Sociodemographic
Factors Associated With
Aggressive Driving
Behaviors of 3-Wheeler
Taxi Drivers in Sri Lanka
Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health
24(1) 91­–103
© 2012 APJPH
Reprints and permission: http://www.
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1010539510376304
http://aph.sagepub.com
Ediriweera Chintana Akalanka, BSc, MSc1,
Takeo Fujiwara, MD, PhD2,3,4, Ediriweera
Desapriya, PhD2,5, Dinithi C. Peiris PhD6, and
Giulia Scime, MA2,5
Abstract
Little is known about the nature and scope of aggressive driving in developing countries. The
objective of this study is to specifically examine the sociodemographic factors associated with
aggressive driving behavior among 3-wheeler taxi drivers in Sri Lanka. Convenience samples
of 3-wheeler taxi drivers from Rathnapura, Ahaliyagoda, Sri Lanka were surveyed from June
to August 2006. Analyses included bivariate and multivariate logistic regression. Drivers with
less than high school education were 3.5 times more likely to drive aggressively (odds ratio
[OR] = 3.46; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.08, 11.1). Single drivers were 9 times more likely
to run red lights (OR = 8.74; 95% CI = 2.18, 35.0), and being single was a major risk factor for
drunk driving (OR = 4.80; 95% CI = 1.23, 18.7). Furthermore, high school completers were
4 times more likely to bribe a policeman (OR = 4.27; 95% CI = 1.23, 14.9) when caught violating
the road rules. Aggressive driving and risk-taking behavior are amenable to policy initiatives, and
preventive programs targeted at key groups could be used to improve road safety in Sri Lanka.
This study demonstrates that aggressive driving behavior is associated with sociodemographic
factors, including the level of education, marital status, and other socioeconomic factors. Hence,
economic factors should be addressed to find solutions to traffic-related issues. It will be the
government’s and policy makers’ responsibility to try and understand the economic factors
behind risky road behavior and bribe-taking behavior prior to legislating or enforcing new laws.
Keywords
3-wheeler taxi, sociodemographics of aggressive driving, motor vehicle crashes, lower socioeconomic
status, road traffic law violations
1
University of Ruhuna, Wellamadama, Sri Lanka
Developmental Neurosciences and Child Health, Vancouver, BC, Canada
3
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
4
National Institute of Public Health, Wako-shi, Saitama, Japan
5
British Columbia Injury Research and Prevention Unit, Vancouver BC, Canada
6
University of Colombo, Colombo 3, Sri Lanka
2
Corresponding Author:
Ediriweera Desapriya, Community and Child Health Research, 4480 Oak Street, L408 Vancouver, BC, Canada
Email: [email protected]
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Introduction
Road Traffic Crashes in Developing Countries
Road traffic crashes are the leading cause of injury-related death, the 10th leading cause of death
globally, and make up a surprisingly significant proportion of the worldwide burden of ill health.
An estimated 1.2 million people are killed in road crashes each year, and as many as 50 million
are injured, occupying 30% to 70% of orthopedic beds in hospitals of developing countries.1.
Overall, developing countries bear a large share of the burden, accounting for 85% of annual
deaths and 90% of the disability-adjusted life years lost because of road traffic injury.1 Evidence
suggests that the current and projected global burden of road traffic injuries is disproportionately
borne by countries that are least able to afford to meet the health service costs and economic and
societal challenges posed.1 Prevention of road traffic injuries in the rapidly motorizing countries
has been hampered by limitations of education, absence of reliable estimates of the current level
of injuries, and traditionally restrictive views on health and disease.2 This situation exists because
of the disproportionately lower funding for traffic crash preventive research relative to other
health-related issues.3
Road Traffic Crashes in Sri Lanka: Current Status
Sri Lanka is an island just north of the equator with a population of 19 million people consisting
of several ethnic (Sinhalese, Tamils, Muslims, and Burghers) and religious (Buddhists,
Christians, Hindus, and Muslims) groups. This country is facing the challenge of a complex epidemiological transition marked by persisting infectious diseases and a rising burden of noncommunicable diseases. In the face of these challenges, Sri Lanka should make policies based on
evidence.4,5
Since 1995, traumatic injuries have remained the leading cause of hospitalization.5,6 Traumatic
injury has increased from 1732 cases/100 000 people in 1980 to 3413 cases in 2002.7 Traffic crash
deaths and injuries are a major public health issue and the main cause of these traumatic injuries.
