LSE ‘Europe in Question’ Discussion Paper Series
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market
Economies: The Spanish Case
Angela Garcia Calvo
LEQS Paper No. 73/2014
March 2014
LEQS is generously supported by the LSE Annual Fund
Editorial Board
Dr Joan Costa-i-Font
Dr Vassilis Monastiriotis
Dr Jonathan White
Dr Katjana Gattermann
All views expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent
the views of the editors or the LSE.
© Angela Garcia Calvo
2
Industrial
Upgrading
in
Mixed Market
Economies: The Spanish Case
Angela Garcia Calvo*
Abstract
This paper discusses convergence through the concept of industrial upgrading and its
application to the Spanish case. The paper explains the recent rise of Spain’s firms in high value-added service sectors and the fall in capital and skill-intensive manufacturing through
the characterisation of Spain’s institutional structure. I argue that Spain’s institutional system is defined by peer coordination (PC), a non-hierarchical form of strategic coordination based
on the presence of public-private interdependencies and direct state-business interactions.
Under PC, Spanish firms in complex services sectors enabled the state to achieve
developmental goals in exchange for sector-specific advantages that facilitated upgrading.
The absence of effective intermediary agents hindered the development of PC in
manufacturing sectors dominated by small firms. Furthermore, PC limited their access to the
patient capital and stable demand necessary to develop new, complex products. The central
state and some regional governments were able to circumvent these limitations only in
exceptional cases.
Keywords:
*
convergence, business and public policy, models of capitalism,
production systems, Spain
Collegio Carlo Alberto, Torino, Italy
Email: [email protected]
Industrial!Upgrading!in!Mixed!Market!Economies:!The!Spanish!Case!
!
Table of Contents
Abstract
1. Introduction
1
1.1 Methodology
3
2. Spain as a critical case
5
3. Conceptual bases
7
4. Argument
11
4.1 Alternative hypotheses
11
4.2 Introducing peer coordination
16
5. Contributions
22
5.1 Performance in hybrid models and complementarity
through heterogeneity
23
5.2 Integrating firm- and state-centric perspectives
24
5.3 Variants of strategic coordination
26
6. Practical implications, conclusions and future avenues for
research
29
References
33
Appendix 1: Tables
37
Appendix 2: Data sources
43
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Bob Hancke and Geoffrey Owen for their advice developing the thesis on
which this paper is based. I am also grateful to the attendants at the Seminar in Politics and
Society at the Collegio Carlo Alberto in November 14 2013 and to the LEQS anonymous
reviewer for his or her comments and suggestions on an earlier version of this paper.
!
!
Angela Garcia Calvo
Industrial
Upgrading
in
Mixed Market
Economies: The Spanish Case
1. Introduction
This paper explores the characteristics of the Spanish institutional model
through the analysis of changes in Spain’s productive structure from the mid1980s to the late 2000s. The paper speaks to political economists interested in
the nature and dynamics of different forms of capitalism. It contributes to the
literature of models of capitalism by characterising a “mixed” of hybrid institutional model, and by providing the perspective of a country that is
neither a world leader, nor a developing nation.
I examine Spain’s institutional model by asking why between the mid-1980s
and the 2000s Spanish large firms in a handful of high value-added service
sectors (banking, telecommunications, energy, and infrastructures/civil
engineering)
managed
to
transform
and
upgrade
whereas
most
manufacturing sectors, especially those that required technically skilled
labour and sustained capital investments, failed to achieve an equivalent
transformation.
The paper uses the concept of industrial upgrading to characterise the
transformation of different sectors of the Spanish economy. Upgrading is the
process by which economic actors (nations, workers, producers) move up the
Global Value Chain by generating outputs that have more value-added
invested in them because they are higher quality, are produced more
1
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
efficiently, or require more complex skills (Gereffi 2005, Gibbon and Ponte
2005, Gereffi and Fernandez-Stark 2011). The concept of upgrading implies
that higher returns at the firm or sector level will lead to improvements in
national socioeconomic conditions (Milberg and Wrinkler 2010). This
connection between firm- and national-level outcomes confers upgrading a
national dimension that likens it to development. However the concept
remains broad enough to be applicable to “second world” industrialised countries that aim to close the gap with the world’s richest countries, as was
the case with Spain.
My argument is based on an institutional perspective. I contend that
upgrading in Spain’s high value-added services was enabled by a national
institutional structure defined by Peer Coordination (PC). PC was a nonhierarchical variant of non-market or strategic coordination among economic
actors based on the presence of public-private interdependencies and direct
business-state interactions. PC constituted an offer of conditional, mutual
support by which firms in service sectors complemented the state’s strategic planning and financial limitations in exchange for sector-specific advantages.
Under this quid pro quo arrangement, the state was able to reclaim policymaking powers that had historically been delegated to private or quasiprivate firms, fulfil developmental goals, such as universalising public
utilities in the 1980s and 1990s, and carry out the generational change that
defined Spain’s political and economic transitions. In exchange, large, wellestablished firms in service sectors maintained control of the home market
and were able to undertake far-reaching structural transformations.
PC was less likely to flourish in skill- and capital-intensive manufacturing
sectors dominated by small and medium enterprises (SMEs). These sectors
depended more on what the state could do less well: mobilise organisational
2
Angela Garcia Calvo
resources and provide stable capital. Furthermore, for historical reasons,
Spain’s intermediary agents (unions, employer organisations) lacked a tradition of participating in firm’s strategic decision-making processes and of
acting as bridges among small firms, and between them and the state. Finally,
PC in service sectors like banking and telecommunications made it difficult
for skill- and capital-intensive manufacturing firms to access the patient
capital and stable demand they needed to develop new, complex products,
compounding the obstacles to upgrading. In exceptional cases, however, the
central state and some regional governments were able to circumvent these
limitations.
The paper concludes that Spain’s institutional model generated a dual economic structure in which support concentrated in a few sectors, whereas
many others were left to fend for themselves and often failed. Changes in
Spain’s production structure derived from this model translated into low demand for labour with technical skills, and a heavy base of labour with little
beyond basic education. As of 2014, such a labour structure threatens shortterm economic recovery and long-term sustainable growth. It leaves Spain
with two options: transforming its institutional model to provide support for
a wider range of sectors, or lowering labour costs to compete with less
developed economies. The choice between these two options will ultimately
determine whether Spain can maintain its status as an advanced economy.
1.1 Methodology
The paper combines micro- and macroeconomic analysis to connect the firmand sector-centric nature of upgrading with the institutional ecosystem in
which it took place. Insights are based on in-depth qualitative case studies
that explore the structure of key sectors over time and evaluate the
3
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
contribution
of
diverse
institutions
(specialised
bureaucracy
bodies,
regulators, and industry associations) to changes in performance. In each case,
the analysis starts by looking at upgrading from the outcome. Then, it
proceeds to reverse-engineer the process of upgrading to unpack the
institutional factors that shaped it. Comparisons across several case studies
are used reveal systemic patterns and draw national-level conclusions.
Cases are taken from three sectors: banking, telecommunications, and
professional electronics. These sectors were selected for their skill- and
capital-intensity, density of connections to other sectors, and centrality to
Spain’s economy. These features were identified as signals that sector-level
upgrading could unleash national economic transformation through
interdependencies with adjacent industries.
The literature on models of capitalism (Whitley 1999 , Hall and Soskice 2001,
Amable 2003) attributes to the structure of financial markets a substantial role
in the definition of a national model of capitalism. Therefore, the banking
sector was selected as the key sector through which to introduce the concept
of peer coordination. However, banking is a highly technical and specialised
sector. Therefore, to prevent the particularities of the banking industry from
driving the conclusions of the analysis, the paper uses evidence from a second
sector, telecommunication services. This second case helps generalise
conclusions to a broader set of high value-added service sectors. Finally, I use
evidence from three mini-cases in the professional electronics sector
(telecommunications, defence, and industrial electronics) to evaluate the
impact of PC on skill- and capital-intensive manufacturing, and to explore the
contribution of regional institutions to upgrading. Overall, the analysis relies
on within-sector cross-country comparisons with the UK, Germany, and
4
Angela Garcia Calvo
France to reveal the distinct features of Spain’s institutional structure, and to situate Spain in a broader constellation of different models of capitalism.
In its present form, this paper frames the debate, presents the argument
summarily, and outlines the contributions of a book-length project. It also
discusses the practical implications of the findings in the context of the
economic crisis that started in 2008. This paper should be seen as an
introduction to the book, a summary of its main conclusions, and an
instrument to stimulate further discussion about convergence. The remainder
of this paper is structured as follows: Part two contextualises the Spanish case.
Part three outlines the conceptual bases of the argument. Part four presents
the argument and discusses alternative hypotheses. Part five summarises
theoretical contributions, and part six discusses practical implications and
concludes.
2. Spain as a critical case
Spain industrialised rapidly in the 1960s through a Fordist model based on
mass production of standard manufactures and sheltered service sectors.
