Faculty of Health Sciences
;
Speech Pathology
Creating “Language-Accessible” Secondary School
Classrooms Through Professional Collaborations.
Julia Starling
Speech-Language Pathologist/PhD student
Julia Starling 2011
Lost for Words: Lost for Life? City University, London 2011
1
Who are we talking about, and what do
we know about them?
7-16% of secondary school students with persistent Primary
Language Impairment (LI): affecting the understanding
and/or use of language in both oral and written language
domains
• Academic failure (Conti-Ramsden et al. 2009; Snowling
et al. 2001 ).
• Overlap of language and literacy difficulties (Smart et
al., 2001; Stothard et al., 1998)
• Psycho-social and behavioural problems (Brownlie et
al. 2004;Clegg et al., 2005)
• Juvenile offender populations (Bryan, 2007; Snow &
Powell 2004).
Julia Starling 2011
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Recommended models of service delivery
1.
Professional literature: collaborative, school-based
services, including teacher training to facilitate
inclusive support (Ehren, 2002; Elksnin, 1997; Gascoigne,
2008; Law et al. 2002; Shaddock, 2007).
2.
3.
Government reports:
Removal of barriers to learning for young people with
SLCN (e.g. Bercow, 2008)
Professional development research:
Sustained, site-based professional development for
teachers presented by “outside experts” leads to
positive effects on student outcomes (Guskey & Yoon,
2009)
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Clinical directives
Best-practice guidelines:
• Strategy-based interventions (e.g. Hollingsworth,
1993)
• Written expressive/receptive language
support (e.g. Wong et al., 1996)
• Vocabulary enrichment (e.g. Beck et al., 2002)
• Graphic organisers (visual aids) (e.g. Mastropieri
et al., 2003)
(Summary in Starling et al. 2011)
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Sharing expertise
 Teachers are the experts in acquiring and
disseminating curricular information; they can
provide topical information regarding curricular goals
and content, ensuring any intervention has immediate
academic relevance and opportunities for practice
and generalisation.
 SLPs have expertise in the expression and
reception of information; they can provide specific
information regarding individual students’
communication and learning support needs, as well
as training in general strategies applicable to
teachers’ grade and subject needs.
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Looking at things from a different
angle
LI persists into adolescence, but there are many barriers to
providing effective supports
Most adolescents with LI attend mainstream secondary schools.
However….
 80-85% of instruction is language-based (Brent et al 2001): oral and
written language for curricular instruction, across subjects and
grades
 The language of the secondary classroom can be complex (e.g.
Whitmire, 2001).
The result is…..
Students with LI are often disadvantaged in understanding
curricular content; disengaged in oral interactions;
disempowered in expressing knowledge through writing
(e.g.Starling et al.,in press 2011)
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One solution?
Creating “language-accessible” secondary classroom
environments
SLTs empower secondary teachers in providing
inclusive support to students with LI in their classes.
How? By training teachers in the development and use
of modifications to mainstream secondary teachers’
oral and written instructional language.
So that: Teachers can facilitate improved access to
curricular instruction for their students with LI.
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Why?
So that students with additional learning needs such as LI
will be better able to:
• Access the curriculum i.e. attend to, process, retain
and use presented information
• Be more engaged in learning by increasing their direct
participation in class activities
• Demonstrate a better understanding of curriculum
content on assignments, projects and tests
• Develop and use a broader and more “robust”
vocabulary
• Feel better and more confident about themselves as
able learners
• Be less at risk of developing psycho-social problems
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Language In Classrooms
Program developed and piloted at a Sydney secondary
school in 2006, a joint project of the University of
Sydney/NSW Dept of Education.
Subject of an RCT, with the aims of:
 Evaluating the efficacy of a teacher training program.
 Evaluating the sustainability of the ideas presented in the
training program.
 Evaluating the impact of the training program on the
language abilities of secondary school students with LI.
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The program
• Mainstream secondary teachers were trained by an SLT
in the development and application of oral and written
instructional language accommodation and modification
techniques.
• Training occurred weekly, one-on-one, over the period
of a school term (10 weeks).
• Strategies used by trained teachers in their regular
classes, thereby addressing needs of students with LI
inclusively, across subjects and grades.
• Additional professional development provided for
whole-school teaching staff.
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Study participants
2 secondary
schools
Randomised allocation to
experimental/control condition
Government, co-educational
Population matched
13 mainstream
teachers (primary
cohort)
7 experimental/6 control
Teachers of identified Year 8 students
with LI
Across disciplines: Maths, English,
Science, Physical Education, History,
Agriculture
44 students with
LI (secondary
cohort)
22 experimental/22 control
Year 8: age range 12y 10m - 14y 3m
34m/10f
Identified by school staff, LI confirmed by
screening (verbal/non-verbal assessment)
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Results: Teacher outcomes
When compared to teachers who had not
received the training (control group):
• Trained teachers took up and used program
techniques in their classroom teaching practices
• Ideas shared with teaching colleagues
• Use sustained over a period of time
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Student outcomes
When compared to students whose teachers had not
received the training (control group):
• Students demonstrated an improvement in their Written
Expression and Listening Comprehension scores to a
level of significance
• No significant change in their Reading Comprehension
and Oral Expression scores.
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Implications of results.
• High degree of teacher use and application of the
