The Teaching of Courses in the Science and Pseudoscience
of Psychology: Useful Resources
Scott O. Lilienfeld
Emory University
Jeffrey M. Lohr
University of Arkansas
Dean Morier
Mills College
Several authors have increasingly recognized the problem of
pseudoscience as a major threat confronting psychology and allied
disciplines. We discuss the importance of courses in science and
pseudoscience to undergraduate education in psychology and provide (a) a model syllabus for courses in the science and
pseudoscience of psychology, (b) a list and description of suggested
primary and supplemental texts for such courses, (c) a list of useful
educational videos on science and pseudoscience, and (d) suggested Web sites that offer critical evaluations of pseudoscientific
claims. Finally, we briefly review the literature concerning the efficacy of courses in the science and pseudoscience of psychology and
offer suggestions for future research in this area.
The past decade has witnessed an increasing appreciation
of, and concern for, the problem of pseudoscience in contemporary psychology (e.g., Kalal, 1999; Lilienfeld, 1998;
McFall, 1991; Tavris, 1998). In recent years, a large number
of pseudoscientific or otherwise questionable psychological
practices and areas of study have either appeared on the
scene or flourished with unabated vigor. Extrasensory perception (ESP), astrology, biorhythms, subliminal self-help
tapes, polygraph (“lie detector”) testing, projective measures
of personality (e.g., the Rorschach Inkblot Test), New Age
psychotherapies (e.g., primal scream therapy, Rolfing),
unvalidated herbal remedies for enhancing memory and
mood, and suggestive therapeutic techniques (e.g., hypnosis,
guided imagery) for recovering purported memories of child
abuse and alien abductions comprise only a small subset of
such domains in contemporary psychology (for discussions of
these and other questionable psychological claims, see Hines,
1988; Shermer, 1997; M. T. Singer & Lalich, 1996). Although pseudoscientific thinking pervades many disciplines,
the intrinsic difficulties involved in conclusively falsifying
claims concerning human behavior (Meehl, 1978) may render many areas of psychology, particularly the so-called
“softer” domains of personality, clinical, counseling, and educational psychology, especially vulnerable to pseudoscience.
In addition, pseudoscientific thinking may contribute to the
uncritical acceptance of unsubstantiated assertions regarding
many purported phenomena outside of the domain of traditional psychology, including unidentified flying objects
(UFOs), the Bermuda Triangle, the Loch Ness Monster, and
Pyramid Power (Hines, 1988; Randi, 1982). Recent polls of
the American public reveal that approximately one half endorse beliefs in ESP, astrology, faith healing, and communication with the dead, and that about one quarter to one third
endorse beliefs in ghosts and the lost continent of Atlantis
(see Shermer, 1997, 1999). There are approximately 20 times
as many astrologers as astronomers in the United States, and
more Americans believe in ESP than in Darwinian evolution
(Gilovich, 1991). Moreover, with the arrival of the millennium, pseudoscientific beliefs concerning a variety of extraordinary claims, including alien visitation, doomsday
scenarios, and ancient prophecies (e.g., the prophecies of
Nostradamus), have recently come to the fore (Schafer &
Cohen, 1998), and there is suggestive evidence that the prevalence of many pseudoscientific beliefs has increased over the
past two decades (Shermer, 1998).
Although pseudoscience and science probably differ in
kind rather than degree, most pseudoscientific disciplines
can be conceptualized as sharing a covarying set of characteristics (Leahey & Leahey, 1983; Lilienfeld, 1998; for a discussion of the features of pathological science, see also
Langmuir, 1989). Among these characteristics are (a)
unfalsifiability (Popper, 1959), (b) absence of self-correction
(Herbert et al., in press), (c) overuse of ad hoc immunizing
tactics designed to protect theories from refutation (Lakatos,
1978), (d) absence of “connectivity” (Stanovich, 1998, p.
116) with other domains of knowledge (i.e., failure to build
on extant scientific constructs; Bunge, 1967), (e) the placing
of the burden of proof on critics rather than on the proponents of claims (Shermer, 1997), (f) the use of obscurantist
language (i.e., language that seems to have as its primary
function to confuse rather than clarify; Hockenbury &
Hockenbury, 1999; van Rillaer, 1991), and (g) overreliance
on anecdotes and testimonials at the expense of systematic
evidence (Herbert et al., 2000).
We do not wish to imply that all of the claims we discuss in
this article will ultimately be shown to be entirely devoid of
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scientific value. To the contrary, a scientific approach to
these assertions demands an open-minded willingness to
consider any and all evidence pertinent to their validity
(Swords, 1990). Indeed, in our teaching with undergraduates
we frequently emphasize Baron’s (1994) point that skepticism is “actively open-minded thinking” as well as aerospace
engineer Oberg’s dictum that maintaining an open mind is a
virtue, “just not so open that your brains fall out” (as cited in
Sagan, 1995a, p. 187). What renders these claims largely or
entirely pseudoscientific is not that they are necessarily incorrect, but rather that their proponents have typically insisted that they are correct, despite compelling evidence to
the contrary.