Nearly 2000 deaths and 14 000 injuries occur each year as a result of road traffic crashes,4,6,7 and
this has now reached epidemic proportions in Sri Lanka. However, there is a serious lack of public
awareness or comprehension of the road safety rules.6,7
Aggressive Driving
Aggressive driving has been defined as engaging in behavior that puts the driver and others at
risk and often includes driving at excessive speeds, weaving in and out of lanes, and running
through red lights or stop signs, all of which are highly linked with traffic crashes, severe injuries, and fatalities. For the public, these facts are very frightening. However, only limited information is available on drivers’ attitudes and behaviors regarding speeding and other forms of
unsafe driving behaviors, including those typically identified as aggressive driving.8
A recent survey published by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA) found that 60% of US drivers interviewed identified unsafe driving by others as a
major threat to themselves and their families. Unsafe driving has also increased in Sri Lanka.
The increase in unsafe driving during the 1990s in Sri Lanka has been attributed, in part, to
an increase in the number of privatized buses, motorcycles, and 3-wheeler taxis9 (see Figure 1).
The 3-wheeler taxis are referred to as the “speed demons” of Sri Lanka and are known for
cutting and swerving through heavy traffic. Fitted with a fuel capacity of approximately 8.5
liters, 3-wheelers are noted for breaking traffic rules and tend to be the cause of many road
crashes.10
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Akalanka et al.
Figure 1. Sri Lankan 3-wheeler taxi
A recent study shows that because of the deregulated public transportation system in
Sri Lanka, there is no incentive for 3-wheeler drivers to make road safety a priority. Furthermore,
with incentives paid to drivers who undertake a greater number of trips, factors such as fatigue
and risk-taking behaviors are likely to contribute to the overrepresentation of 3-wheelers in road
traffic crashes.9
In recent years, considerable attention has been paid in local newspapers, TV, and radio news
to all types of conflicts between road users and aggressive driving behavior. Sometimes, the
attention has focused on unpleasant or indecent gestures, aggressive and risky driving behavior
(tailgating, flashing headlights, and deliberate obstruction), and in some exceptional situations,
running closed train level crossings dangerously. Aggressive driving behaviors are frequent and
often include very dangerous actions that are highly linked with a greater number of traffic
crashes, severe injuries, and fatalities.10 Traffic crashes are also linked with “road rage,” where
there is deliberate intent to threaten, injure, or harm another driver or engage in extremely dangerous driving behavior to increase daily revenue by picking up more passengers. However,
from an academic point of view, it is generally understood that aggressive driving is distinct from
road rage, a criminal offense involving verbal or physical abuse.11-13
The current research was initiated in response to a recent aggressive driving–related traffic
crash where the driver of a public transport bus ran a closed train level crossing and the bus was
then caught in the middle of the railway track. This killed 37 passengers and wounded more
than 50, exposing the seriousness of the crisis in Sri Lanka’s overall traffic safety system.14 This
incident received considerable local and international media attention. This aggressive driving–
related incident was merely the tip of the iceberg of severe injuries and fatalities as a result of
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prevalent aggressive driving.14 The Government has decided to react thoroughly and recommended
tough measures to discipline drivers who break road rules.
We conducted a survey that would enable us to have a closer examination of aggressive driving behavior together with a review of the published literature. Our preliminary investigation
found that aggressive driving is increasing in both developed and developing countries.11-13
There is sparse literature available to researchers and policy makers who are concerned about
traffic crash injuries/fatalities related to this behavior in developing countries. The limited available research is mainly focused on developed countries.11-13 One of the major limitations in the
existing literature is the lack of epidemiological information. To date, there has been a lack of
scientifically based data on the incidence of aggressive driving behaviors in developing countries. Much of the literature on aggressive driving has been based on media reports. Increasing
support for the relationship between unsafe road traffic behavior, violations of highway traffic
rules, and motor vehicle crash liability has led to research that has focused on the demographic
factors that promote these behaviors.15
Although it is commonly understood that aggressive driving is a significant contributor to road
traffic fatalities and injuries, little is known in developing countries about the nature and scope of
the problem. Aggressive driving has been described as any deliberate behavior that endangers or
is likely to endanger people or property and is often a result of anger or frustration.16 The objective
of this study was to examine the sociodemographic factors associated with aggressive driving
behavior among 3-wheeler taxi drivers in Sri Lanka.