LINCS Program techniques.
• Positive impact on language abilities of students with
LI: written expression and listening comprehension.
• Ideas applicable to secondary school teachers from a
range of teaching disciplines.
• Use sustained over a period of time
without further direct support.
• Collaborative sharing of ideas
across the whole school.
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Quotes from teachers
• “Because (the students) can understand better, they can
perform better”.
• “They’re not so scared of big words as before the
intervention.”
• “They love to write, I just couldn’t believe it! It’s a Maths
lesson and they actually enjoy writing about the specific
terms and what they know!”
• “The (program’s) brought back the awareness that some
kids, behaviour-wise, may play up simply because they
can’t do the work”.
• “Some teachers have actually used (the ideas) with a
different year group and found that they worked really
well.”
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The language of adolescence
• Abstract language: inferential, analytical, problem
solving
• Figurative language: idioms, metaphors, proverbs
• Social language: Formal/informal codes (including
“electronic communication”), peer group, slang,
sarcasm, jokes, innuendo, opinions, discussions,
arguments, debate
• Academic vocabulary:
 Literate (more formal)
 Technical
 Instructional
 Written expression: essays, reports, analyses,
expositional, comparative studies, creative writing
 Metalinguistic development: Ability to use words to
describe words (e.g. definitions)
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The language of instruction
Spoken and written language provides the building blocks
for conveying information to students, and testing their
knowledge and progress.
“Build The Field”: developing students’ knowledge through
 Prior knowledge (word and world knowledge)
 Use of context, resources
 Glossaries, definitions
 Brainstorming
 Text deconstruction
 Students’ supported and independent reconstructions
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Q: What makes it difficult for you to learn a
subject?
-The way they speak
-Saying it too fast
-It gets confusing
-Too much stuff to remember
-He answers questions too quickly and
we still don’t learn
-She gives us words all the time that I
don’t understand
-I don’t know about anything but I can’t
go and read about it
-I just don’t get it!
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Q: What makes it easier?
-Extra explains and repeats
-Tell us clearly and slowly
-Make it interesting with pictures
-Give us time to work it out so we
can try our best
-She writes it and tells me too
-Having someone explain what I have to do
-A good teacher explains real good,
some teachers make it more confusing!
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The language-accessible classroom:
 Reducing the complexity of
teachers’ language: oral and written
 Written information that students can process by
themselves
 Prioritising essential vocabulary with descriptions
that are relevant and use-able
 Increasing visual supports
 Reducing the speed of delivery/increasing time for
processing and production
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Language modification strategies:
The LINCS Program
Direct vocabulary
Information processing
instruction
•Identification of key vocabulary
for new topics (“10 Key Words”)
•Interactive creation of relevant
descriptors/definitions
•Breaking down texts: Mapping
central idea, associated
facts/details
•Supplementing verbal/print
information with visuals
Teachers’ written
language
Teachers’ oral language
•Modifying the language of
worksheets, assignments and
tests.
•Changing the sequence of
presented information e.g. text
and questions layout
•Slower speech rate, or better
voice projection
•Facing the class, not the board
•Repetition of key facts
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Some examples of strategy applications
Strategy
Application
Vocabulary
instruction
“10 Key Words”: all teachers identifying the
10 essential words/terms before starting a
new topic, for direct instruction.
Accessing
text
History: Interactive mapping of main
point/associated facts taken from history
text.
Increased
use of visual
aids
Science: Visual planner onto board at start
of each lesson, for teacher and student
reference
Structuring
students’
writing
English: Step-by-step structures for essay
writing, with models.
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Direct vocabulary instruction:
Why is vocabulary important for secondary
school students?
For comprehension of curriculum content,
instructions and explanations in class.
For communicative competence: for “Getting their
message across” in oral and written expression
For reading/writing: students are better able to
identify and write words if these words are already
in their oral vocabulary.
For application in a range of written texts,
including work sheets, assignments, tests and
exams.
For active engagement in classroom-based
learning experiences, including discussions.
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“Massacre” : There had been a massacre of Aborigines at Bird
Creek.
What do you
think it
means?
A
meeting?
Makeup??
???**!!
!?*??!*
A family
of
Aboriginal
people?
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“Strong” vocabulary use
(sample: 14 year olds)
“Weak” vocabulary use
Written language: Use of “however”.
Jason prefers to play with the silver
robot as it is more entertaining, however
the gold robot is more useful as he has
trained it to do his chores.
One is big and however one is small.
Oral language: Giving directions
To remove the snack bar from the
bottom of the machine, you need to use
both hands as the opening often gets
stuck.
You open the thing then you get the
chocolate and that’s it.
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Word knowledge: What does it mean to “know “ a word?
1. No knowledge: Never seen/heard it before.
(PHLOEM)
2. Very general sense of connotation/meaning:
Feel you know it but can’t really explain what it
means. (EFFULGENT)
3. Context-bound knowledge: We have “learnt” a
word in a single context. (TWITTER)
4. “Knowing” a word but not being able to recall it
readily enough to use in a range of situations.
(CONCATENATE)
5. “Rich” knowledge. (POWER)
(Beck, McKeown & Omanson 1987)
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Rich word knowledge
•
•
•
•
•
We can define the word in a generalised way
Not dependent on context (decontextualised)