Why Should Psychology Educators Be
Concerned About Pseudoscience?
Psychology teachers should be concerned about
pseudoscientific beliefs for several reasons. First, psychology
students are almost incessantly bombarded with
pseudoscientific claims through their exposure to the entertainment media (e.g., talk shows), the Internet, supermarket
tabloids, and “pop” psychology books (Heaton & Wilson,
1995; Lilienfeld, 1998; G. M. Rosen, 1993). Moreover, the
increasing accessibility of these information sources makes it
likely that undergraduates’ pseudoscientific beliefs will continue to flourish in the coming decades. Yet many undergraduates emerge from psychology courses with relatively little
ability to critically evaluate pseudoscientific claims
(McBurney, 1996).
Second, pseudoscientific psychological beliefs are harmful
in several ways (Gilovich, 1991). For example, such beliefs
can render individuals vulnerable to the dangers posed by inadequately validated treatments. Psychotherapists who unwittingly implant memories of satanic ritual abuse and alien
abduction, for instance, may be creating analogues or even
full-blown variants of posttraumatic stress disorder in their
clients (Chu, 1998). Therapists who use facilitated communication (Mulick, Jacobsen, & Kobe, 1993) in an effort to
elicit language from autistic children are instilling false hopes
in parents.
Third, pseudoscientific thinking is a slippery slope (Sagan,
1995a; for a somewhat different view, see B. Singer, 1977).
An inability to critically evaluate claims regarding astrology
and ESP, for example, may ultimately render individuals incapable of critically evaluating scientific assertions concerning more dire threats to the welfare of the planet, such as
environmental hazards (e.g., global warming) and overpopulation (Nickel & Shelton, 1996; Sagan, 1995c).
This heightened concern with the problem of
pseudoscience has been paralleled by an increased interest in
the teaching of critical thinking skills in undergraduate psychology courses. Teaching of Psychology, for example, devoted
a special issue to the topic of critical thinking (Nummedal &
Halpern, 1995), and has since featured a number of other articles concerned with the teaching of critical thinking skills
(e.g., Griggs, Jackson, Marek, & Christopher, 1998; Marek,
Jackson, Griggs, & Christopher, 1998). Although we believe
that imparting such skills is extremely valuable, we contend
that a fundamental understanding of the differences between
science and pseudoscience represents a crucial, yet often neglected, component of critical thinking. As Lawson (1999)
noted,
Psychology students should be able to think critically or evaluate claims, in a way that explicitly incorporates basic principles of psychological science … psychology majors should be
able to judge claims based on a lack of empirical evidence, testimonial or anecdotal evidence, unfalsifiable theories, biased
samples, or simple correlational data as weak claims. (p. 207)
Moreover, there is evidence that critical thinking skills are
best learned within the context of a specific discipline rather
than in the abstract (McBurney, 1996; Resnick, 1987). As a
consequence, teaching students critical thinking skills within
the context of specific pseudoscientific claims (e.g., ESP, subliminal persuasion, lie detection) affords them a valuable opportunity to acquire and hone such skills while gaining
exposure to topics that they find intrinsically interesting and
engaging.
A final advantage of educating students about the differences between science and pseudoscience stems from the
theorizing of G. A. Kelly (1955), who observed that many
phenomena can be fully grasped only by understanding their
opposites. From a Kellyian perspective, students’ comprehension and appreciation of science can be enhanced by a
thoughtful examination of pseudoscience and its characteristics (see also Wesp & Montgomery, 1998).
Courses in the Science and Pseudoscience of
Psychology: A Model Syllabus
Largely as a consequence of the renewed interest in the
problem of pseudoscience and its importance to education in
psychology, a number of instructors across the country, including us, have developed undergraduate courses devoted
to science and pseudoscience (Jones & Zusne, 1981;
McBurney, 1976; B. Singer, 1977; Swords, 1990; Wesp &
Montgomery, 1998). Based on our syllabi and those of several
faculty members across the country who have taught closely
related courses (see note 1), we present a model syllabus for
undergraduate psychology courses in science and
pseudoscience (see Table 1). Interested readers can find an
excellent set of resources for such courses in B. Singer (1977),
who described guidelines for teaching courses focusing on the
scientific examination of paranormal phenomena.
This article goes beyond previous articles dealing with the
teaching of psychology courses in science and pseudoscience
in several ways. In contrast to the courses outlined by B.
Singer (1977) and by authors who have outlined psychology
courses relevant to pseudoscience in the pages of this journal
(e.g., Jones & Zusne, 1981; McBurney, 1976; Wesp & Montgomery, 1998), the course described in this article examines
potentially pseudoscientific claims in general rather than
paranormal claims per se. Both B. Singer’s course and the
pseudoscience courses described in this journal, for example,
did not focus on such issues as lie detection, subliminal persuasion, questionable assessment procedures, invalidated
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Table 1.