Methods
Study Area
Ratnapura is a district of Sri Lanka in the province of Sabaragamuwa. The gem-mining center of
Sri Lanka is also a major crossroad between southern plains and the hill country to the east and
located some 101 km south east of Colombo. The Ratnapura district (land area 3279 km2) is
located in the low-country wet zone in the southwestern quarter of the island. According to a
2006/2007 report from the department of Census and Statistics, Sabaragamuwa province is the
second poorest province in the country, and Rathnapura district has the highest number of poor
people (292 000) in the country. Though Sri Lanka enjoys a 91% literacy rate according to the
2001 head count index census of persons aged more than 30 years, only 17.5% have completed
grade 10, and only 7.9% have successfully completed high school education. These national
numbers will equally reflect on Rathnapura district where the population was 1 008 164 in 2001.
For administrative purposes, the Rathnapura district is divided into 17 divisional secretariat divisions, where Rathnapura and Eheliyagoda divisions are located.
Data Collection
In Sri Lanka, the standard practice in collecting data on traffic-related research projects is to have
the assistance of the police while conducting field interviews. This method is used to ensure the
compulsory participation of drivers in research projects. However, because of the threatening
nature and of the police presence, bias could be introduced, and the responses from the drivers
could be far from the truth. Considering this major factor, we designed our field interviews to be
carried out in the absence of police presence, thus, yielding an unbiased data set while maintaining driver confidentiality. In this study, we surveyed 3 groups of 3-wheeler taxi drivers from the
Rathnapura and Eheliyagoda secretariat divisions. The drivers were approached in areas in which
they tended to congregate, for example, near commercial centers, awaiting passengers. They
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Akalanka et al.
Table 1. Demographic Distribution (n = 138)
Age (years)
15-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
Education
<High school
≥High school
Marital status
Married
Not married
n
Percentage
30
30
26
37
15
21.7
21.7
18.8
26.8
10.9
121
17
87.7
12.3
120
18
87.0
13.0
received a letter of informed consent in which they had to sign to be eligible for participation,
and on consent, the 18-question aggressive driving questionnaire was administrated by a trained
research assistant. A total of 172 drivers were approached, of whom 147 (85.4%) agreed to participate through informed consent; 9 drivers who did not speak adequate Sinhalese or English
were excluded from the study. The questionnaire was developed by the American Automobile
Association and was modified for applicability to Sri Lankan traffic patterns.17 The questions
consisted of 9 components assessing the following: (1) drivers age, sex, marital status, level of
education, ethnicity, and whether the driver was the owner of the vehicle or not; (2) frequency of
running red lights; (3) frequency of drinking and driving; (4) frequency of aggressive driving;
(5) frequency of getting angry with other drivers; (6) frequency of getting angry with fast drivers;
(7) whether the driver gets angry when other drivers cut off their vehicles; (8) whether the drivers
gets angry during traffic jams; and (9) whether the spouse and friends tell the driver to calm
down. Data were collected during the period June through August 2006.
Data Analysis
The associations between demographic characteristics and aggressive driving behaviors were
analyzed using bivariate and multivariate logistic regression. In the bivariate analysis, categorized independent variables were cross-tabulated with dichotomized aggressive driving to examine the association. Logistic regression analysis was conducted with aggressive driving as a
dichotomized dependent variable, and all independent variables were categorized. A forward
stepwise selection method was used to identify the important variables to arrive at a parsimonious main effect model. Interaction terms were then included one at a time in the main effect
model to examine whether the independent variables modified the effects of one another.
Results
We obtained a final sample size of 138 Sri Lankan 3-wheeler taxi drivers. Ages ranged from 16
to 61 years, with a mean age of 37.6 (standard deviation = 12.4). The majority of our sample had
not completed high school (87.7%), and 87% were married. Results for aggressive driving indicated that more than half of those who had not completed high school reported that they drove
aggressively (Tables 1-6).