We can apply it in appropriate situations, with precision
Breadth: knowledge of multiple meanings, metaphorical use, range
of derivations
Availability is “strong” i.e. ready retrieval, with well-mapped semantic
connections and clear phonological specifications (i.e. We can SAY
it, SPELL it and we know what it MEANS!).
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The Case for Direct Vocabulary Instruction
• Remember the GREAT DIVIDE: we can help close it by
proactive intervention.
• Wide reading enhances vocabulary. However, most
young people with LI are NOT wide readers.
• Learning differences often means that vocabulary has to
be directly taught muti-modally, to help them get to the
“rich word knowledge” level: robust word learning
involves an interaction of perceptual, social and linguistic
cues.
• Direct vocabulary instruction works! National Reading Panel,
2000; Graves, 2000; Wilson, Nash& Earl, 2010; Anderson & Nagy,
1991…….
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Direct Vocabulary Instruction
Beck, McKeown & Kucan (2002): Bringing Words to Life
Tier 1
The most everyday,basic and familiar words in our
vocabulary, that rarely need direct instruction.
Examples: clock, baby, happy, walk, face, sky….
Tier 2
Words that are of high utility for language users, but that
often need to be directly taught. They are of high
frequency use and are found across a variety of domains.
Examples: coincidence, absurd, industrious, fortunate,
cultural…..
Tier 3
Words that are of low frequency use, or that apply to
specific domains. May be essential to learning a topic.
Examples: isotope, lathe, peninsula, metamorphosis…..
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Essential vocabulary
Rich knowledge of Tier 2/3 words can have a high impact
on verbal functioning (oral and written)
Decision points for prioritising:
• “Must know”: Essential to the learning of a topic or
concept. Words should be directly and systematically
taught.
• “Should know”: Highly significant, although not
essential, to understanding the topic or concept.
• “Could know”: Interesting and stimulating, though not
necessary for a basic understanding of a topic.
e.g. “communism”: interesting or essential?
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10 key words!
**Realistic direct instructional contribution that will make a difference:
400 words a year (10/week)
High frequency and essential Tier 2/3 words
Across subjects/topics/grades
Secondary Schools in LINCS Program study
-Teachers across disciplines
-Prioritised up to 10 essential words (“Must Knows”)
when planning each new topic.
-Embedded these words in all teaching
-Engaged students in interactions with these words.
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6 Steps for Effective Vocabulary Instruction:
Step 1:
Introducing
words
Robert Marzano (2004)
-Provide descriptions, explanations and examples of
use of the new words
-In oral and written form
-”Must knows” and “Should knows”
- 10 max. at a time
Step 2:
Students
restate in own
words
-Students actively engaged in working out a useful
description, and applications.
-Through class discussions, brainstorming, linking with
prior knowledge (word and world knowledge)
-Goal: the storage of new words in students’ long-term
memory (needs a minimum 12 repetitions)
Step 3:
Visual
representations
-Assists in retention and later recall and use of words
-Visual approach supports auditory/verbal, important for
many students with LI
Representations
in symbols,
word art, diagrams, time-32
Julia Starling
2011
lines, charts, mind maps, word webs…….
-Move from approximate understanding at first, to firmer
Step 4:
Regular exposure understanding later
-For true word learning, students must be able to say it,
read it and write it appropriately
-Use understanding of roots, prefixes and suffixes to
increase understanding
-Include in worksheets, quizzes, word walls, vocabulary
“mix and matches”, your verbal/written presentations,
classifying tasks, labels on models……
Step 5:
Discussions of
words amongst
students
-Increases the recall and application to a range of
contexts, keeps words “alive”
-Encourages students’ confidence in using
“new/challenging” words.
Encourages application in a socially and orally
interactive situation, not just for worksheets.
Step 6:
The play step!
-Using games as a tool for vocabulary development
e.g. vocabulary games, find-a-word, crosswords,
quizzes, on-line games,contests etc.
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2011
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-Fun, stimulating,
increases
exposure
Alternatives to “Look it up in the
dictionary!”
Students with language and literacy difficulties have
problems using dictionaries:
 They have poor alphabetic skills
 They have poor reading ability
 The definitions used in dictionaries (and in glossaries)
are often complex, and difficult to understand.
Result: Students may learn parts of definitions by rote,
however have no understanding of what the word
really means (exceptions include the Collins Cobuild
series).
**Warning: Make sure the definition/description you are
using in a glossary is understandable AND matches
the required application!
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2 alternatives
1. Morphological breakdown: root words, prefixes,
suffixes.
Meanings of 60% of multi-syllabic words can be worked out by
analysing word parts (Bromley 2007)
 Prefixes: pre-, un-, dis-, semi, extra- (re-, dis-, un-, and imaccount for 50% of words with prefixes)
 Root words: history, circle, culture…..
 Suffixes: -able, -ing, -ly, -ar, -ism….. (-s/-es, -ed, -ing account
for 60% of words with suffixes)
e.g.: pre-history-ic -> prehistoric
Semi-circle-ar -> semicircular
Multi–culture–al –ism -> multiculturalism
Un-de-cipher-able -> undecipherable
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2. Using context
Assist students in using context clues:
• Definitions (The tundra is a vast, open area of land)
• Synonyms/antonyms ( His impeccable uniform was
so perfect that…)
• Examples given for a group word (The felines included
lions, tigers, cheetahs…)
• Cause and effect (We lingered so long that we missed the bus)
• General context (He was very patriotic and couldn’t be more proud of his
country)
**+/- 70% English words have at least 2 meanings (Bromley, 2007). Make
sure the word fits the context!
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Direct vocabulary instruction for teaching
research skills
Finding the right information requires using the right key
words.
In your biography of ……. write about the hurdles she
faced in her life.