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
Class 5
Class 6
Class 7
Class 8
Class 9
Class 10
Class 11
Class 12
A Model Syllabus for Psychology Courses in Science and Pseudoscience, Including
Representative Primary Readings
Basic issues in philosophy of science, the nature of science and the scientific method, differences between science and
pseudoscience, characteristics of pseudoscience (Bunge, 1984; Sagan, 1979, 1995c; Staff of Scientific American, 1997;
Strange Science, 1999)
How our thinking can go wrong (I): Heuristics and biases (Falk, 1981; Gawande, 1999; Gazzaniga, 1998; Gilbert, 1991;
Gilovich & Savitsky, 1996; Kruger, Savitsky, & Gilovich, 1999)
How our thinking can go wrong (II): Confirmatory bias, logical errors, and fallacies (Lett, 1990; Pratkanis, 1995; Sagan, 1995b;
Shermer, 1994)
Parapsychology (I): The history of extrasensory perception, spiritualism, psychic detectives, out-of-body experiences
(Blackmore, 1991b, 1992; Rowe, 1993)
Parapsychology (II): Laboratory research on extrasensory perception (Bem & Honorton, 1994; Frazier, 1988; Hyman, 1994,
1996; Milton & Wiseman, 1999)
Astrology (Ertel, 1992; I. W. Kelly, 1997; Randi, 1982; Stewart, 1997)
Biorhythms, the lunar lunacy effect (Hines, 1998; I. W. Kelly, Rotton, & Culver, 1985; Raison, Klein, & Steckler, 1999; Rotton &
Kelly, 1985)
Brain myths: Subliminal perception and persuasion, speed-reading courses, sleep-assisted learning, transcendental meditation
(Byrne & Normand, 2000; Holmes, 1984; Moore, 1992, 1996; Pratkanis, 1992; Swets & Bjork, 1990)
Polygraph testing, “truth serum” and other purported methods of truth and lie detection, self-report “honesty” tests (Ekman,
1992a, 1992b; Iacono & Patrick, 1997; Lilienfeld, 1993; Lykken, 1984; Piper, 1993)
The uses and abuses of psychological assessment: Questionable or pseudoscientific assessment methods (e.g., graphology,
palm-reading, the Rorschach, Draw-A-Person Test, and other projective techniques, enneagrams), the P. T. Barnum effect,
“cold reading” techniques (Chapman & Chapman, 1967; Furnham, 1988; Hyman, 1976–1977; Lilienfeld, 1999; Thiriart, 1991;
Wakefield & Underwager, 1993)
Questionable or unsubstantiated psychotherapies: Facilitated communication for infantile autism, eye movement
desensitization and reprocessing for anxiety disorders, “New Age” therapies (e.g., Rolfing, rebirthing, primal scream therapy),
lucid dreaming (Blackmore, 1991a; Lilienfeld, 1996; Mulick, Jacobsen, & Kobe, 1993; G. M. Rosen, 1993; R. D. Rosen,
1977a, 1977b; M. T. Singer & Lalich, 1996)
The reconstructive nature of memory, false memory syndrome and potentially suggestive memory recovery techniques, alien
abduction reports, multiple personality disorder (Acocella, 1998; Blackmore, 1998; Loftus, 1993; Lynn, Lock, Myers, &
Payne, 1997; Nash, 1987; Spanos, 1994)
psychotherapies, controversial psychiatric diagnoses (e.g.,
multiple personality disorder), or the fallibility of human
memory, although these issues are of considerable import and
relevance to psychology undergraduates. In addition, this article goes beyond B. Singer’s superb contribution and that of
other authors by offering an explicit course syllabus along
with suggested readings and videos coordinated around each
class topic. Because information concerning the teaching of
psychology courses in science and pseudoscience is not
widely available to potential instructors, we have provided
detailed suggestions for readings and other useful resources.
To minimize our overlap with B. Singer’s monograph, this article consists almost exclusively of reading materials that
have appeared over the past two decades.
As shown in this model syllabus, we recommend beginning
the course with a general introduction to science, the scientific method, and the differences between science and
pseudoscience (e.g., falsifiability, self-correction; Class 1),
followed by a detailed discussion of issues concerning the fallibility of human reasoning processes (e.g., heuristics, biases,
logical errors, and fallacies; Classes 2, 3). The remainder of
the course focuses on critically examining specific topics in
psychology (e.g., parapsychology, astrology, subliminal persuasion) that illustrate pseudoscientific claims and methods
of inquiry. When exposing students to these topics, we recommend making particular efforts to (a) encourage students
to maintain an open mind toward the claims in question, but
to insist on high standards of evidence before accepting them
and (b) evaluate these claims with explicit reference to the issues discussed at the beginning of the course. With respect to
the latter, we place particular emphasis on the differences between science and pseudoscience, the ways in which other-
wise rational individuals can be led to adopt erroneous beliefs, and logical errors and fallacies.