However, by the 1980s, new technologies, advances in transport, and lower
barriers to trade and capital movements had transformed manufacturing
production and high value-added service sectors, placing Spain’s production structure under stress.
Spain’s European Union (EU) membership in 1986 brought about the rapid
opening of many product markets and a large influx of foreign investment.
This initially enabled Spain to reorient manufacturing sectors toward the
export market without significantly increasing the value-added of their
5
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
outputs. However, by the early 1990s, the EU decisions to integrate Central
and Eastern Europe into the EU and to liberalise service sectors increased the
pressure for Spain to change its productive structure. The country was now at
risk of losing the market for standard, low-cost manufactures to lower-cost
competitors from Eastern Europe. In addition, Spain stood to lose local
control of liberalised services sectors to more sophisticated Western European
investors looking to expand into the Peninsula. The only feasible alternative
for Spain to maintain or improve its hard-earned standard of living was to
upgrade. This implied entering segments where outputs could not be easily
replicated by producers from emerging markets, and improving processes
and operations to compete effectively with sophisticated rivals.
By the mid-2000s, Spanish firms in a few high value-added service sectors had
become world-class players, but productivity and comparative advantages in
most manufacturing sectors were flat or negative. Such an outcome was
unexpected. As Tables 5, 6, 9, and 10 (in the Appendix) show, Spanish firms in
services started from positions of disadvantage in terms of size, resources,
productivity, quality of service, and international scope. Upgrading in these
sectors
required
deep
process
adjustments;
costly
organisational
restructuration; and changes in firm strategies that were complex, risky, and
had long-term horizons. On the other hand, manufacturing in the early 1980s
represented a high share of Spain’s GDP, yet, it dropped more steeply than in
any other large European economy, including the UK (see Table 11 in the
Appendix).
Why did the Spanish productive structure transform the way it did? Why
were high value-added services much more successful than most
manufactures? What type of institutional structure shaped this trajectory?
6
Angela Garcia Calvo
3. Conceptual bases
The paper relies on a group of firm-centric contributions and on the statist
literature to identify the state and large firms as the key catalysts of
upgrading, and to establish that the key to the process lies in the structure of
interactions between these two actors.
According to Porter (1990), firms are indispensable contributors to upgrading
because they are responsible for the decisions that result in superior, more
complex outputs, more efficient processes, and effective organisational
structures. However, this paper deviates from the management literature by
contending that states are as essential to upgrading as firms. The concept of
upgrading assumes a change in a country’s productive specialisation, which in turn needs to be based on a shift in a nation’s resource endowment. States’ overarching capacities to undertake public investment and provide basic
collective goods, and their responsibility toward the common welfare, place
them in a unique position to modify a country’s resource endowment and therefore contribute to upgrading.
Rodrik (2011) argues that some sectors are more likely than others to act as
catalysts for development. He calls these elevator sectors because they
accelerate the rate at which a country can absorb ideas and new knowledge.
Rodrik identifies manufacturing sectors such as automotive, metals, and
machinery as elevators. However, he does not establish a set of characteristics
that
define
elevator
sectors
more
generally.
This
paper
combines
contributions from other authors to fill in this gap. It identifies four defining
features of elevator sectors: high skill and capital intensity, density of
connections to other sectors, centrality to a country’s economy, and in some instances, industry concentration. The paper works on the assumption that
7
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
any sector that fulfils these requirements, whether in manufacturing or
services, could help support a broader process of upgrading and
socioeconomic development.
Amsden (1989) discards low-capital and low-skill sectors as catalysts of
upgrading because they can maximise and sustain their profits over relatively
long periods of time through capacity expansion rather than costly qualitative
changes. Low skills are also difficult to apply to other activities and offer low
potential for diversification. Rodrik and Hausmann (2006) and Hidalgo (2009)
argue that industries with deep linkages to other sectors are more likely to
transform a whole economy by transmitting change through proximity and
interdependence mechanisms. The Resource Based View literature (Dierickx
and Cool 1989, Barney 1991 and 2001, Peteraf 1993, and Whitley 1999)
contends that centrality to a country’s economy -or control over imperfectly
mobile strategic resources (physical, human, organisational)- increases the
likelihood that a firm can develop strategies that lead to sustainable growth.
Finally, Zysman (1983) adds that sectors dominated by a few large firms are
more likely to unravel investment patterns in physical or market
infrastructures that generate systemic benefits.
However, Zysman’s argument needs to be qualified because it runs against
evidence from Germany, where midsize firms are engines of innovation and
sustainable wealth. According to Streek (1991) and Herrigel (1996), small and
medium firms can play such a role when three conditions converge: a
universe of several equally efficient competitors; a high-trust climate
conducive to transversal alliances across competitors; and socialisation of risk
through collective organisations, such as regional governments, regional
banks, technical schools, and trade associations. Consequently, elevator
8
Angela Garcia Calvo
sectors will be characterised by market concentration only in contexts where
these preconditions are absent or where there are no functional equivalents.
Similarly, not all states are equally likely to spearhead change. Contributions
from the state-centric literature identify competence, autonomy, and financial
resources
as
three crucial factors that influence state’s efficiency. Rueschemeyer and Evans (1985) define competence as the ability to pull in
organisational capabilities, knowledge, and skills through a cohesive
bureaucracy with common orientations, assumptions, and expertise. Skocpol
(1985) defines autonomy as the ability to develop goals and insights free from
pressure from other elites. However, it is unclear what guarantees autonomy
and studies of French developmentalism (Hancke 2001, Loriaux 2003)
question whether it requires structural separation between civil servants and
entrepreneurial groups. Skocpol (1985) also points out the importance of
financial resources and the flexibility in their collection and use, especially for
undertaking capital-intensive projects.
The presence of a capable state and firms in elevator sectors alone is not
sufficient to explain upgrading. Building on Teece and Pisano’s (1998) relational view of the firm, this paper contends that the key to upgrading lies
in the way the two actors articulate their interactions. The literature has
developed a variety of taxonomies that define coordination across economic
actors. Despite the nuances of different classifications, they all tend to capture
the same dichotomy between mechanisms that operate via spot market
arrangements in response to price signals, and those in which coordination is
based on negotiations among groups of insiders. To facilitate the discussion,
this paper uses Hall and Soskice’s (2001) terminology and calls these two forms of coordination market and strategic coordination, respectively.
However, this paper introduces a variation, based on Williamson’s (1975) 9
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
argument, to contend that there are at least two variants of strategic
coordination: hierarchical and peer-group, depending on whether one actor is
subordinate to the other.
Although the VoC literature does not consider the role of an actor’s capabilities in consolidating a certain form of coordination, this paper
contends that different variants of strategic coordination make important
assumptions about the roles and characteristics of firms and the state. In the
hierarchical variant, the state is the primary agent of economic change, and
firms become instruments for policy implementation. The state in this variant
is assumed to have a highly competent, autonomous bureaucracy and
substantial financial resources. Firms are kept dependent on the state through
state control of key resources, such as capital and licenses, and through tight
networks of insiders who straddle the high echelons of public policy making,
the civil service, and large firms. By contrast, the peer-group variant is based
on the presence of interdependences among economic actors. Each actor is
incapable of undertaking change on its own; but it has unique capabilities the
other needs. States in these systems lack one or more of the attributes that
would make them effective (competence, autonomy, or financial resources),
and firms possess the corresponding attribute or attributes the state needs.
This paper also departs from the VoC’s expectation that national economies can be defined by a single institutional structure based on national-level
institutions. This approach is considered too limiting to “map” highly decentralised economies such as Spain’s. Instead, the paper complements the
traditional national-level analysis with a subnational perspective to examine
the contribution of regional institutions to upgrading.
10
Angela Garcia Calvo
4. Argument
This section outlines and discusses alternative hypotheses before presenting
the paper’s argument in detail.
4.1 Alternative hypotheses
There are two main interpretations of Spain’s economic transformation, each of which contends that the relationship between the state and large firms was
dominated by one of these two actors. Under the firm-driven explanation,
firms in high value-added service sectors would have achieved upgrading
through competition thanks to advantages in project evaluation, execution,
and negotiation skills (Guillen 2005, Guillen and Garcia-Canal 2010). Firms in
most manufacturing sectors would have been unable to counter cost and
product-quality competition, leading to stagnation and decline. Under the
alternative state-driven explanation (Chislett 2003, Rozas Barbotin 2008,
Martinez 2008), Spain’s state would have driven upgrading by defining,
directing, and shaping the strategy of large firms.
The firm-driven explanation finds support in Spain’s two periods of privatisation: 1983–1985 and 1997–1998; the liberal background of most of its
economists; two waves of banking mergers—one that followed the 1977–1985
banking crisis and another around the introduction of the Euro in 1999; and
the rapid expansion of Spanish banks and the telecommunications incumbent
to Latin America, where Spain’s recent experience could have been a source of
competitive advantage.