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Table 2. Overall Risk of Aggressive Driving, Running a Red Light, Drinking, and Bribing Police (n = 138)
Aggressive driving
Never
Sometimes
Running a red light
Never
Sometimes
Often
Drinking
Never
Sometimes
Often
Bribing police
No
Yes
n
Percentage
65
73
47.1
52.9
81
52
5
58.7
37.7
3.6
56
81
1
40.6
58.7
0.7
71
66
51.8
48.2
Table 3. Sociodemographic Factors Associated With Aggressive Driving
Unadjusted
Age (years)
15-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
Education
<High school
≥High school
Marital status
Married
Not married
Adjusted
n
Percentage
OR
95% CI
OR
95% CI
16
15
15
22
5
53.3
50.0
57.7
59.5
33.3
Reference
0.88
1.19
1.28
0.44
(0.32-2.41)
(0.41-3.44)
(0.49-3.39)
(0.12-1.59)
Reference
0.56
0.65
0.71
0.24
(0.17-1.79)
(0.19-2.24)
(0.22-2.25)
(0.06-1.02)
68
5
56.2
29.4
3.08
Reference
66
7
55.0
38.9
Reference
0.52
(1.02-9.28)
(0.19-1.43)
3.46
Reference
Reference
0.39
(1.08-11.1)
(0.11-1.32)
Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.
In the adjusted model, those who had not completed a high school education were 3.5 times
more likely to drive aggressively in comparison to those who had completed high school (odds
ratio [OR] = 3.46; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.08, 11.1; Table 3). Age and marital status
were not associated with aggressive driving. The percentage of those who were not married who
reported that they would run a red light even if the signal was red was twice as great as that for
married drivers (72% vs 37%), and the OR was 4.49 (unadjusted) and 8.74 (adjusted), both statistically significant (P < .05; Table 4)
Age and education were not associated with running red lights. Drinking and driving results
indicated similar patterns as those observed for running red lights: single marital status was
found to be a sociodemographic factor associated with drinking and driving (OR = 4.80; 95%
CI = 1.23, 18.7; Table 5). Age and education were not associated with drinking and driving. The
results for bribing policemen were contrary to those for aggressive driving, indicating that high
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Table 4. Sociodemographic Factors Associated With Running a Red Light
Unadjusted
Age (years)
15-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
Education
<High school
≥High school
Marital status
Married
Not married
Adjusted
n
Percentage
OR
95% CI
OR
95% CI
12
12
11
16
6
40.0
40.0
42.3
43.2
40.0
Reference
1.00
1.10
1.14
1.00
(0.36-2.81)
(0.38-3.20)
(0.43-3.04)
(0.28-3.540)
Reference
2.40
2.87
2.65
2.27
(0.64-9.00)
(0.73-11.3)
(0.73-9.56)
(0.49-10.5)
52
5
43.0
29.4
1.81
Reference
44
13
36.7
72.2
Reference
4.49
(0.60-5.45)
(1.50-13.4)
1.80
Reference
Reference
8.74
(0.53-6.05)
(2.18-35.0)
Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.
Table 5. Sociodemographic Factors Associated With Drinking and Driving
Unadjusted
Age (years)
15-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
Education
<High school
≥High school
Marital status
Married
Not married
Adjusted
n
Percentage
OR
95% CI
OR
95% CI
16
17
17
23
9
53.3
56.7
65.4
62.2
60.0
Reference
1.14
1.65
1.44
1.31
(0.41-3.17)
(0.56-4.87)
(0.54-3.82)
(0.37-4.62)
Reference
2.00
3.09
2.51
2.26
(0.62-6.42)
(0.89-10.77)
(0.79-7.98)
(0.56-9.17)
73
9
60.3
52.9
1.35
Reference
68
14
56.7
77.8
Reference
2.68
(0.49-3.75)
(0.83-8.61)
1.16
Reference
Reference
4.80
(0.39-3.45)
(1.23-18.7)
Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.