Although we based this syllabus on a 12-week course that
meets once a week for 3 hr, it can be readily modified for
courses with diverse schedules. In addition, we have provided
(in parentheses following each topic) three to six representative articles, chapters, or both, for each class. These suggested articles illustrate only the types of readings that
instructors may wish to assign in conjunction with each topic
and do not constitute an exhaustive set of recommended
readings. Suggested primary and supplemental texts, which
we have generally used in conjunction with a number of the
articles listed in the model syllabus, appear in the following
section. In addition, a list of more than 50 suggested term paper and presentation topics is available from the first author
on request. We should emphasize that we do not view this
model syllabus as set in stone. Instead, we offer it as a flexible
template from which instructors can tailor their own course
syllabi and readings.
Instructors can also tailor this model syllabus for many
content courses in the undergraduate psychology curriculum.
For example, one of the authors of this article (Jeffrey M.
Lohr) teaches a psychology research methods course in
which he contrasts scientific methodologies with
pseudoscientific practices in terms of analytical reasoning
and critical thinking, the importance of open-minded skepticism, the role of falsifiability, and the methods by which
claims are promoted to the general public. This course also
incorporates student-run laboratory projects that involve descriptive research on the measurement of paranormal beliefs
and replications of experimental research on pseudoscientific
practices, such as the use of subliminal self-help tapes
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(Pratkanis, Eskenazi, & Greenwald, 1994). Topics in abnormal and clinical psychology courses can include the research
methods necessary to validate novel assessment and
psychotherapeutic techniques. In social psychology courses,
instructors can examine the heuristics and biases that can
lead individuals to embrace pseudoscientific beliefs
(Gilovich, 1991) and interpersonal influence processes and
tactics used in the promotion of pseudoscientific goods and
services (Pratkanis, 1995).
Useful Primary and Supplemental Texts
for Psychology Courses in Science
and Pseudoscience
We list 15 primary and 8 supplemental texts that we believe to be useful for the teaching of psychology courses in science and pseudoscience, along with a brief description of the
content of each text. In selecting these texts, we have focused primarily on sources published within the past 15 years
to ensure coverage of recent topics. We recommend using
one or more of these texts (particularly the primary texts) in
conjunction with articles, book chapters, or both (see representative references in the previous section) to provide students with an overarching framework for the principal issues
addressed in the course. Because Marek et al. (1998) recently
evaluated general critical thinking texts in this journal, we
examine only primary texts and supplements that focus
largely or exclusively on pseudoscientific claims. The recent
Teaching of Psychology review by Marek et al. (1998) featured
only four of these texts: Gray (1991), Gilovich (1991), Schick
and Vaughn (1999), and Stanovich (1998). Following the
description of each text, we list in parentheses the lecture(s)
from the model syllabus in which instructors can most profitably use each text.
Primary Texts
Cardena, Lynn, and Krippner (2000) is an edited volume
containing a number of interesting and well-researched
chapters on a variety of anomalous psychological phenomena, including lucid dreaming, synesthesias, hallucinations,
out-of-body experiences, alien abduction memories, and past
life memories. Although several of the chapters (e.g., Targ’s
chapter on ESP) reflect a less skeptical approach to the subject matter than that found in most other texts reviewed
here, this book offers a refreshing and open-minded overview
of scientific research on many mysterious and purported
paranormal experiences (Classes 4, 5, 8, 11, 12).
Carey (1998) provides a succinct and readable introduction
to the scientific method and basic principles of scientific thinking, including the use of proper controls and the differences between correlation and causation. The final two chapters
(“Extraordinary Claims and Anecdotal Evidence” and “Fallacies in the Name of Science”), which comprise approximately one third of the book, contain entertaining discussions,
examples, and exercises focusing on pseudoscientific claims
(e.g., graphology, backwards subliminal messages) and their
differences from scientific claims (Classes 1–3).
Della Salla (1999) is a good although slightly uneven edited volume that contains interesting chapters focused on
myths concerning brain functioning. The chapters on the
“People Only Use 10% of Their Brains Myth” and brain tuners (both by Beyerstein) are highly informative and engaging,
as are the chapters on near-death experiences, repetition and
memory, and myths concerning the differences between left
and right hemisphere functioning (Classes 4, 8, 11, 12).
Friedlander (1995) focuses on pathological science and its
characteristics. Although much of the book deals with questionable claims in physics and chemistry (e.g., cold fusion,
polywater), the volume devotes considerable space to astrology, ESP, and other issues relevant to psychology students.
Although this book is more advanced than most other texts
on pseudoscience, we recommend it for instructors wishing
to provide students with a broad perspective on the nature of
pathological science in general (Classes 1, 5, 6).
Gilovich (1991) is a superb and highly readable introduction to social cognitive heuristics and biases, their impact on
everyday thinking, and their implications for beliefs in ESP,
alternative medicine, and other questionable claims.
Gilovich draws heavily on examples from sports, interpersonal relationships, and other issues of interest to undergraduates (Classes 2–5).