On closer examination, the firm-driven hypothesis weakens. Competition in
high value-added services required institutional changes to create markets in
11
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
sectors that had remained under control of former local oligopolies or public
monopolies. This required at least the separation between policy-making and
policy-implementation functions and, often also, that of service provision
functions. Spain initiated the privatisation of the public telecommunications
operator early on: by 1987, the state only held a 20% stake in Telefonica.
However, the country failed to develop an institutional environment that
guaranteed competition. The Spanish Telecommunications Bill of 1987 stated
that telecommunications were “essential services, owned by the state and
managed by the public sector”. It wasn’t until 1997 that the sector regulator was created, and since its inception, it has been heavily criticised for a lack of
independence from the government (Marti del Moral 2000, Molinas 2013,
Garicano 2014). Similarly, in the banking sector, Spain went to great lengths to
limit competition between Spanish large banks and foreign rivals by imposing
heavy constraints on the expansion of foreign banks (Royal Decree 1388/1978).
Until 1993, only four foreign banks operated in Spain whereas in 1985 the
number of foreign banks operating in France was 147, in Germany 287, and in
Italy 40 (White 1998).
The claim that the Latin American expansion of Spanish banks and the
telecommunications operator was based on pre-existing competitive
advantages is also hard to sustain. When Spanish banks initiated their
international expansion in 1992, they had feeble pre-existing international
structures, they were significantly smaller, and they had limited experience
with internal or external competition. These features were a result of Spain’s late industrial development, the closed nature of its economy until EU
accession in 1986, the smaller size of the Spanish economy1, and the legacy of
Francoism2. Similarly, Tables 6, 9, and 10 (in the Appendix) show that, when
1
2
Spain’s GDP was 50% of Germany’s GDP in 1985 (World Bank, own calculations).
Franco vetoed mergers among large banks, and none occurred until 1987.
12
Angela Garcia Calvo
Telefonica initiated its international expansion in 1989, it had few competitive
advantages in project execution or satisfying unmet demand. Between 1985
and 1996, Telefonica added 6.1 million new lines, but these figures are small
compared to Germany’s 18 million or France’s and the UK’s 9 million. Moreover, waiting lists for service continued to increase in Spain until 1989,
by which time they had disappeared in most developed economies (Table 10
in the Appendix).
Finally, the assumption that manufacturing sectors declined because they
could no longer compete in costs is simplistic. As Spain’s cost advantage eroded in standard manufactured outputs, firms could have remained
competitive by offsetting higher costs with higher value through increases in
product complexity and productivity. However, Spain never invested heavily
in research and development to support new product development. In 1985,
Spain invested only 0.6% of its GDP in research and development, and it
peaked at 1.3% of GDP in 2007. This contrasts sharply with Korea’s experience, a classic case of manufacturing upgrading, which invested an
average of 2.5% of its annual GDP in research and development for 1985-2007
(OECD 2012). In addition, Table 13 (in the Appendix) shows that labour
productivity declined in most manufacturing sectors. Given Spain’s reduced investment in innovation, and overall productivity decline, it is not surprising
that manufacturing declined. The question is why Spanish firms took no
measures to address it.
The state-directed hypothesis is supported by evidence of high-profile
personal relationships between top government officials and company CEOs,
firm internationalisation patterns heavily focused on Latin America, the
existence of national plans to modernise sectors like electronics, the use of
executive decisions to allocate telecommunication licenses, and public
13
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
procurement practices that favoured local firms. However, a more detailed
analysis shows that the Spanish state lacked the willingness, the strategic
capabilities, and the financial resources necessary to articulate state-directed
upgrading. In most cases, PC in complex service sectors also prevented the
state from playing a more active role.
After the strong Socialist Party victory in the 1982 election, the incoming
government replaced any remaining Opus Dei3 planners in office with liberal
economists trained at the Central Bank. This group of economists had been
vocally critical of the planner’s methods and had little inclination to use strategic planning. In addition, up to the early 1980s, the state had delegated
policy-making functions in banking and telecommunications directly or
indirectly to large firms. As a result, the state initially lacked the competences,
and sometimes the specialised manpower, to undertake policy-making
functions independently from large firms. For instance, although Spain’s Central Bank was considered the home base of Spain’s economic elite, it lacked the tools to exercise monetary policy. Until the early 1980s, Spain did
not have an interbank lending market, a necessary feature to exercise
monetary policy through interest rates. The alternative approach, based on
control of the monetary base, required an agreement with large banks, which
increased the monetary base through their regular credit operations. The case
of telecommunications is even clearer. Until 1986, the telecommunications
sector was regulated through a contract between Telefonica and the state.
There was neither a dedicated ministry for telecommunications nor a
secretariat (the hierarchical level directly below that of minister), and there
was no specialised civil service body. Although the state was represented on
Opus Dei is a Spanish-founded Orthodox Catholic organisation whose members are encouraged
to participate actively in public service at the highest levels, often supported through the Opus’ extensive financial resources and personal networks. Opus members had played significant roles
in Francoists governments in the 1960s and 1970s, introducing multiannual planning strategies
inspired by the French model.
3
14
Angela Garcia Calvo
the board of directors of the operator, strategic decisions were taken directly
by Telefonica, who negotiated on behalf of Spain at intergovernmental
organisations like the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
Finally, the state lacked the financial means to implement capital-intensive
plans linked to public policy objectives. Instead, large firms were usually
responsible for the implementation of public strategies that aimed to address
critical episodes and overhaul basic infrastructures. For example, during the
1977–1985 banking crisis, Royal Decree 3048/1977, RD 54/1978, and RD-Law
4/1980 made large banks responsible for providing the funds and the
expertise to rescue the 51 banks that required support. Similarly, in
telecommunications, RD 2248/1984 established the framework for the
universalisation of telephony services between 1985 and 1996 but attributed
the articulation of specific plans, decisions over deadlines, development of
technical solutions, and 75% of funding to Telefonica.
Evidence of a conventional state-directed approach is even scarcer in skilland capital-intensive manufacturing sectors, like electronics. After repeated
demands from industry representatives, the state approved two successive
biannual National Electronics Plans in 1984 and 1987. These plans achieved
their stated goals, but they were not the protectionist instruments the industry
demanded. More than four-fifths of the investments, production, and exports
associated with them corresponded to foreign firms (De Diego 1995). Foreign
direct investment had little positive impact on upgrading for local firms, and
some of the largest projects were linked to legal provisions that limited
spillover effects (Ministerial Order of 5 June 1985). In addition, competition
with more sophisticated foreign rivals hurt Spanish firms, forcing most of
them to downsize and many to sell their interests to foreign investors (Cubero
Postillo 1992, El Pais 1995).
15
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
Finally, with a few exceptions, the Spanish state did not use public or semipublic firms as proxies for public policies to support ancillary manufacturing
sectors. In telecommunications for instance, the state helped the incumbent
operator broker agreements with foreign investors to sell its industrial arm.
The state also failed to take any measures to prevent Telefonica from
substituting historical procurement policies based on contract allocation to
historical providers with practices based on competitive tenders (CSIC,
Cubero Postillo 1992, focus groups transcripts, Interview4).
4.2 Introducing peer coordination
This paper contends that upgrading in Spain’s complex services was enabled by peer coordination. PC is a non-hierarchical, variant of strategic
coordination based on the presence of interdependencies among economic
actors. It works through a system of direct exchanges of sensitive information
among small groups at decision-making and working levels within the state
and large firms.
As it evolved in the Spanish context, PC was based on the presence of
functional interdependencies and complementarities between the public and
private spheres. The financial and organisational resources of large, wellestablished firms complemented state weaknesses in these areas and enabled
the state to undertake crucial policy reforms, address sector-specific crises,
and overhaul critical infrastructures. In exchange for their contributions, large
firms involved in this system benefited from non-neutral regulation that
enabled them to implement deep restructuration plans, secure large market
shares, and substitute an older generation of decision makers during a crucial
4
Jose Luis Adanero
16
Angela Garcia Calvo
transformational period. Behind PC stood a developmental state that aimed to
modernise Spain between 1982 and 1996 through a strategy based on the
universalisation of basic services (healthcare, basic education, electricity,
telephony service) and the development of communication infrastructures
(road, train, water) (Organic Law8/1985), but which often lacked the
competences, manpower, and financial resources to achieve these goals
autonomously. The state’s initial weaknesses however, should not be
interpreted to mean that the state could be easily controlled by large firms. In
fact, from the mid- 1980s until the 2000s, the state strengthened its position
vis-à-vis firms in high value-added service sectors, progressively recovering
policy-making powers that had historically been delegated to firms, and
expanding civil service capacity with the creation of new civil service
branches.