school completers were 4 times more likely to bribe policemen than those who did not complete
high school (OR = 4.27; 95% CI = 1.23, 14.9; Table 6). Age and marital status were not associated with bribing policemen. One 3-wheeler driver’s age was 16, yet in Sri Lanka the minimum
driving age is 18. Although we have a small sample size, this indicates that unlicensed driving is
occurring among 3-wheeler drivers. Our finding confirms that found in a previous study.9
Discussion
Our study demonstrated that aggressive driving behavior is associated with sociodemographic
factors, which includes level of education and economic status of the drivers. The study revealed
significant associations between the level of education and aggressive driving practices, and the
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Table 6. Sociodemographic Factors Associated With Bribing the Police
Unadjusted
Age (years)
15-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
Education
<High school
≥High school
Marital status
Married
Not married
Adjusted
n
Percentage
OR
95% CI
OR
95% CI
12
18
12
15
9
41.4
60
46.2
40.5
60
Reference
2.13
1.21
0.97
2.13
(0.75-6.01)
(0.42-3.53)
(0.36-2.60)
(0.60-7.57)
Reference
1.40
0.63
0.51
1.20
(0.44-4.50)
(0.18-2.18)
(0.16-1.61)
(0.30-4.84)
62
4
51.7
23.5
Reference
3.47
(1.07-11.3)
Reference
4.27
(1.23-14.9)
61
5
50.8
29.4
Reference
0.40
(0.13-1.21)
Reference
0.34
(0.09-1.22)
Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.
level of education and bribing the police. We found that the majority who had not completed
high school drove aggressively, whereas those who completed high school were 4 times more
likely to bribe the police. The study also found that marital status was associated with running
red lights, drinking and driving, aggressive driving behavior, and risk-taking behavior while
driving.
Previous research in developed countries such as the United States has revealed relationships
between level of education and incidences of driving-related problems. The level of education is
positively associated with safety belt use.18-20 An ecological study demonstrated that locations
with low rates of restraint use also had a younger mean age and lower socioeconomic status
(SES) than locations with high rates of restraint use.20 Additionally, unintentional injury and
motor vehicle injuries are strongly related to SES in developed as well as developing countries.21-23 This study confirms, along with previous studies, that single marital status is associated
with unsafe driving practices and motor vehicle injury and fatality. In a multivariate analysis,
Barreto and colleagues24 showed that the risk of death from motor vehicle injury was independently associated with being unmarried in Brazil (OR = 3.21; 95% CI = 1.84, 5.59). There is
some additional evidence to suggest that single drivers take more risks while driving than married drivers,25-28 but direct evidence concerning their risk of driver injury is sparse. A small
number of observational studies conducted in various countries have reported higher risks of
total vehicle-related fatality among single drivers, but few have specifically addressed this question with respect to driver injury (including driver fatality).29-31
Aggressive driving is an important risk factor for road traffic crashes in both developed and
developing countries. Running red lights, driving under the influence of alcohol, and attempting
to escape from legal consequences of unsafe driving practices are major risk factors for crashes,
deaths, and serious injuries. These issues are worldwide road safety problems and lead to motor
vehicle crashes. Some problems are more prevalent in highly motorized countries, whereas others are more prevalent in rapidly motorizing countries. For example, in the United States driving
while impaired by alcohol is the cause of 40% of fatal crashes.1,9,32,33 Similarly, a nationwide
study conducted in the United States by NHTSA that examined fatal crashes at traffic signals in
1999 and 2000 estimated that 20% of the vehicles involved failed to obey the signals. The economic impact of red light running alone was estimated at $7 billion each year in medical costs,
time off work, insurance rate increases, and property damage. The NHTSA has estimated that
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Akalanka et al.
aggressive drivers cause two thirds of all fatal crashes and are responsible for nearly 35% of all
crashes.9,33 A recent study of bus drivers in the private sector in Sri Lanka has shown that working hours and economic factors are the main reasons behind many bus crashes.34 The study has
highlighted speed, drivers’ tiredness, and alcohol as possible risk factors for the collisions.
Much research has shown that traffic law enforcement is one of the best practices for crash
reduction strategies in highly motorized countries.33 A study exploring the economics of motorcycle helmet laws found that enforcement is very cost-effective.35 The results provide implications for low- and middle-income countries as well, indicating the utility of enforcement of
traffic-related laws worldwide.35 In highly motorized countries, laws are strictly enforced and
studies regarding detection of alcohol in fatal crashes and prevalence of aggressive driving are
extensively conducted (using sophisticated technology and frequent surveys) as compared with
rapidly motorizing countries. Therefore, our knowledge on these issues is broader than in rapidly
developing countries. Consistent and effective enforcement of traffic safety laws are pivotal to
achieving successful compliance in these countries. Lack of law enforcement and lack of
resources and technology are hindering many traffic safety problems in developing countries.