Gray (1991) provides a succinct, well-written, and highly
accessible introduction to 16 common logical fallacies (e.g.,
genetic, bandwagon, appeal to ignorance), the differences
between science and pseudoscience, and inferential and empirical issues relevant to various purported paranormal phenomena (e.g., ESP, the Bermuda Triangle; Classes 1–5).
Hines (1988) is a classic, although now slightly dated, review of the scientific evidence pertinent to a broad spectrum
of paranormal and other extraordinary claims, including spiritualism, ESP, psychoanalysis, astrology, the lunar lunacy effect, biorhythms, and faith healing. Chapter 12 (“Current
Trends in Pseudoscience”) features brief summaries of 15
other dubious scientific assertions, such as dowsing, firewalking, and Kirlian photography (Classes 1–11).
Neher (1990) provides readers with an open-minded but
appropriately skeptical and critical introduction to paranormal, mystical, and occult experiences. It contains good analyses of ESP, psychic healing, out-of-body experiences,
transcendental meditation, possession phenomena, ghosts
and apparitions, astrology, Pyramid Power, and other extraordinary and unusual claims. Chapter 2 features a good
discussion of how humans create psychological meaning even
in its objective absence (Classes 2, 4–6, 8, 10–12).
Piatelli-Palmarini (1994) is a solid introduction to cognitive illusions, heuristics, and biases and their implications for
odd and erroneous beliefs. The author covers much of the
same ground as Gilovich (1991), but this book is somewhat
more advanced and difficult (Classes 2, 3).
Sagan (1995a) is the penultimate book by the late Cornell
astrophysicist, who spent much of his career educating the
public about both the wonders of science and the dangers of
pseudoscience. It contains detailed discussions of UFO abduction reports, false memories, and the value of scientific
education and critical thinking. Chapter 12 (“The Fine Art
of Baloney Detection”) is a must for science and
pseudoscience courses. Overall, this book is an eloquent and
impassioned manifesto for clear thinking (Classes 1, 3, 6, 12).
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Schick and Vaughn (1999) provides a thoughtful and interesting introduction to issues in philosophy of science (e.g.,
relativism) and social cognition (e.g., selective attention) relevant to evaluating pseudoscientific and extraordinary
claims. The text is sprinkled liberally with numerous interesting examples drawn from the annals of the odd and unusual.
It is slightly more advanced than similar texts (e.g., Gray,
1991), but somewhat more relevant to pseudoscience per se
and au courant with respect to recent issues in science and
pseudoscience (Classes 1–6, 11).
Shermer (1997) provides an excellent and highly readable
discussion of the problem of pseudoscience and
pseudohistory in modern America. Among the featured topics are perceptive and engaging analyses of ESP, astrology,
creationism, Holocaust revisionism, and other unusual belief
systems (Classes 1–5, 12).
Stanovich (1998) is a standard text in critical thinking
courses in psychology, although it is also an outstanding introduction to philosophy of science, the differences between
science and pseudoscience, and common misconceptions regarding psychology. The chapters on placebo effects, Clever
Hans, and probabilistic reasoning are especially relevant to
courses in the science and pseudoscience of psychology. On
balance, this book is a delight to read (Classes 1–5, 10, 11).
Vyse (1997) was the recipient of the 1998 William James
Book Award from the American Psychological Association.
This book offers the best available general overview of superstitious thinking and its psychological and sociological origins. In addition, it contains good discussions of the sources
of paranormal beliefs in general (Classes 2–5).
White (1999) consists of well-written, engaging, and
highly readable critiques of unusual beliefs in many areas of
science, including psychology. Like Friedlander (1995), this
book is especially well suited for general courses on pathological science. The chapters include critical discussions of telepathy, remote viewing, faith healing, pain control, near-death
experiences, voodoo, cults, and alien abductions (Classes 4,
5, 8, 12).
Gardner (1991) is a delightful and thought-provoking collection of essays focusing on parapsychology. Among the topics addressed are the exploits of Israeli “psychic” Uri Geller,
psychic surgery, psychokinesis, the reincarnation claims of
Shirley MacLaine, the peculiar relationship between
Sigmund Freud and Wilhelm Fleiss, and the importance of
debunking in science (Classes 1, 4, 5).
Gardner (1992) is another highly informative and engaging anthology of articles on pseudoscience. It includes commentaries on ESP, levitation, channeling, Wilhelm Reich’s
orgone therapy, glossolalia (speaking in tongues), and the
role of astrology in the Reagan administration. Gardner’s discussions of relativism and realism in science are especially
provocative (Classes 1, 4–6, 11).
Nickell, Karr, and Genoni (1998) is a succinct edited volume featuring articles on UFO hoaxes, firewalking, hypnotic
age regression, and the “cold reading” techniques used by
palm readers, astrologers, and crystal ball readers, among
other paranormal topics (Classes 1, 4, 6, 7, 11).