Two additional features inherited from Francoism defined the context in
which PC developed in Spain. The first was the existence of a fragmented elite
structure, which the Francoist regime had actively fostered to prevent any
single interest group from overshadowing the dictator. The elite were
fragmented based on specialised groups with relatively narrow fields of
action in either the public or private spheres. The second feature was the
limited role of social intermediaries and professional interest groups in
corporate decision-making. Unions had been effectively banned until 1977,
and once legalised, they focused fundamentally on negotiating beneficial
working conditions for employees with permanent contracts. Similarly,
associational activities remained restricted until the democratic transition in
the late 1970s.
PC was different from other variants of strategic coordination. Differentiating
the Spanish from the French institutional structure was Spain’s chronic state 17
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
deficit, the position of privately owned banks as the main financiers of
industrial activity, and the lack of cohesive elites straddling the higher
echelons of the public and private sectors. These features diminished the
capacity of the Spanish state to design and implement multi-annual strategic
plans that required extensive coordination across the civil services and
severely limited the state’s ability to use firms as subordinated instruments of public policy. Distinguishing Spain’s structure from German-style
coordination was the lack of involvement of labour intermediaries and
professional associations in corporate decision-making. Instead, the state and
firms in the Spanish system managed their interactions directly through highlevel contacts between executives and public sector officials, an approach that
benefited large firms in concentrated sectors over SMEs.
The strategic planning and financial limitations of Spain’s state, and the limited role of social intermediaries help explain why PC thrived in
concentrated infrastructure sectors, such as banking and telecommunications,
but was less likely to flourish and support upgrading in skill- and capitalintensive manufacturing sectors. The state’s lack of financial means was not an obstacle for leading firms in the banking or telecommunications sectors
because their average size, publicly listed nature, and historical trajectories
enabled firms in these two sectors to raise funds through the financial
markets. In addition, the state’s weak planning capacities granted private firms enough freedom to elaborate strategies that helped fulfil public
objectives without compromising the firms’ priorities. By contrast, most Spanish firms operating in skill- and capital-intensive sectors had severely
limited or no independent financial and organisational capacity for new
product development (Orkestra 2012). Those that did often concentrated on
low- and mid-value-added segments, lacked critical mass, and had little
exposure to foreign markets. Therefore, manufacturing firms depended more
18
Angela Garcia Calvo
on what the state could do less well: elaborate and implement long-term
plans, facilitate access to patient capital and stable demand, ease
internationalisation processes, and provide access to shared research facilities
for the development of new complex products. Finally, market concentration
meant that firms in complex service sectors could (and probably preferred to)
communicate
with
the
state
directly,
without
using
intermediary
organisations to aggregate the sector’s interests and play the role of interlocutors. In contrast, SMEs needed a platform of intermediary agents
through which they could articulate sector-wide positions and manage
interactions with the state.
Skill- and capital-intensive manufacturing sectors also suffered the negative
externalities derived from PC in complex service sectors. The case of
telecommunications
electronics
illustrates
how
PC
in
banking
and
telecommunications made it difficult for manufacturing firms to access the
credit, patient capital, and stable demand they needed to develop new,
complex products through which to upgrade. By virtue of the quid pro quo
arrangement that defined PC in the banking sector from the late 1970s, large
banks agreed to restrict credit to curb inflation and accepted a reform package
that strengthened the powers of the Central Bank, and set the sector on a
future path to liberalisation. In return, large banks maintained control of the
internal market and obtained the progressive elimination of mandatory
investment coefficients. Lack of banking competition and credit restraint
enabled banks to charge high interest rates for loans, which exacerbated the
liquidity problems of telecommunication equipment firms. In addition,
decreasing investment coefficients enabled banks to divest from industrial
investments that did not offer immediate profit prospects, as opposed to
forging long-term strategic alliances with manufacturing firms based on the
provision of patient capital.
19
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
In addition, the arrangement between Telefonica and the state meant that the
operator assumed responsibility for the universalisation of the public
telecommunications network, and relinquished its policy-making attributions,
in exchange for strategic independence and legal protection from competition.
Under these conditions, the state was unlikely to force Telefonica to support
local producers through preferential allocation of purchasing orders, as
France did (Owen 2013), or force the operator to maintain its industrial arm.
In absence of state pressure, Telefonica preferred to divest from a sector that
lacked enough technological capacity to develop next-generation network
equipment (Telefonica Annual Reports).
The state, however, was able to overcome PC’s negative externalities when the political climate favoured direct state intervention, the state could rely
directly on its own organisational and financial capabilities, and local firms
had some independent capacity for new product development. As the case of
Defence electronic shows, in such situations the state took a textbook
industrial policy approach consisting of capital injections, incentivised
mergers, allocation of public contracts, and public appointments, despite
opposition from some of the firms involved.
After the failed military coup of 1981, the modernisation of the Spanish armed
forces was considered critical to the stability of Spain’s new democracy (El
Pais 1982). To carry out this objective, military budgets increased sevenfold
between 1982 and 1991 (Telos 1995). Investment programs included the
development and purchase of a new air surveillance system, a project
entrusted to Ceselsa, the only Spanish defence firm that developed its own
technology. Between 1986 and 1993, in preparation for EU’s Single Market, the Ministry of Industry aimed to reorganise the Spanish defence sector
20
Angela Garcia Calvo
through a merger between Ceselsa and a group of state-owned defence firms.
To overcome Ceselsa’s reticence, the Ministry tied the purchase of the air surveillance system, on which Ceselsa had invested millions, to the merger
with the state-owned group (Expansion 2013). Driven into financial dire
straits, Ceselsa agreed to the merger in 1992. Between 1994 and 1998, the new
company, Indra, received 15,000 million pesetas as part of a restructuration
plan that aimed to prepare it for full privatisation (SEPI). By 2012, Indra
embodied
success
in
complex,
capital-intensive,
high
value-added
technology, obtaining 3,000 million Euros in revenue and employing 42,000
people worldwide.
Finally, under exceptional circumstances, regional governments developed
institutional frameworks tailored to the needs of manufacturing sectors
underserved by the national system to support upgrading. The case of
industrial electronics in the Basque Country is perhaps the most
representative. The Basque institutional structure revolves around a network
of intermediary entities, including an industrial development agency;
specialised technology centres; regional savings banks; technical schools;
higher-education institutions; and cluster associations that help firms gain
access to patient capital, enter into collaborative-competitive arrangements
with other firms, take part in product development platforms, access suitably
skilled labour, and communicate effectively with the regional government.
This structure helped increase the sophistication of industrial electronics
outputs in Basque SMEs and place the Basque Country, a region of only 2
million people, among the world’s largest producers of manufacturing technologies, especially machine tools (see Table 14 in the Appendix).
However, the Basque model is unlikely to be replicated across Spain, because
it was based on exceptional conditions. Among these stands out the
21
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
“Concierto Economico”, a special fiscal regime that attributes the capacity to collect taxes to the three Basque provincial governments and most spending
decisions to the regional government. All except one other region in Spain
(Navarre, historically linked to the Basque Country) lack equivalent taxing
capacity. In the mid-1980s, the division of responsibilities that characterises
the Concierto led to a political schism, which was resolved in favour of a
faction that preferred a collaborative structure across the local, provincial, and
regional levels of government (as opposed to the centralisation of all powers
in the regional government). That collaborative framework was then extended
to the economic sphere, fostering the interlocked structure that supported
upgrading in industrial electronics.
5. Contributions
Spain’s combination of high- and low-performing sectors and the presence of
complementary institutional systems based on different forms of coordination
challenge the VoC literature’s general assumption of underperformance in hybrid
institutional
models
and
the
identification
of
institutional
complementarity with institutional homogeneity. In addition, PC’s nonhierarchical, multi-agent structure calls for better integration between firmcentric and state-centric views. Finally, the peculiarities of PC relative to other
forms of strategic coordination indicate a need for more detailed analyses of
economic models based on strategic coordination. The rest of this section
develops these themes.
22
Angela Garcia Calvo
5.1 Performance in hybrid models and complementarity through
heterogeneity
The VoC literature (Hall and Soskice 2001, Hall and Gringerich 2009)
concentrates fundamentally on national-level institutions. It also identifies
institutional coherence with institutional homogeneity- the application of the
same form of coordination across several spheres of the economy.
Homogeneous systems are associated with the generation of advantages that
enable firms to perform certain types of activities more efficiently, whereas
hybrid systems are expected to perform less efficiently.
Spain’s analysis does not undermine the idea that institutional systems need to be internally coherent to generate advantage; both PC and the Basque
regional structure are based on a single form of coordination and highperforming sectors are closely aligned with each of the systems. However, by
showing that Spain has a primary system and at least one subnational
structure, the paper challenges the assumption that a political economy
should be defined by a single institutional system. The contribution of
subnational institutional systems to upgrading in the Spanish case also
suggests that approaches based solely on national-level institutions have
limitations for the analysis of highly decentralised economies.
