ätman)
ASPECTS O F SÜNYATÄ AND CONSCIOUSNESS
and
their objectivity
40
constructs.
(dharma)
Though
Yogäcära, it is the
both of w h i c h are only mental
this, of
in
later
background of philosophical debate.
But
s e c o n d with regard to
of the
129
fully
emptiness of citta.
course, is
different
developed Y o g ä c ä r a :
an infinite continuum w h i c h has the potential of
ation,
and
because
This is c o n s c i o u s n e s s in Yogäcära:
self-differenti­
but in itself, at its deepest level it is absolutely
non-dual.
All what
differentiation.
thing",
quiet
happens, happens within this self-
But even this ground or deepest level is " n o ­
it is empty of inherent
existence, pure
process,
one
could s a y .
What
matters is not to
hold a view
of self or
Even a " v i e w of n o - s e l f " can become a fixed
no-self.
notion, a subst­
antialized mental phenomenon, and thus turn into what M a h ä y ­
ana calls "inherent
e x i s t e n c e " or s e l f !
Emptiness also must
be emptied. What remains is the continuous process of emptying.
This is the
its final
4.
nature or better
ground w h i c h
the adventure of
is n o - g r o u n d , of
consciousness,
course.
Conclusion
I will
not
examination
try
a synthesis
of the question h o w
cultural perspective.
basic
here,
I just
much
less
to proceed
would
a
critical
under a c r o s s -
like to summarize a few
distinctions w h i c h are essential for an
c o n s c i o u s n e s s in the context of sünyatä
understanding of
in M a h ä y ä n a - B u d d h i s m
without investigating the basic difference between PräsangikaMädhyamika
and
(of mind and
Yogäcära
dual citta mätra-doctrine
to s h o w the
concerning the
subtle
matter) of the first one and the
of the s e c o n d one.
implications of the w h o l e
My
dualism
radical n o n attempt is
discussion for
our
mental training on the basis of an understanding of the different
levels of
40.
c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s presented in
C p . the
e x c e l l e n t s t u d y of T r i m s a t i k ä
Buddhist
esp. pp.
9
Doctrine
170ff.
of
by
Mahäyana.
T h . A . Kochumuttom
Experience, Motilal
Banarsidass
in h i s : A
(Delhi),
1982/
130
SELF
1.
The
AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
core of all Buddhist p h i l o s o p h y is the study of
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , because it is c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h is accountable
for all actions, emotions and thoughts w h i c h are to be purified
in order to attain liberation.
to
be,
all
Whatever c o n s c i o u s n e s s is defined
philosophical
endeavour
h a s this
soteriological
motivation.
2.
C o n s c i o u s n e s s is the fundamental reality, a beginning-
less and
endless continuum of
to this continnum
meditative
both
perception.
nothing
nor from
moment
of
used
establish the
to
3.
(citta)
in
matter,
an
This is an
rationality
ocean
of
and the
in c o n s c i o u s n e s s
surface of the o c e a n .
and
In
important
belief
in
from
former
argument
rebirth.
mental
states or
with
the ripples on the
Yogäcära citta
is the o n e reality
in w h i c h all processes emerge
after their d i s a p p e a r a n c e , leave formative
processes.
direct
ground of c o n s c i o u s n e s s
different
(caitta)
or a universal c o n s c i o u s n e s s
for further
in
c a n n o t originate
and therefore its s o u r c e is a
consciousness.
with
B u d d h i s m refers
analysis
Consciousness
S o m e Sütras compare the
processes
and,
processes.
logical
traces
Even in w h a t w e call matter
(bija)
this c o n s ­
cious principle is latent, and the development of this c o n s c i o u s
principle towards full maturity,
w h i c h is B u d d h a h o o d , is the
evolutionary process in B u d d h i s m . In P r ä s a f i g i k a - M ä d h y a m i k a ,
however, there is a l w a y s an extremely
subtle mind
(in
subtle matter,
4.
Tibetan
'od
gsal,
subtle
the clear
duality of most
light)
w h i c h is its supporting energy (präna,
The essential nature of c o n s c i o u s n e s s
with regard to inherent existence (sünyata),
as process of
its o w n
luminosity
T h e most subtle level of this
lasting from
birth
into B u d d h a h o o d .
to
and
and most
rlung).
is its emptiness
it is pure potentiality
faculty of
knowing.
continuum is undestructible and
birth, being
completely
purified
right
ASPECTS
O F
5.
from
knowing.
(buddhi)
karmic
undivided
only
processes,
Here, o n e
and
attentiveness
attentiveness
can become s o
s o clear that the ultimate
The
eradication
which
a
of
the
klesas
the most
of
(svabhava).
T h i s " s e l f " tries to
substantial
fundamental
6.
What
produce
one is the
its
establish its wrong
and
differentiated
is perceived in the
illusion
hatred.
What
perception
or individuated
direct
own
identity
intensifies the
illusion, greed
problem of beings, therefore, is the w r o n g
an a b s o l u t e n e s s of
nature
purification
self as an entity of
clinging and therefore
of its existence by further
of
between
c a n be perceived directly.
karmic defilments of w h i c h
is the
information
Only by intensification and
false notion
by all sorts of
store for
but it is the active process
(/nana).
knowledge
is essentially an
a
differentiates
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s
consciousness
131
CONSCIOUSNESS
is not
and k n o w l e d g e
purification
of
AND
Consciousness
resulting
of
S U N Y A T A
perception
reality.
of
cons­
ciousness by a purified c o n s c i o u s n e s s ? T h e ultimate emptiness
of
consciousness
the
continuum
determinations
beyond
any
is perceived, i.e. the
of
whatsoever.
conceptual
beginning
and
It is their
ultimate
7.
consciousness
no
end.
has
is
level of
no
It is no s u b s t a n c e , but
perception
It
most subtle
which
and duality.
limiting
pure light
It
has no
a l w a y s present in all beings.
nature.
From a theistic point of view the Buddhist philosophy
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s and e m p t i n e s s allows a more comprehensive
view
Asian
of i all
of the
person.
What
B u d d h i s m with
phenomena
later
was
(based
on
the
on
unity of reality.
by
East-
interpenetration
Avatamsaka-Sütra)
relevance today for a unified w o r l d - v i e w .
is not self or n o - s e l f , but
fragmentation or
developed
its doctrine of mutual
has
T h e basic question
a more comprehensive l e v e l :