Tavris (1995) is an engaging collection of short opinion
pieces on a wide variety of controversial psychological topics,
including astrology, psychoanalysis, illusory correlation,
codependency, and premenstrual syndrome. Instructors who
wish to generate lively discussion and debate in small seminars
will find this brief book especially useful (Classes 2, 3, 6, 11).
Youngson (1998) is an entertaining collection of succinct
vignettes regarding classic errors in science, such as
Lamarck’s theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, N-rays, cold fusion, and the use of magnets to cure medical ailments. One chapter focuses on erroneous or overblown
claims in psychology, including phrenology, Jung’s theory of
the collective unconscious, and the Rorschach Inkblot Test.
This book also contains a brief but useful discussion of “How
to Detect Pseudoscience” (Classes 1, 10–12).
Supplemental Texts
A number of videos, many of them commercially available,
offer excellent illustrations and demonstrations of a variety of
issues relevant to pseudoscientific psychology and the paranormal. We have found such videos to be valuable supplements to the readings recommended in the previous section
and to be helpful springboards for class discussion and debate.
In this section, we present 11 video programs that we recommend highly for instructors teaching psychology courses in
science and pseudoscience. As in the previous section, we list
the classes on the model syllabus most relevant to each video
in parentheses following each description.
Beyond Science (Scientific American Frontiers; Huntley &
Angier, 1997–1998) is a superb show, hosted by Alan Alda,
that features critical discussions of water dowsing and other
apparent psychic powers; graphology; the purported crash of
a flying saucer in Roswell, New Mexico; and other paranormal claims. It is an excellent vehicle for generating discussion
in the initial classes of the course (Classes 1–6, 9, 11).
Case of the Bermuda Triangle (Nova; Massey, 1976) is
somewhat dated, although it provides excellent illustrations
of pseudoscientific thinking and the systematic debunking of
Frazier (1986) is a superb anthology of Skeptical Inquirer articles featuring discussions of parapsychology, misperceptions
and illusions, palm reading, astrology, UFOlogy, creationism,
and other topics (Classes 1–7, 10).
Frazier (1991) is another anthology of Skeptical Inquirer articles consisting of critical discussions of alien abduction reports, past-life hypnotic regression, alpha consciousness,
graphology (handwriting analysis), recent ESP research,
spontaneous human combustion, astrology, and chiropractic.
The articles by Hyman and others on critical thinking skills
are particularly instructive (Classes 1–7, 10, 12).
Frazier (1998) is a superb edited compilation of articles
dealing with such topics as polygraphy, self-report honesty
tests, parapsychology, near-death experiences, lucid dreaming, facilitated communication, satanic cults, and recovered
memories. The opening article by Sagan, “Wonder and Skepticism,” is a superb and inspiring introduction to scientific
skepticism (Classes 1–5, 8–12).
Useful Videos for Psychology Courses in Science
and Pseudoscience
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a paranormal claim. It is useful for generating class discussions of social cognitive errors and biases, including the use of
“variable windows” (for a discussion, see Gilovich, 1991),
confirmatory bias, and illusory correlation (Classes 2, 3).
Divided Memories, Parts 1 and 2 (Frontline; Bikel, 1995) is
a powerful and disturbing two-part program focusing on the
scientific evidence regarding the existence of recovered
memories of sexual abuse and on the impact of suggestive
therapeutic procedures, such as hypnotic age regression and
past-life therapy, on clients. It offers a first-rate psychological
and sociological analysis of the recovered memory controversy (Class 12).
Exploring the Unknown (Fox Family Channel; Kropnick &
Schreiberg, 1999–2000) is a multipart program featuring segments hosted by Consulting Producer Michael Shermer, editor of Skeptic magazine. Students benefit from balanced but
appropriately skeptical segments on cold reading, astrology,
remote viewing, polygraph testing, and related topics
(Classes 4–6, 9–12).
Kidnapped by UFOs (Nova; DiIanni, 1996) offers a good
introduction to the alien abduction phenomenon and features thoughtful analyses by Elizabeth Loftus, the late Carl
Sagan, and other experts. Although this program does not
provide as extensive a discussion of the psychology of memory as might be desired, it illustrates a number of important issues concerning the reconstructive nature of memory and the
perils of suggestive questioning (Class 12).
Liar (A & E Voyages and BBC TV; Claxton, 1996) is an
entertaining program offering an excellent introduction to
scientific controversies regarding the polygraph test and
other purported lie-detection methods. Also featured are intriguing demonstrations of autistic children’s apparent incapacity for genuine deception and a possible instance of lying
in chimpanzees (Class 9).
Multiple Personality Disorder (The Fifth Estate, 1993) provides a first-rate discussion and critical analysis of the controversial issues surrounding the diagnosis of multiple personality
disorder (now referred to as dissociative identity disorder). Experts interviewed on this program place particular emphasis on
the potentially iatrogenic effects of suggestive questioning,
hypnosis, and other questionable therapeutic practices. They
also call into question much of the commonly held wisdom regarding multiple personality disorder and its causes (Class 12).