Year 7 student : “I couldn’t find anything on the United
Nations!”
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Accessing written language
• What can be modified? Teacher-generated
texts especially information sheets,
worksheets, glossaries, definitions, test papers,
visual frameworks for written genres, study
skills strategies…..
• What accommodations can be made?
Selection of required texts, textbooks,
dictionaries, direct teaching of key words for
internet searches…..
Julia Starling 2011
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Check list for modifying written
language
• Check for “process-ability” of language used: length of
sentences, embedded clauses, sheer amount of text,
unfamiliar vocabulary….??
• Provide word descriptions for new and unfamiliar
vocabulary, instructional words, terminology
• Use graphics to aid text comprehension
• Layout changes: “chunking” sections of information,
bolding key words, organising and sequencing,
questions related to text on same page for easier
reference…..
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Example from PDHPE: Pre
Task: Risk story
Students are to devise a story that outlines a
character (a minimum of three), context and
happenings related to their risk environment.
Students need to identify and describe the
following:
• Possible consequences of the situation (e.g.
physical, emotional, legal….) for each character
• Reason why each problem may have occurred.
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Post modification
Topic: Reducing the Risk
Key
Task: Students are to write a story that includes the
Instruction
Words
following:
Identify: to
1.
At least 3 characters
name the
2.
The context (setting) of the story: you need to
risks.
set the scene of a “risky” situation.
Describe:
Provide the
3.
The main events: What happens? You need
main features
to identify and describe the following:
a) Potential risks associated with the situation
b) Possible problems that happen as a result (the
consequences) of each of these risks. For example, they
may be:
physical – e.g. a broken nose
social – e.g. parents no longer trust you
emotional – e.g. feeling ashamed
financial – e.g. the cost of repairing broken property
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2011
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legal – e.g. a criminal
record
Example: Science/Unit on Space
B. Invention of the Telescope
Definition: A telescope is an instrument that makes distant objects look larger,
and therefore nearer.
The invention of telescopes has allowed scientists to look out into
space. This has made it easier to study objects in space. It is
believed that the telescope was invented in 1608. We don’t know
for sure who invented it, but scientists think it was probably a
spectacle maker in Holland.
A famous scientist called Galileo Galilei was the first to use a
telescope to make astronomical observations (that is, to study
objects in space). His telescope had a magnification of twenty.
This made objects look twenty times closer. With his telescope,
Galileo was able to see details of the moon’s surface.
Questions:
1. What do spectacle makers make?
2. Who was the first scientist to use a telescope to look into space?
3. What might the word magnification mean?
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Example 3: pre. Extract from a 5
paragraph text.
In 1798 the French, led by General Napoleon Bonaparte, invaded
Egypt. Bonaparte was not only a soldier, he was extremely
interested in learning more about the history of Egypt. With
his army there traveled scholars and scientists. In the course of
their investigations, whilst the soldiers were dismantling an
ancient fort in the town of Rosetta, a black stone slab covered
with three different scripts was unearthed. The Rosetta Stone
proved to be of great historical importance. The French
language experts could see that while one of the languages on
the stone was Egyptian hieroglyphics and the second was also
unknown to them, the third was Greek, a language with which
they were familiar. (From Key into Inferencing. Triune, 2000)
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Example 3: post. Whole class activity
Who? Discovered by Napoleon’s army
When? In 1793
Discovery
Why? Napoleon was
invading Egypt
Where? In the town of
Rosetta, Egypt
What happened?
They dug up a stone
How? They noticed the
hieroglyphic writings
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Example 4: pre. Visual Arts
Glossary: Displayed on an overhead
Task: Copy these words and definitions into the back of your diary
Sculpture: Method of making 3 dimensional art
Statue: Solid carved or cast image of a person, animal etc.
Relief: A carved design raised up off the surface
Anthropomorphic: Appropriation of human motivation, characteristics, or
human behaviour to inanimate objects, animals or natural phenomena
Appropriation: To borrow something or use it elsewhere
Traditional; A set way of doing things
Monochromatic: Painted or shown in one colour only
Abstraction: Non representational
Unity: Becoming one
Collage: Composition of bits and pieces stuck together on a background
Conduit: To channel or direct something in a certain way or direction
Biomorphic: Resembling or suggesting the forms of living organisms
Geometric: Uses straight lines only
Elusive: Difficult to catch/hold on to
Multifaceted: Many sided object Julia Starling 2011
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Example 4: Modifications
Teacher and SLT worked together to make
the following changes:
• Selected 10/15 words as essential, “Must Know” vocabulary.
• Rewrote definitions as descriptions using Collins Cobuild
Learner’s Dictionary e.g. Traditional is an adjective form of
the noun “tradition”, a custom or belief that has existed for a
long time.
• Followed Marzano’s 6 steps for embedding these key terms,
and the others as they arose, into the curriculum content.
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General accommodations
• Allow extra processing and work production
time
• Encourage active listening
• Ensure instructions are explicit, rather than
inferred
• Increase use of visual aids: colour coding,
symbol referents, step-by-step frameworks….
• Assist with organisation of work folders, time
planning, plans and outlines, equipment….
• Model strategies e.g. visual planners, use of key
vocabulary, writing scaffolds, note taking, active
study strategies….Julia Starling 2011
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(Some of many….) resources
Collins: Cobuild Series. Concise Learner’s Dictionary, Student’s
Dictionary