Implementing these technologies in developing countries can be cost-effective when considering
the value of human life and potential burden to the health care systems. It is necessary to measure
incidence to determine the magnitude and scope of these problems in order to prioritize resources
for prevention.
Particularly, the red light running problem in Sri Lanka is a relatively larger problem and
deserves urgent attention from police enforcement because Sri Lanka has a large number of vulnerable road users such as pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists. What is important to note is
that there are no effective ways and means to separate vulnerable road users from the general
traffic in Sri Lanka. It is important to educate drivers to be disciplined and to cultivate more caring attitudes toward vulnerable road users. Enforcing traffic laws for red light running and
aggressive driving and especially lowering the blood alcohol concentration limits have proven to
be the most successful interventions contributing to the decrease of injury in developed countries, and this can be implemented to improve road safety in Sri Lanka.32 One of the recommended interventions to reduce the burden of road crash–related problems in the World Report
on Road Traffic Injury Prevention is setting and securing compliance with traffic safety rules.33
Traffic law enforcement by the police is one of the methods of securing such compliance.34
Previous research studies have indicated that in rapidly motorizing countries, corruption in
law enforcement leads to unsafe traffic behaviors because bribing and influencing using social
status were effective evaders. Deterrence theory indicates that the most effective combination is
tough, fair laws; vigorous enforcement; and intensive and targeted educational campaigns.36 The
awareness must also be linked with these prevention efforts to establish community support for
behavior change.37 In the case of aggressive driving, efforts could be directed toward creating a
social climate in which aggressive driving is considered unacceptable in the community. In the
case of 3-wheeler drivers, allowing bribing is almost as rewarding for breaking the law. The
police will turn a blind eye risking the well-being of the public and the law-abiding motorists.
Hence, it is important to create a climate in which police officers are made accountable for their
part in escalating the problem.
Driving without a license is a prevalent issue among 3-wheeler drivers. This shows that these
drivers do not have the appropriate knowledge and skills to drive 3-wheeler taxis. Although our
sample size was small, a previous study has shown a similar finding.9 This issue needs priority
attention from higher levels to improve the quality and enhance the driving skills of the taxi
drivers. On average, about 2000 Sri Lankans die, 14 000 are injured, and more than 50 000
crashes occur every year because of unsafe driving behaviors.34 We recommend that it be mandatory for all drivers to undergo training. Professional driver training can help link knowledge,
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skills, and attitudes to become safe, responsible operators. Receiving comprehensive driver
instruction can help 3-wheeler taxi drivers maintain safe driving behaviors for a life time
(eg, learn good techniques/habits from the beginning and the importance of using them consistently). In addition, professional driver training allows them to learn, practice, and gain the necessary experience in a lower-risk environment. Furthermore, implementing graduated driver
licensing laws38 will help train future drivers with best practices right from the beginning.
A recent hospital-based study has shown that 89% of the 3-wheeler taxi-related injury crashes
involve alcohol in Sri Lanka. Drinking and driving appears to be a larger traffic safety problem
than is officially acknowledged throughout Sri Lanka.39 The same study shows that the case
fatality rate was only 0.78% for motor vehicle crashes, whereas the case fatality rate for 3-wheeler
crashes were estimated at 2.0%.39 Enforcement of driving under the legal alcohol limit is recommended to help decrease the incidence of collisions.
There is very little research that examines aggressive driving in rapidly motorizing countries
like Sri Lanka. In contrast, a wide range of theoretical and empirical studies on aggressive driving have been conducted in highly motorized countries. Therefore, the recommendation for
prevention of aggressive driving in Sri Lanka is mainly derived from studies conducted in
highly motorized countries. There are limitations to applying evidence-based practices from
studies exclusively conducted in highly motorized countries to rapidly motorizing countries.
However, a study by Mohan,40 a veteran traffic safety researcher in Asia, shows the empirical
value of motorized country’s research on guiding traffic safety policies in rapidly motorizing
countries. The Transport Research Board’s41 “Guide for addressing aggressive driving collisions” has highlighted the fact that improving the driving environment to eliminate or minimize
the external “triggers” of aggressive driving is the best strategy to prevent aggressive driving.
We need to identify and mitigate the effects of elements in the environment and economic factors that trigger aggressive driving in our communities. Three-wheeler drivers have to make
reasonable revenue, and they tend to do this by engaging in risky behaviors to capture a higher
rider share.9 Hence, economic factors should be addressed to find solutions to traffic-related
issues.