The presence of two self-contained, internally coherent institutional systems
based on different forms of coordination challenges the conventional view
that advantage can only stem from institutional homogeneity and that
institutional heterogeneity is to be considered a primary cause of economic
under-performance. In Spain, the primary institutional structure operates
through direct reciprocal exchanges between the central state and large firms,
23
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
whereas the Basque structure relies on a dense network of intermediary
agents to articulate the relationship between SMEs and the regional
government. The two systems are complementary rather than antithetical
because each supports different types of economic activities and firms,
thereby increasing the total number of sectors that receive institutional
support for upgrading. Two features ensure that the national and regional
system do not undermine each other. First, the distribution of powers
between the central and regional governments enshrined in the Constitution
guarantees that policy-making powers associated with banks, infrastructures,
and utilities are not decentralised. Second, the Basque government has
political incentives to support sectors that are underserved by the national
system: these sectors constitute the economic backbone of the region and are
directly associated with the powerful Basque entrepreneurial class which
supports the nationalist party. This party has ruled the region, almost
uninterruptedly since 1980. As a result, upgrading continues to be an effective
political took for the Basque political elite.
5.2 Integrating firm- and state-centric perspectives
The firm-centric literature places firms at the centre of economic analysis
because of their role as generators of wealth. The role of the state in firmcentric frameworks is unclear, although it is presumably vicarious to that of
firms. By contrast, the statist literature identifies the state as the main catalyst
for economic transformation and places firms in a second plane. This paper’s argument speaks in favour of integrating these two positions and considering
the possibility that both states and firms can be co-responsible for upgrading
through a non-hierarchical, interdependent relationship.
24
Angela Garcia Calvo
This paper argues that large, established Spanish firms in banking and
telecommunications not only engaged in a relationship with the state, but also
needed the state’s unique capabilities as negotiator, legislator, and advocate to
upgrade. Therefore, evidence from Spain supports the argument that while
firms are the cornerstones of economic transformation due to their ability to
generate wealth, states are equally necessary to stimulate and orchestrate
changes in the country’s resource endowment, a prerequisite of upgrading. Liberalisation and globalisation have affected states’ ability to exercise power over firms through conventional avenues such as control over suppliers, price
regulation, and explicit trade barriers everywhere, but states maintain unique
competences and capabilities specific to each of these sectors such as
supervision and day-to-day control over competition, that continue to make
them indispensable.
The institutionalist literature is based on the idea that institutions are the
result of a negotiated process between the actors involved. Yet, the Hall and
Soskice (2001) approach does not consider how the resources and capabilities
of economic actors influence their positions in the negotiation game. This
paper suggests that integrating the firm-centric and statist views requires
taking into account the capabilities and resources of economic actors in their
national context and viewing these capabilities as complementary. Spain’s PC developed within a historical context defined by the state’s chronic lack of capital, historical delegation of governance functions to the private sector, late
economic development, a concentration of economic elites in a handful of
protected sectors, and recent political and economic transitions. These factors
determined the relative strengths and weaknesses of the state and large firms,
the range of options available for coordination between them, and the choices
adopted. The state’s willingness to make concessions to firms depended on its
ability to accomplish policy objectives through its own resources. When firms’ 25
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
resources complemented the state’s own and helped further public policy goals, the state was willing to offer firms favourable regulation and to support
their restructuration. The state was willing to make these offers despite the
fact that PC prevented the state from providing more substantial support to
smaller, more vulnerable firms in a large number of manufacturing sectors.
This decision was consistent with a modernisation strategy based on the
universalisation of basic services and with Spain’s integration in the EU. Large firms entered into PC because the agreements enabled them to protect
their home market positions and undertake deep restructurations that they
deemed essential to compete in a wider European market. The SMEs that
suffered the negative externalities of PC could do little to object; they did not
control strategic resources through which they could exercise leverage, and
they lacked a platform to articulate their demands. In the exceptional cases
when the state had sufficient autonomous planning and financial resources to
fulfil its developmental policy objectives independently it did not take a peergroup approach. Instead, it adopted a conventional top-down industrial
policy approach.
5.3 Variants of strategic coordination
According to the VoC literature, firms in CMEs depend heavily on strategic
relationships to build their core competencies. Strategic coordination
“generally entails more extensive relational or incomplete contracting,
network monitoring based on the exchange of private information inside
networks, and more reliance on collaborative, as opposed to competitive,
relationships” (Hall and Soskice 2001). Although this definition of strategic
coordination is broad, in practice the literature has considered the German
institutional model as the CME paradigm.
26
Angela Garcia Calvo
This paper challenges such identification by suggesting that strategic
coordination can adopt different forms. Spain’s PC specifically, emerged as a structure in which policy making, policy implementation, and service
provision functions are not clearly separated but rather determined through
negotiation among several groups of elite civil servants and private sector
decision-makers.
Unlike Germany, intermediary agents were absent from decision-making
roles in Spain, and the state disengaged from direct intervention in firms
based on ownership or board-level representation. In addition, Spain’s public service lacked the organisational skills of its French counterpart, in part as a
result of Spain’s specialised and siloed civil service structure.
These characteristics translated into a specific set of constraints and
advantages for firms in terms of market share; restructuration; relationships
with adjacent sectors; and participation in programs and services with
redistributional aims such as the universalisation of telephony services.
Generally, PC underscored the capacity of large firms in banking and
telecommunications to maintain large market shares in established segments
and to establish solid positions in emerging segments, while minimising
constraints related to restructuration and long-term relationships with clients
and equipment suppliers.
Although PC was linked to the public objectives of developmental state, it did
not
compromise
the
priorities
of
Spanish
firms
in
banking
and
telecommunications (profit generation and internal transformation). As a
result, large firms were able to overcome historical deficiencies and reach the
efficiency frontier. These advantages came at the expense of skill- and capitalintensive manufacturing sectors that needed patient capital and steady
27
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
demand to develop more complex products. Furthermore, as the state
prioritised PC, there was no significant national effort to build a common
platform to help atomised sectors overcome their limitations. Instead, the
state opted to incentivise foreign investment in these sectors, and often helped
broker arrangements between local firms and foreign buyers.
These findings call for a more detailed characterisation of institutional
structures based on strategic coordination to identify the implications of
different variants. Analyses should include complex services in addition to
manufacturing sectors. Although manufacturing is an important part of the
economy of any country, the Spanish example shows that complex service
sectors, like banking and telecommunications, are also central to any economy
because of their thick network of interconnections to virtually all other
sectors, the types of outputs they generate, and their capital and skill
intensity. This argument challenges two types of conventional views
regarding complex services. The first identifies some of them, and especially
the financial sector, as “part and parcel” to specific models of capitalism (Zysman 1983) but does not consider them as a productive sector in its own
right. The second view (Rodrik 2011) fails to include complex services in the
definition those industries that can act as catalysts for sustainable economic
development. By defining elevator sectors through a set of general
characteristics and viewing complex services as potential elevator sectors, this
paper engages directly with current debates regarding the role of
manufactures and services in generating the basis for “good new jobs, new enterprises, and sustainable growth” (MIT 2013). 28
Angela Garcia Calvo
6. Practical implications, conclusions and future avenues
for research
The crises that started in 2008 have affected Spain more than most European
countries. Although unpacking the institutional structure of the Spanish
economy does not guarantee that the Spanish government will take effective
measures to stimulate a sustainable recuperation, it is a first step toward
identifying common causes to the problems Spain faces and evaluating policy
alternatives.
This paper provides important clues to understand Spain’s current situation. Specifically, PC in banking and telecommunications generated negative tradeoffs for skill- and capital-intensive manufacturing sectors, making it hard for
them to access the key resources they needed to develop new complex
outputs. As a result, Spain achieved upgrading in a handful of high valueadded service sectors, but firms in many manufacturing sectors downsized or
were purchased by foreign investors, who in turn transferred production
capacity abroad, often to other advanced economies.
The result was significant manufacturing’s downsizing. Between 1980 and 2010 the contribution of manufacturing activities to Spain’s GDP dropped by 15 percentage points (see Table 11 in the Appendix), more than any other
large European country. Changes in Spain’s productive structure affected the structure of demand for labour, translating into low demand for professionals
with technical skills and a similarly narrow demand for those with tertiary
education, which concentrated primarily, in the handful of sectors that
managed to upgrade. This context had perverse effects on educational
attainment. In 2012, only 22% of people aged 25–65 in Spain (versus 48% for
29
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
the EU-21) had upper secondary education qualifications, which are the basis
for most professional and technical occupations. By contrast, 46% of people in
Spain had capped their education below upper secondary levels (at 16 years
of age), which is almost double the EU’s average proportion of 24% (OECD 2013). The concentration of upgrading in a handful of sectors, also limited the
career prospects of those with university degrees. In 2007, 44% of people
under 29 years old with tertiary education were employed in roles that did
not require such qualifications, which is the highest rate in the OECD (OECD
2010).