The Power of Belief (ABC News; Ellis, Golden, &
Matthews, 1998) is a highly engaging and informative video
narrated by John Stossel. Along with Nova’s The Secrets of the
Psychics and Scientific American Frontier’s Beyond Science,
this program is the best general introduction to issues in
pseudoscience and the paranormal available on video.
Among the issues investigated are ESP, astrology and tarot
card reading, firewalking, voodoo, faith healing, and the placebo effect (Classes 1–6, 9, and 11).
Prisoners of Silence (Frontline; Dalfreman, 1993) is an outstanding and provocative video that provides a critical evaluation of facilitated communication, a technique widely
claimed in the 1980s and early 1990s to permit autistic children to communicate effectively with others. This program
almost invariably has a profound impact on students. We regard this video as a must for instructors wishing to instill critical thinking in their students concerning psychotherapy and
psychotherapy research design (Classes 1, 2, 11).
Secrets of the Psychics (Nova; Charlson, 1993) is a superb
and highly entertaining video featuring the exploits of magician James (“The Amazing”) Randi, who for the last several
decades has been a tireless debunker of pseudoscientific
claims. This program highlights critical evaluations of ESP,
astrology, faith healing, palm reading, and other ostensible
paranormal phenomena. We highly recommend this video as
an introduction to issues concerning pseudoscience in general and parapsychology in particular (Classes 1–6, 10).
The Skeptic’s Guide to the Paranormal (Discovery Channel;
McCabe & Burns, 1999) provides first-rate critical discussions and demonstrations of several purported paranormal
phenomena. The segments feature James Randi debunking
psychics and revealing some of the secrets underlying simple
magic tricks, aircraft and space experts providing mundane
explanations for UFO reports, and photographic experts explaining otherwise mysterious images of ghosts and apparitions. In addition, this program contains a thoughtful
discussion of placebo effects and their role in the apparent effects of therapeutic touch and other dubious medical treatments (Classes 2–6, 11).
Useful Web Sites for Psychology Courses
in Science and Pseudoscience
Over the past several years, a large number of Web sites
providing critical evaluations of potentially pseudoscientific
claims have appeared. These sites vary widely in quality, with
some offering impartial and research-based analyses of these
claims and others offering little more than subjective opinions. Many of the high-quality sites are excellent resources
for students researching topics in pseudoscience, as well as
useful jumping-off points for class discussion and debate. Table 2 provides a list of 12 Web sites that we recommend to
both instructors and students.
Will Teaching Courses in Science and
Pseudoscience Make a Difference?
One final but crucial question that must be addressed is
whether psychology courses in science and pseudoscience accomplish the goal of facilitating students’ critical thinking regarding paranormal and other extraordinary claims. One
source of evidence derives from student evaluations of teaching (SETs). Wesp and Montgomery (1998) reported that
SETs following a course entitled Experimental Investigation
of the Paranormal were generally quite positive. We have
similarly found that students evaluate courses in science and
pseudoscience very positively. One of the authors of this article (Scott O. Lilienfeld), for example, recently taught an advanced undergraduate seminar entitled Science and
Pseudoscience in Psychology: Thinking Critically About Human Behavior for three semesters at Emory University.
Across all three semesters (Ns = 9, 8, and 13, respectively),
the mean responses to the question “How much did you learn
from the course?” on a scale ranging from 1 (nothing) to 9 (a
lot) were 8.78 (SD = 0.66), 8.63 (SD =0 .52), and 8.23 (SD
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Table 2
Useful Web Sites Relevant to Science and Pseudoscience in Psychology
www.csicop.org
www.skeptic.com
www.cs.man.ac.uk./skeptic
skepdic.com
www.theness.com/encyc/html
physics.syr.edu/courses/modules
/PSEUDO/pseudo_main.html
www.pseudoscience.org
www.junkscience.com
www.randi.org
www.skepticnews.com
www.hcrc.org/sram/index.html
www.quackwatch.com
The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP) Web Page. In
addition, it is the home page of CSICOP’s journal, the Skeptical Inquirer, which is an invaluable
resource for articles concerning pseudoscience. This site features full-text versions of a number of
Skeptical Inquirer articles as well as other CSICOP publications.
The Skeptics Society Web Page. In addition, it is the home page of Skeptic, the Skeptics Society journal,
an excellent resource for articles on pseudoscience and pseudohistory. This site features full-text
versions of some Skeptic articles and links to many other useful Web sites focusing on pseudoscience.
The home page of The Skeptic, Great Britain’s primary journal devoted to the study of pseudoscience
and the paranormal. This site contains news updates and links to numerous pseudoscientific and
paranormal terms.
The Web page for the Skeptic’s Dictionary, an excellent resource for definitions and explanations of
paranormal terms. Readers should be warned, however, that this highly entertaining dictionary
occasionally crosses the fine line separating open-minded skepticism from cynicism (particularly with
regard to psychological terms and concepts).