In addition, vehicle density is becoming increasingly higher in urban areas, and this leads
to higher congestion and driver frustration.9 Issues such as proper road conditions, added
safety features to the roads, and law enforcement are necessary considerations. We encourage designing and operating a road network that better accommodates human error (such as
the road safety design elements in Denmark and the Netherlands).42 Minor upgrades, such as
resurfacing roads, improving road markings, signage, and visibility at an intersection, can
have a huge impact on safety. In addition, an integrated traffic management system should
be in place in Sri Lanka that will assist the police and emergency services in responding
more quickly when a crash occurs. Anger management programs should be made compulsory for convicted 3-wheeler drivers before they are allowed to drive again, and it is important to evaluate these programs to determine whether they change behavior and reduce
crashes.
The socioeconomic conditions of taxi drivers and traffic law enforcing police officers play a
major role in the current status of the problem in Sri Lanka. It will be the government’s and
policy makers’ responsibility to try and understand the socioeconomic factors behind risky road
behavior and bribe-taking behavior prior to legislating or enforcing new laws. With improved SES,
drivers might be able to make a good living with fewer trips, and police officers could be offered
a better salary, thus, helping avoid risky road behavior. Improvements to the SES can have a
further impact on reducing alcohol consumption and reducing incidences related to driving under
the influence. In addition, by making a closer examination of the demand for taxies, authorities
can regulate the number of operating licenses, which can reduce the competition among the drivers that lead to the risky driving habits.
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Limitations
This study has limitations that require consideration. Though we found significant correlations,
a larger sample size would have increased the statistical power of the study. The sample included
only Sinhalese speaking 3-wheeler taxi drivers, although they varied widely in age, level of education, and marital status. The 9 drivers excluded from the study might have given a wealth of
information. It would have been interesting to understand how the lack of Sinhala or English
knowledge would have affected their ability to understand the traffic laws as well as road signs.
It will be crucial for policy makers to take language barriers into account while trying to address
road safety issues. Hence, future studies can be carried out in Sinhala, Tamil, and English.
In addition, future research could address women and different ethnic groups to investigate
gender and ethnic differences in aggressive driving in Sri Lanka. Notably, the study included
only 1 major city, so it was not possible to obtain sufficient information on educational level as
desired; so we relied on self-report for information on education and marital status. Survey sites
were not chosen at random, possibly leading to a biased sample. Highly urbanized regions such
as Colombo and Kandy would have even shown stronger correlations. Nevertheless, this is the
first aggressive driving–related study reported among Sri Lankan 3-wheeler taxi drivers, the first
to include the effects of SES on aggressive driving simultaneously, and one in which the participation rate of drivers approached was very high (85.4%). A survey on aggressive driving with a
larger sample size (population-based sample size) involving all vehicle types is desired and can
be useful in addressing the relevant issues.
Conclusion
Aggressive driving is a major risk factor affecting road traffic crashes in both developed and
developing countries. Our study demonstrated that aggressive driving behavior is associated
with the level of education and economic factors. The study revealed significant associations
between the level of education and aggressive driving practices and the level of education and
bribing the police. We found that the majority of participants who had not completed high school
drove aggressively, whereas those who completed high school were 4 times more likely to bribe
the police. The study also found that marital status was associated with running red lights, drinking and driving, aggressive driving behavior, and risk-taking behavior while driving. The results
of this study have provided a greater understanding of the sociodemographic factors that are
associated with aggressive driving behaviors of 3-wheeler taxi drivers in Sri Lanka.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge with thanks Dr Chintha Jayasinghe, Senior Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa; Dr Udaya Amarasingha, Senior Lecturer, Department of Sociology, University of Sri Jayawardanapura; and Dr Kamal Gunathunga, Department of Pharmacology, University
of Sri Jayawardanapura, for providing assistance with this survey and data. Dr Aruna Somasiri, Department of Pathology, University of British Columbia, edited this article. We also acknowledge the late
Prof Nandasena Rathnapala who was instrumental in facilitating the collaboration that led to this article.
Authors’ Note
An earlier version of this article was presented at the World Injury Prevention Conference in Merida,
Mexico; March 15-18, 2008.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of
this article.
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Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health 24(1)
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.
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