Spain’s current labour structure threatens short-term economic recovery and
long-term sustainable growth. Since the onset of the economic crisis, most
firms have aimed to increase their competitiveness by adjusting their costs—
primarily labour costs—not by increasing productive investment to foster
upgrading. The result has been higher unemployment, a drop in permanent
employment contracts, an increase in temporary contracts, and overall lower
salaries (INE 2013). As a consequence, many of those with only basic
education are now unemployed. Those with higher education also face a
market in which career-enhancing opportunities are scarce and often
underpaid. If opportunities for those with higher qualifications remain scarce,
many will opt to seek employment elsewhere, a trend that is already taking
shape (El País 2011, Financial Times 2012, El País 2013, NYT 2013). Moreover,
a large pool of uneducated labourers cannot be the foundation of a productive
structure based on high value-added outputs.
The analysis in this paper implies that to stop and reverse these negative
developments, and to ensure that Spain is able to sustain and improve the
standard of living of its citizens in the future the current institutional model
needs to change. Only a change in institutional incentives will stimulate a
30
Angela Garcia Calvo
virtuous cycle that fosters upgrading in a wider range of sectors, increases
demand for skilled individuals, and supports sustainable growth. A change in
the basis of Spanish capitalism is unlikely to damage the standing of Spain’s firms in high value-added services, because most of these firms are now
global multinationals with solid strategies and well-diversified investments.
On the contrary, a burgeoning Spanish economy with a diversified productive
structure would benefit firms’ bottom lines and strengthen their reputations. Alternatively, Spain could choose to follow a path of shallow institutional
reform, relying on lower salaries to stimulate foreign investment and heavy
promotion of traditional low-skilled activities, such as tourism. Such a
strategy would help Spain move toward recovery in the short term, but it has
limited potential to generate sustainable growth because it would make Spain
more vulnerable to cost-cutting competition. Furthermore such a strategy
would generate few incentives to create a base of highly skilled workers and
accelerate the migration of qualified individuals, sowing the seeds for
inexorable economic decline.
Finally, the characterisation of Spain’s institutional structure, and the economic trajectory of the country raise questions regarding the uniqueness
of the Spanish case and the applicability of its experience to other cases. As
mentioned earlier, the capabilities and resources of Spanish large firms and
the state played a key role in the development of PC but these features were
historically embedded. Therefore, additional comparative research would be
needed to reveal in more systematic fashion the circumstances under which
different institutional ecosystems develop and their impact on a country’s ability to upgrade. The fall of the Berlin Wall brought into the picture a range
of countries that shared some similarities with Spain including limited
government capacity to develop and implement strategic plans, capital
31
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
scarcity, the need for managerial skills to transform outdated manufacturing
industries, and lack of experience with open market competition (Lipton et al
1990, Sachs 1994). These countries also shared with Spain their peripheral
situation and the prospect of EU integration. Consequently, comparisons
between the Eastern and Western European peripheral processes could be
particularly fruitful to elucidate this question.
However, it is worth bearing in mind that PC consolidated in Spain at a time
when states had only started to retrench from direct intervention in economic
activities and when liberalisation was not yet the sweeping force it would
become in the 1990s and 2000s. These circumstances influenced the ability of
Spanish economic actors to negotiate institutional structure and could be a
key difference between the upgrading processes that started in the 1980s and
those that took place a decade later.
32
Angela Garcia Calvo
References
Amsden A. H. (1989). Asia’s next giant: South Korea and late industrialisation. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Aranguren, M. J., Magro, E., Navarro, M. and Valdaliso, J.M. (2012). Estrategias para la
construcción de ventajas competitivas regionales: el caso del País Vasco. Madrid: Marcial Pons.
Barney J. (1991). ‘Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage’. Journal of Management,
Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 99-120.
Barney J. (2001). ‘Resources-based theories of competitive advantage: a ten-year retrospective
on the resource-based view’. Journal of Management, Vol. 27, pp. 643-650.
Chislett W. (2003). Spanish direct investment in Latin America: challenges and opportunities.
Madrid: Real Instituto Elcano.
Cubero Postillo, I. (1992). Oportunidades tecnológicas en sectores de futuro en la Comunidad
Autónoma de Madrid. Mercado de trabajo, sector de telecomunicaciones en la CAM, Focus
groups transcripts and unpublished report draft. Madrid: CSIC.
De Diego E. (1995). Historia de la industria en España: la electrónica y la informática. Madrid:
Actas.
Dierickx I. and Cool K. (1989). ‘Asset stock accumulation and sustainability of competitive
advantage’. Management Science, Vol. 35, No. 12, pp. 1504–1511 (December).
El Pais (1995). ‘Sisemens toma la mayoría de Amper Telemática y Amper Elasa’. (Available at:
http://elpais.com/diario/1995/07/06/economia/804981607_850215.html, accessed on
21/07/2013).
--- (2011). ‘Vente a Alemania ingeniero Pepe’. (Available at:
http://elpais.com/diario/2011/01/30/sociedad/1296342001_850215.html, accessed on
05/09/2013).
--- (2012). ‘El FMI prevé una década perdida para la economía española’. (Available at:
http://economia.elpais.com/economia/2012/04/19/actualidad/1334862142_848426.html,
accessed on 25/04/2012).
--- (2012). ‘El paro sube a 5,6 millones y marca un nuevo máximo en el arranque de 2012’. (Available at:
http://economia.elpais.com/economia/2012/04/27/actualidad/1335510081_397164.html,
accessed on 27/04/2013).
--- (2013). ‘Despedida de una científica que está haciendo las maletas’. (Available at:
http://sociedad.elpais.com/sociedad/2013/08/19/actualidad/1376935600_483731.html,
accessed on 05/09/2013).
Evans Peter. B. (1995). Embedded autonomy: states and industrial transformation. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Evans Peter. B., Rueschemeyer D. and Skocpol T. (eds.) (1985). Bringing the state back in.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Felgueroso F. (2010). ‘Vale la pena estudiar? (IV): Conseguir el capital humano necesario para un
nuevo de modelo productivo’. Blog Post Nada es Gratis, 2 November (available at:
www.nadaesgratis.es, accessed on 28/04/2013).
33
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
Financial Times (2013). ‘Spanish youth urged to seek work abroad’. (Available at:
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/f2018cf0-9467-11e1-8e90-00144feab49a.html, accessed on
08/01/2014).
Gereffi G. et al (2005). ‘The governance of global value chains’. Review of International Political
Economy, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 78-104 (February).
Gereffi G. and Fernandez-Stark K. (2011). Global value chain analysis: a primer. Center on
globalization, governance and competitiveness. Durham: Duke University (Available at:
http://www.cggc.duke.edu/pdfs/2011-05-31_GVC_analysis_a_primer.pdf,
accessed
on
15/08/2013).
Gibbon P. and Ponte S. (2005). Trading down: Africa, value chains and the global economy.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Giokas D. and Pentzaropoulos G.C. (2008). ‘Efficiency ranking of the OECD member states in the
area of telecommunications: A composite AHP/DEA study’. Telecommunications Policy, Vol.
32, No. 9-10, pp. 672-685.
Guillén M. (2005). The rise of Spanish multinationals: European business in the global economy.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Guillén M. and Garcia-Canal E. (2010). ‘How to conquer new markets with old skills’. Harvard
Business Review, November.
Guillén M. and Garcia-Canal E. (2010). The New Multinationals: Spanish firms in a global context.
Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
Guillén M. and Tschoegl A. (2008). Building a global bank: the transformation of Banco Santander.
Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.
Hall P. and Gringerich D. (2009). ‘Varieties of Capitalism and Institutional Complementarities in
the Macroeconomy: An Empirical Assessment’. British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 39, pp.
449-482.
Hall P.A. and Soskice D. (eds.) (2001). Varieties of Capitalism: the institutional foundations of
comparative advantage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hancké, B. (2001). Large firms and institutional change. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Herrigel G. (1996). Industrial constructions: the sources of German industrial power. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Hidalgo, C. A. (2009). ‘The dynamics of Economic complexity and the product space over a 42
year period’. CID Working Paper, Center for International Development, Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University. (Available at:
http://www.hks.harvard.edu/var/ezp_site/storage/fckeditor/file/pdfs/centersprograms/centers/cid/publications/faculty/wp/189.pdf, accessed on 16/08/2013).
Lipton D. Sachs J. Fisher S. and Kornai J. (1990). ‘Creating a market economy in Eastern Europe:
the case of Poland’. Brookings papers on economic activity, Vol. 1990, No. 1, pp. 75-147.
Loriaux M. (2003). ‘France: a new capitalism of voice?’. In Weiss (ed.). States in the global
economy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 101-120.
Martinez G. (2008). Latin American telecommunications: Telefonica’s conquest. Plymouth:
Lexington books.
34
Angela Garcia Calvo
Milberg G. and Winkler D. (2010). ‘Economic and social upgrading in global production networks: problems of theory and measure’. Capturing the Gains Working Paper 2010/04. Manchester,
UK. (Available at: http://www.capturingthegains.org/pdf/ctg-wp-2010-4.pdf, accessed on
15/08/2013).