The New England Skeptical Society’s “Encyclopedia of Skepticism and the Paranormal.” This site is
another useful resource for definitions of pseudoscientific terms and concepts.
The home page for Resources for Selected Areas of Pseudoscience and Paranormal Phenomena, and
for Skeptical Perspective. It is an excellent resource for Web sites relevant to the scientific evaluation
of ESP, astrology, UFOs, cryptozoology (the study of the Loch Ness monster, Big Foot, and other
mysterious creatures), homeopathy, therapeutic touch, and other extraordinary claims.
The home page of the Science and Pseudoscience Review Special Interest Group of the Association for
Advancement of Behavior Therapy. This site features useful articles and resources concerning
questionable and potentially pseudoscientific psychological treatment procedures, including eye
movement desensitization and reprocessing, facilitated communication for infantile autism,
aromatherapy, thought field therapy, and psychomotor patterning.
The Junk Science home page. This site features stories dealing with questionable science in medicine,
psychology, environmental policy, and other domains. It is more focused on flawed science than on
pseudoscience per se, however.
The home page of James Randi and the James Randi Educational Foundation. This site contains
entertaining essays concerning investigations of the paranormal and online versions of Swift, Randi’s
skeptical newsletter dealing with ESP and related topics.
The Skeptics News Web Page. It provides daily updates on events and news pertinent to pseudoscience
and related topics.
The home page of the Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine, a journal devoted to the scientific
evaluation of alternative and complementary medicine techniques, including alternative (and in some
cases largely unvalidated) psychotherapies.
A useful guide to medical fraud, inadequately substantiated or blatantly ineffective medical and
psychological treatments, and potentially misleading medical claims and advertisements.
= 1.01), respectively. The mean responses to the item “How
much did the course challenge and stimulate thinking?” on
scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 9 (a lot) were 8.67 (SD =
0.71), 8.00 (SD = 1.41), and 8.23 (SD = 1.24), respectively.
Although such evidence is encouraging, it is important to
note that the construct validity of SETs remains highly controversial (e.g., see Greenwald & Gillmore, 1997; Williams &
Ceci, 1997) and that correlations between SETs and objective indexes of course learning tend to be relatively modest
(Abrami, d’Appollonia, & Cohen, 1990). Thus, it is necessary to examine more systematic evidence for the efficacy of
science and pseudoscience courses. Several investigators
have reported that courses emphasizing the use of scientific
reasoning skills in general, and the distinction between science and pseudoscience hypotheses in particular, result in
greater skepticism concerning the paranormal. Banziger
(1983) found that a class focusing on psychology and the
paranormal resulted in decreases in paranormal beliefs over a
6-month period (for comparable findings using a pre–posttest
methodology, see McBurney, 1996; Swords, 1990). Because
Banziger did not include a control group, however, these results must be interpreted with caution. Along with a colleague, the third author of this article (Morier & Keeports,
1994) found that undergraduates in a Science and
Pseudoscience seminar based on a course template similar to
that we have outlined demonstrated a statistically significant
reduction in paranormal beliefs relative to a quasi-control
group of students enrolled in a psychology and law class over
the same time period. This effect was demonstrated over a
2-year period for two separate sections of the course, providing strong suggestive evidence that science and
pseudoscience courses based on the template presented in
this article can yield lasting effects. Wesp and Montgomery
(1998) reported that a course on the critical investigation of
paranormal claims resulted in a statistically significant improvement in the evaluation of reasoning flaws in scientific
articles relative to comparison participants.
Thus, courses that address paranormal claims appear to
result in greater skepticism regarding extraordinary claims
and in stronger reasoning skills, although further controlled
studies of this issue are warranted. We should point out,
however, that the critical thinking literature in education
has reported mixed results concerning the relation between
belief in the paranormal and critical thinking in general
(e.g., Morgan & Morgan, 1998). Thus, the extent to which
psychology courses in science and pseudoscience generalize
to critical thinking skills in other domains remains a critical
but largely neglected topic of investigation. In addition, the
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degree to which the skills acquired in such courses generalize outside of the classroom to the critical evaluation of
pseudoscientific claims in everyday life will be essential to
ascertain in future research. These unresolved questions
notwithstanding, the extant literature suggests that classes
similar to those outlined here can produce greater levels of
critical thinking regarding at least some unsubstantiated
psychological claims. Such critical thinking, especially if it
includes an open-minded willingness to consider such
claims in an impartial fashion, should be regarded as an indispensable component of the psychology major’s intellectual toolbox.
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Notes
1. We thank Ray Hyman (University of Oregon), Michael Kane
(Georgia State University), Stuart Vyse (Connecticut College),
Chris Wetzel (Rhodes College), Anthony Pratkanis (University
of California, Santa Cruz), Robyn Dawes (Carnegie Mellon University), and Donald Jensen (University of Nebraska) for sharing
their syllabi, suggested readings, and other course materials.
2. Please send correspondence to Scott O. Lilienfeld, Department
of Psychology, Room 206, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322;
e-mail: [email protected].
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