Isabel Beck et al books: Bringing Words to Life (2002), and
Creating Robust Vocabulary (2008)

Robert Marzano books e.g. Building Background Knowledge
(2004), Building Academic Vocabulary (2005)

Larson, V.L., & McKinley, N. L. (2003). Communication Solutions
for Older Students. Eau Claire: Thinking Publications.

Tattershall, S. (2002). Adolescents with Language and Learning
Needs. Albany, NY: Singular.
Brent, Gough & Robinson (2001). One in Eleven: Practical strategies
for teaching adolescents with language-learning disability.
Brent & Millgate Smith (2008). Working Together:Linking skills and
curriculum for adolescents with language learning disability. Both
from Acer Press, Melbourne, Aus

The Adventure of English. Melvyn Bragg (2003). Book and DVD

Proust and the Squid: The story and science of the reading brain.
Maryanne Wolf (2007).

Vocabulary Cartoon of the Day: Marc Tyler Nobleman. Scholastic

www.vocabulary.com



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The University of Sydney
Faculty of Health Sciences
Speech Pathology
Contact details:
[email protected]
Acknowledgements: PhD supervisory team
Ass/Prof. Leanne Togher, Dr. Natalie Munro, Dr. Joanne
Arciuli
Funding:
The Jack Bloomfield Scholarship,
Speech Pathology Australia
The Creswick Foundation
Julia Starling 2011
Lost for Words: Lost for Life? City University, London 2011
49