MIT (2013). PIE Research. (Available at: http://web.mit.edu/pie/research/index.html, accessed
on 07/09/2013).
Molina O. and Rhodes M. (2007). ‘The political economy of adjustment in mixed market
economies: a study of Spain and Italy’. In Hancke, B. Rhodes M. and Thatcher M. (eds.) Beyond
Varieties of Capitalism. Conflict, contradictions and complementarities in the European
Economy. New York: Oxford University Press.
New York Times (2013). ‘Out of Europe’s long job crisis voices of the youth’. (Available at:
http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/11/15/world/europe/voices-of-theyoung.html?_r=0, accessed on 08/01/2014).
North, Douglass C. (1990). Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O’dwyer C. and Ziblatt D. (2006). ‘Does decentralisation make government more efficient and
effective?’. Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 1-18 (November).
Perez S. (1997). Banking on privilege: the politics of Spanish financial reform. Ithaca and London:
Cornell University Press.
Peteraf M.A. (1993). ‘The cornerstones of competitive advantage: a resource-based view’. Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 14, pp. 179-192.
Pons Brias M.A. (1999). ‘Capture or agreement? Why Spanish banking was regulated under the
Franco regime, 1939-1975’. Financial History Review, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 25-46 (April).
Pons Brias M.A. (2002). Regulating Spanish banking 1939-1975. Aldershot, UK and Burlington, VT:
Ashgate.
Porter M.E. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. New York: The Free Press.
Rivases J. (1998). Los banqueros del PSOE. Madrid: Ediciones B.
Rodriguez d’Acri C. (2011). Bridging the divide: firms and institutional variety in Italy. PhD thesis.
London: London School of Economics.
Rodrik D. (2011). Unconditional convergence in manufacturing. Preliminary draft, Cambridge:
Harvard university. (Available at:
http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/drodrik/Research%20papers/Unconditional%20converge
nce%20rev%205.pdf, accessed on 16/08/2013).
Rodrik D. and Hausmann R. (2006). “Doomed to choose: industrial policy as predicament” APSA Conference Paper, September 2006
Rozas Balbotin P. (2003). Gestión pública, regulación e internacionalización de las
telecomunicaciones: el caso de Telefonica SA. U. N. CEPAL. Santiago de Chile: Instituto
Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Planificación Económica y Social.
Rueschemeyer D. and Evans Peter B. (1985). ‘The state and economic transformation: toward an
analysis of the conditions underlying effective intervention’. In Evans Peter. B.,
Rueschemeyer D. and Skocpol T. (eds.). Bringing the state back in. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
35
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
Sachs J. (1994). Shock therapy in Poland: perspectives of five years. The Tanner lectures on human
values. Delivered at University of Utah April 6 and 7 1994.
Streek W. (1991). Productive constraints: on the institutional conditions of diversified quality
production. London: Sage.
Teece D. and Pisano G. (1998). ‘The dynamic capabilities of firms’. In Teece D., Chytry J., and Dosi
G. (eds). Technology, organization and competiveness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Valle S. and Vazquez-Bustelo D. (2009). ‘Inclusion de los proveedores en el proceso de desarrollo
de nuevos productos’. Universia Business Review, Third quarter.
Weiss L. (ed.) (2003). States in the global economy: bringing domestic institutions back in.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
White W.R. (1998). Divergent capitalisms: the social structuring and change of business systems.
Oxford: Oxford University Press
Whitley, R. (1999). Divergent capitalisms: the social structuring and change of business systems.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Williamson (1975). Markets and hierarchies: analysis and antitrust implications: a study in the
economics of internal organisation. New York: The Free Press.
Zysman J. (1983). Governments, markets and growth: financial systems and the politics of industrial
change. Oxford: Martin Robertson.
36
Appendix 1: Tables
Table 1. Spain's GDP per capita as percentage of other countries' (1985 and 2009)
Country
OECD
France
Germany
Italy
United Kingdom
1985
48%
48%
50%
59%
56%
2009
95%
78%
79%
90%
90%
Source: World Bank Development Indicators, own elaboration.
Table 2. Spain's top 20 firms by market capitalisation (2009)
Ranking by market
capitalisation
Ranking Forbes
500
1
34
Telefonica
Telecommunications
2
21
Grupo Santander
Banking
3
40
BBVA
Banking
4
122
Iberdrola
Energy
5
113
Repsol-YPF
Energy
6
609
Inditex
Textiles
7
451
Cepsa
Energy
8
341
Gas Natural
Energy
9
571
Abertis
Infrastructures
10
278
Banco Popular
Banking
11
226
Grupo ACS
Infrastructures
12
363
Acciona
Infrastructures
13
485
Banco Sabadell
Banking
14
409
Mafre
Insurance
15
1411
Gamesa
Energy production
16
383
Grupo Ferrovial
Infrastructures
17
867
Metrovacesa
Infrastructures
18
680
Sacyr Vallehermoso
Infrastructures
19
1665
Red Espanola Electrica
Energy
20
642
FCC
Infrastructures
Company
Sector
Source: ICEX/Esade: First annual report from the Observatory of the multinational firm 2009.
37
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
Table 3. Main Bank ratios (1985)
1985
Net income/Assets
Net non interest
income/Total income
Operating expenses/
Net income
Operating
expenses/Assets
Tier 1 and Tier 2
Capital/ Assets
Institutions
Branches per 1,000
inhabitants
Employees per
branch
Spain
0.042
Switzerland
0.027
USA
0.045
Sweden
0.031
Germany
0.029
Italy
0.040
Netherlands
0.029
France*
0.023
0.18
0.49
0.27
0.35
0.21
0.26
0.26
0.19
0.64
0.53
0.67
0.62
0.61
0.63
0.63
0.70
0.027
0.014
0.030
0.019
0.017
0.025
0.018
0.016
na
139
na
223
0.062
14,427
na
15
na
4,370
na
422
na
84
na
2,050
0.43
0.45
0.19
0.17
0.50
0.21
0.33
0.46
9.7
30.3
35.2
16.0
14.0
27.1
19.2
17.1
Source: OECD Banking statistics and Factbook statistics (population). Own elaboration.
Footnote: * Data for 1988
Table 4. Main bank ratios (2009)
2009
Net
income/Assets
Net non interest
income/Total
income
Operating
expenses/ Net
income
Operating
expenses as %
of assets
Tier 1 and Tier
2 Capital as %
of assets
Institutions
Branches per
1,000
inhabitants
Employees per
branch
Inwards FDI
positions
(Millions USD)
Outwards FDI
position
(Million USD)
Spain
Switzerland
USA
Sweden
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
France
0.023
0.021
0.051
0.020
0.017
0.022
0.016
0.015
0.31
0.64
0.40
0.48
0.20
0.36
0.31
0.58
0.37
0.77
0.59
0.57
0.76
0.63
0.69
0.62
0.009
0.016
0.030
0.011
0.013
0.014
0.011
0.009
0.086
153
0.064
207
0.112
6,905
0.082
59
na
1,774
0.065
768
0.055
93
na
325
0.32
0.21
0.27
0.20
0.46
0.56
0.19
0.61
7.4
53.8
23.2
22.0
17.0
9.7
35.1
11.1
27,812
319,729
254,411
256,694
53,654
91,957
91,870
111,109
157,633
344,217
733,245
420,433
194,384
312,116
175,864
237,307
Source: OECD Banking statistics, Factbook statistics (population) and International Direct Investment Statistics (FDI positions). Own
elaboration.
Note: FDI positions exclude insurance and pension funding activities.
38
Angela Garcia Calvo
Table 5. Annual person-based productivity, financial, and insurance activities (20002011)
Source: European Commission and European Central Bank calculations based on Eurostat data. Own elaboration.
Table 6. Telecommunications, network, profitability and investment (1985)
Sweden
UK
United
States
France
Japan
Germany
Italy
Spain
Ireland
Korea
Standard
access lines
per 100
inhabitants
62.78
52.93
Revenue
per
access
channel
in USD
347.50
358.93
Investment
per access
channel
104.36
73.14
49.24
40.69
37.48
32.95
30.74
24.21
19.85
18.48
946.76
381.55
474.81
447.22
363.54
267.69
670.91
253.39
180.17
161.94
152.83
195.74
159.69
113.84
204.16
177.65
Investment
as % of
revenue
30.03
20.38
Investment
as % of
fixed
capital
formation
2.56
2.65
Investment
per
inhabitant
in USD
66.44
38.78
19.03
42.44
32.19
43.77
43.93
42.53
30.43
70.11
2.58
3.46
1.88
3.50
2.99
3.03
3.84
4.98
88.97
65.89
57.36
64.49
49.10
27.56
40.55
32.84
Source: OECD Telecommunications and Internet Statistics.
Table 7. Telecommunications, network, profitability, and investment (2009)
Japan
Ireland
United
States
France
Spain
Germany
UK
Korea
Italy
Sweden
Total
access
channels
per 100
inhabitants
146.98
162.83
Revenue
per
access
channel
in USD
816.78
767.76
Investment
per access
channel in
USD
128.71
84.07
151.97
200.02
177.10
201.90
197.78
205.45
158.23
163.45
759.08
724.11
713.15
507.19
500.06
464.10
399.16
351.94
123.96
81.18
73.03
50.22
63.20
53.43
73.08
72.40
Source: OECD Telecommunications and Internet Statistics.
39
Investment
as % of
revenue
15.76
10.95
Investment
as % of
fixed
capital
formation
2.42
1.06
Investment
per
inhabitant
in USD
189.18
137.41
16.33
11.21
10.24
9.90
12.64
11.51
18.31
20.57
2.44
1.33
1.29
1.16
1.42
1.65
1.79
1.39
201.85
128.46
129.33
101.78
129.85
92.49
143.05
145.38
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
Table 8. Telecommunications efficiency (2007)
Source: Giokas and Pentzaropoulo 2008.
Note: The axes dividing the quadrants represent the efficiency scores of a hypothetical average country, as calculated
using DEA revenue and productivity. Their values are 74.18% for productivity and 83.10% for revenue.
Table 9. Telecommunications network expansion (1985–1996)
Additional fixed lines
Increments
1985-1989
Increments
1989-1996
Total increments
1985-1996
15,518,752
34,941,432
50,460,184
Japan
7,153,880
11,583,360
18,737,240
Germany
3,456,000
15,252,200
18,708,200
Korea
5,274,279
7,809,276
13,083,555
France
United
Kingdom
3,911,888
5,957,548
9,869,436
3,622,000
5,880,756
9,502,756
Italy
3,869,406
3,993,482
7,862,888
Spain
2,456,701
3,615,626
6,072,327
Poland
636,949
3,407,994
4,044,943
Portugal
788,582
1,632,890
2,421,472
Switzerland
507,480
786,494
1,293,974
Ireland
213,000
474,000
687,000
Country
United
States
Source: ITU 2010. Own elaboration.
40
Angela Garcia Calvo
Table 10. Waiting lists for fixed telephone lines (1980 –1996)
Source: ITU database 2010. Own elaboration.
Table 11. Manufacturing as percentage of GDP (1980-2009)
Source KLEMS. Own elaboration.
Table 12. Spanish manufactures Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage (1994-2007)
41
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
Table 13. Spain’s Labour Productivity by Sector (1996-2007 average)
Labour productivity
growth (%)
Average share in total
economy added value (%)
Spain
EU
US
Spain
EU
US
1.8
5.6
17.2
1.1
2.3
2.3
1.1
2.1
3.8
1.2
2.2
1.1
Transport equipment
Chemicals and chemical
products
Basic metals and
fabricated metals
1.7
3.1
5.2
1.9
2.1
1.8
0.6
3.6
5.2
1.6
1.9
1.9
0.2
1.6
1.8
2.8
2.6
1.7
Total manufacturing
0.9
2.6
5.1
17.2
19.1
15
Electrical and optical
equipment
General purpose
machinery
Source: OECD 2012 Economics department working paper N 973.
Table 14. Bubble chart, Manufacturing Technologies (machine-tools) (1995-2009)
Source: http://tools.orkestra.deusto.es/klusterbolak data from UN Comtrade and AEAT, Own elaboration.
42
Angela Garcia Calvo
Appendix 2: Sources of information
Databases
Sector
Banking
Telecommunications
Professional
Electronics
Sources
ECB banking statistics; IMF Financial
Access Survey; Banks' annual reports;
OECD International Investment
Statistics
OECD Telecommunication Statistics;
ITU Database (2010 Edition);
Operators' annual reports; OECD
International Investment Statistics
AMETIC annual reports; SEPI/INI
archive; Eurostat Structural Business
Statistics and International
Investment Statistics
Indicators
Operating expenses to
income, net income to total
assets, Tier 1+2 capital over
assets
Total access channels,
revenue and investment per
access channel, investment
as percentage of fixed
capital formation,
investment per inhabitant,
FDI
Production, exports,
imports, consumption,
productivity, gross value
added, wages, degree of
specialisation
Other secondary sources of information

Annual company reports, sector-specific reports elaborated by the
national government or their specialised bureaucracies, regulators,
industry associations, multilateral organisations, and other entities
including research institutions

National and regional legislation

Transcripts from Congress and Senate sessions

Published
interviews
of
key
stakeholders,
transcripts
and
videos/podcasts of conferences or public events

Seminar presentations

Opinion articles, press releases, and interviews published by the
specialised media

Blog posts

Focus groups transcripts and unpublished research reports offered by
research institutions and interviewees
43
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
Interviews
Sector
Interviews
Banking
Two interviews with Bank of Spain experts, one with a
Spanish expert at the IMF, three academic experts, one
interview at the Spanish Banking association, three
consultants, four interviews with current bank employees,
and two with retired employees, presentations by 17 banking
experts including the sub-governor of the bank of Spain and
the head of research
One interview at the SETSI, one at the regulator, one at the
college of telecommunication engineers, two with expert at
the OECD, five firm-level interviews, two with technology
suppliers, one with an academic,
7 for Telecommunications electronics (3 with
academics/researchers and 4 with practicioners), 3 for
Defence (One with an Indra board-member, one with the
director of strategy and one with a former politician involved
in the sector's transformation), and 7 for Industrial
electronics in the Basque Country ( 2 with
researchers/academics, 4 with current or former public
employees and civil servants, 1 firm-level)
Three interviews with industrial manufacture academics
Telecommunications
Professional
Electronics
Other general
interviews
Total
Total
Interviews
16 interviews
15 interviews
17 interviews
3 interviews
51 interviews
44
Recent LEQS papers
White, Jonathan. 'Politicizing Europe: The Challenge of Executive Discretion' LEQS Paper No. 72,
February 2014
Esteve-González, Patricia & Theilen, Bernd. 'European Integration: Partisan Motives or Economic
Benefits?' LEQS Paper No. 71, February 2014
Monastiriotis, Vassilis. 'Origin of FDI and domestic productivity spillovers: does European FDI have a
'productivity advantage' in the ENP countries?' LEQS Paper No. 70, January 2014
Ward-Warmedinger, Melanie & Macchiarelli, Corrado. 'Transitions in labour market status in the
European Union' LEQS Paper No. 69, November 2013
Dani, Marco. 'ʹThe ‘Partisan Constitution’ and the corrosion of European constitutional culture'ʹ LEQS Paper No. 68, November 2013
Bronk, Richard & Jacoby, Wade. 'Avoiding monocultures in the European Union: the case for the
mutual recognition of difference in conditions of uncertainty' LEQS Paper No. 67, September 2013
Johnston, Alison, Hancké, Bob & Pant, Suman. 'Comparative Institutional Advantage in the European
Sovereign Debt Crisis' LEQS Paper No. 66, September 2013
Lunz, Patrick. 'What's left of the left? Partisanship and the political economy of labour market reform:
why has the social democratic party in Germany liberalised labour markets?' LEQS Paper No. 65,
July 2013
Estrin, Saul & Uvalic, Milica. ‘Foreign direct investment into transition economies: Are the Balkans different?’ LEQS Paper No. 64, July 2013
Everson, Michelle & Joerges, Christian. 'Who is the Guardian for Constitutionalism in Europe after the
Financial Crisis?' LEQS Paper No. 63, June 2013
Meijers, Maurits. 'The Euro-crisis as a catalyst of the Europeanization of public spheres? A crosstemporal study of the Netherlands and Germany' LEQS Paper No. 62, June 2013
Bugaric, Bojan. 'Europe Against the Left? On Legal Limits to Progressive Politics' LEQS Paper No. 61,
May 2013
Somek, Alexander. 'Europe: From emancipation to empowerment' LEQS Paper No. 60, April 2013
Kleine, Mareike. ‘Trading Control: National Chiefdoms within International Organizations’ LEQS Paper No. 59, March 2013
Aranki, Ted & Macchiarelli, Corrado. 'Employment Duration and Shifts into Retirement in the EU'
LEQS Paper No. 58, February 2013
De Grauwe, Paul. ‘Design Failures in the Eurozone: Can they be fixed?’ LEQS Paper No. 57, February 2013
Teixeira, Pedro. 'The Tortuous Ways of the Market: Looking at the European Integration of Higher
Education from an Economic Perspective' LEQS Paper No. 56, January 2013
Costa-i-Font, Joan. ' Fiscal Federalism and European Health System Decentralization: A Perspective'
LEQS Paper No. 55, December 2012
37
Industrial Upgrading in Mixed Market Economies: The Spanish Case
LEQS
European Institute
London School of Economics
Houghton Street
WC2A 2AE London
Email: [email protected]
http://www2.lse.ac.uk/europeanInstitute/LEQS/Home.aspx
50